Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
Assignment 1– Cognitive Theory3013VTA – Expertise and DevelopmentConvener: Julie MassieSubmitted by: David MartinStudent #2636349david.martin3@student.griffith.edu.auDate Submitted: 31 August 2007Cognitive theory can be used to explain what is involved in the learning process. This assignment will show how cognitive theory can be applied in relation to knowledge acquisition in the area of typing a previously handwritten letter into a word processor. The basic learning process will be described using both information processing and connectionist models. The kinds of knowledge required will be identified, knowledge transfer theories and schemes will be analysed. The use of assimilation and accommodation will be shown as part of the cognitive learning process. Metacognition and differing levels of knowledge will be shown to be involved in the task and will be examined. Memory functions and learning styles will be analysed and it will be shown that while cognitive theories are particularly suited to the acquisition of the leaning in the area of typing a previously handwritten letter into a word processor other approaches of learning; behaviourism and social learning theories will be used to offer other explanations of the learning environment.A summary of learning acquisition in this area, using an information processing approach, can be represented as: input being accepted by the sensory store, and then, providing sufficient attention is being paid to the input and the executive control processes allow, information will be passed into the working memory. Retrieval of previous experience and related knowledge would coincide with storage of new information, processes and memories; also regulated by the executive control processes. This process is the multistore model of information processing CITATION Ker03 \p 160 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 160) integrated with metacognition CITATION Ker03 \p 168 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 168). However, as the complexity of domain transfer and types of knowledge is examined, a straightforward information processing model becomes limited in its ability to explain the entirety of the process. Further, it is theorised that novices store the processed information in isolation, whereas experts integrate previously held knowledge and develop advanced connections. CITATION Bus06 \p 15 \l 1033 (Bush, 2006, p. 15). Therefore a connectionist model of cognitive learning, where information would be stored and connected in multiple parts of the brain CITATION Ker03 \p 163 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 163) is more useful to explain the cognitive learning process. While cognitive theory generally separates knowledge as knowledge-that and knowledge-how, schemes can be used to bring these two types of knowledge together CITATION Ste03a \p 17 \t \l 1033 (Stevenson, 2003, p. 17). A scheme is a cluster of related mental images CITATION Ker03 \p 60 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 60). . Specific word processing and letter writing skills would be a sub-scheme of the computer use scheme. Some schemes can also be considered as low level, for routine tasks, or as part of a higher level, involving task identification as well as setting and monitoring goals CITATION Yas03 \p 159 \l 1033 (Yashin-Shaw, 2003, p. 159). Learning in the computer use scheme involves both the knowledge-how and knowledge-that domains CITATION Pit02 \p 376 \l 1033 (Pittman, 2002, p. 376). Knowledge about what the mouse, keyboard and screen does, and what buttons to use is part of the students’ declarative (that) knowledge. However knowing how to operate the mouse, which parts of the screen to click on next to make the computer continue the task requires procedural (how) knowledge. Therefore the types of knowledge and schemes involved in this learning process crosses over into both of these categories.Transfer is the process of applying prior knowledge or experience to a new situation CITATION Ale99 \p 562 \l 1033 (Alexander & Murphy, 1999, p. 562). Using a mouse, typing on the keyboard and using on-screen menus are skills restricted to computer and technology use, creating bracketed information, which is initially difficult to transfer to new situations. Therefore many technological literacy skills are domain specific knowledge; they have very limited transfer to other domains. However, tasks within the computer use scheme or domain are very transferrable. For example menu and keyboard shortcuts are similar on many software packages, learn them in one and the knowledge can be applied to other software. Further, both the declarative and procedural knowledge can be used in other software packages. This is an example of near transfer, where two sets of stimulus are similar between events CITATION Ste94 \p 10 \l 1033 (Stevenson, Vocational expertise, 1994, p. 10). Generalised and technological literacy skills are also transferred into the computer use domain, with recognition of menu structures, dialogs/questions prompted by the software needing to be comprehended and then applied to the computer use domain. Multiple schemes are used in acquiring knowledge in this case, and cognitive transfer will play an important role in creating new schemes and modifying existing ones.Cognitive development theories also explain how schemes are modified. When experiences or ideas are inconsistent compared with what is already known disequilibrium occurs CITATION Ker03 \p 60 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 60). Assimilation is the interpretation of new knowledge, without the need for creating new schemes, but adjusting existing cognitive structures CITATION Ker03 \p 60 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 60). Assimilation would occur if the student already has some knowledge of word processing, and new procedural knowledge (such as advanced formatting) can be learnt. Using zones of proximal development would be an effective way of assisting the learning process within the computing environment, the software’s self-help mechanisms aid scaffolding, though teacher monitoring is still required CITATION Ker03 \p 377 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 377). Accommodation is “where new information is used to establish a new model or scheme” CITATION Ker03 \p 61 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 61). Accommodation would occur if the student had not used a word processor before; a new scheme would need to be created. The process of disequilibrium can explain how existing computer knowledge, letter writing and literacy skills can be used in conjunction with new knowledge to learn how to type a pre-written letter into a word processor; accommodation, adaption and assimilation will occur when learning in this area.Cognitive learning theories allow that there are many methods of learning and that learning can be done at different levels. Initially, directed learning would be used to introduce basic procedural skills, such as basic mouse and keyboard usage. This type of knowledge would be considered low level cognitive knowledge CITATION Sch98 \p 95 \l 1033 (Schraw, 1998, p. 95) However, as the learner gains experience in the computing environment, there are strategies (such as Microsoft Word’s in-program help) that allow autonomous learning and can be viewed as meta-cognitive skills in the computer user domain. This is an example of higher level knowledge, where knowledge is less bracketed and includes meta-cognitive knowledge CITATION Sch98 \p 96 \l 1033 (Schraw, 1998, p. 96). Further, these self-help techniques can be defined as a higher order procedures, in that they leave the student with “knowing a general way of proceeding in solving new problems” CITATION Ste94 \p 13 \l 1033 (Stevenson, Vocational expertise, 1994, p. 13). This task can be learned in a number of ways. For example the exact step by step method of creating the word processed letter can be demonstrated. Alternatively, learners may be taught a number of techniques that can be applied to the task. In the second case, higher order procedures have been engaged to break the task into components, then selecting the correct techniques to complete the task CITATION Ste94 \p 14 \l 1033 (Stevenson, Vocational expertise, 1994, p. 14). Further, using methods to increase cognitive skills, will also improve meta-cognitive abilities CITATION Ker03 \p 172 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 172). Metacognitive skills are also referred to as strategic knowledge CITATION Yas03 \p 173 \l 1033 (Yashin-Shaw, 2003, p. 173) or conditional knowledge. Metacognition regulates what knowledge to use when and forms the executive control processes CITATION Ker03 \p 168 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 168). These abilities are ones that students should be given by direct or modelled instruction along with guided practice. Examples of how documents are analysed (audience, styles, purposes) would be given, along with demonstrations of how to use the computer software for self-help. Further, strategies such as guiding the development of check lists that help the student monitor their own progress are ways of enhancing meta-cognitive skills CITATION Bus06 \p 17 \l 1033 (Bush, 2006, p. 17). In practical classroom situations students need to be taught these strategies separately and repeatedly to enforce the idea that help is at hand without teacher intervention. . Independent practice is then allowed, with feedback being provided regularly CITATION Sch98 \p 98 \l 1033 (Schraw, 1998, p. 98). Learning in the computer use area can be done progressively, and can aid in a way that promotes high level and meta-cognitive learning.The storage and recall of all of the abovementioned skills and knowledge is also important. Cognitive theories use sensory, short term and long term memory to explain how knowledge is stored and retrieved. Sensory memory is the learning in-box. Focusing or paying attention is needed for sensory information to be held in short term memory and then to be passed on to long term memory. Long term memory can then be further classified as episodic memory, which keeps track of personal experiences in sets of timelines, semantic memory contains general knowledge that is not related to a time or place and procedural memory is for actions and skills CITATION Ree04 \p 118 \l 1033 (Reed, 2004, p. 118). Therefore to obtain the best result with students all types of long term memory should try to be accessed. By using a combination of group activities, general information and hands on experience learning can be connected to the different memory types. How we forget, and therefore remember is an important part of the cognitive representation of learning.When learning to use a word processer several techniques of problem solving can be taught to students, and can be used when a problem occurs. Deductive reasoning uses known rules and principles to try and find a solution to a problem CITATION Ker03 \p 56 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 56). This type reasoning is part of Piaget’s fourth stage of development and can be used successfully in the word processing domain by applying past experiences and knowledge of computer use to navigation menu structures and accessing tips and help. By hypothesising the results of possible commands or procedures and testing the results students can find ways around problems encountered. Inductive reasoning can also be used in the computer use domain. Inductive reasoning is the ability to create new rules based on general principles or previously known rules CITATION Ker03 \p 56 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 56). Again, the logical nature of computer software lends itself to this type of reasoning, commands and buttons are common between many different software packages. Cognitive styles can also be used to consider how to model information and how it is presented to learners. Considering field dependent learners would mean using rehearsal strategies, such as repeating sets of commands, or doing multiple practice letters; whereas field independent learners would be more inclined to use elaboration strategies, such as an explanation to the why behind computer menu structure CITATION Ker03 \p 176 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 176). Student response times have been identified as impulsivity and reflectivity, describing what is described as conceptual tempo CITATION Ker03 \p 177 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 177). Impulsivity is generally though to reduce learning effectiveness, with reflective learning being more effective and achieving better results CITATION Spi03 \p 545 \l 1033 (Spinella & Miley, 2003, p. 545). Deep and surface learning styles also affect student approaches and achievements. Deep learners are “intrinsically motivated to study, and are interested in satisfying their curiosity” CITATION Ker03 \p 178 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 178), have higher self-concepts about their own learning, and tend to use more problem solving techniques than surface learners. When teaching in this area, the different styles of learning can be taken into account and reflected upon to create a positive learning environment.Alternative approaches to learning need to be integrated within the classroom. Cognitive theory alone is not capable of explaining the transmission of all knowledge, and should be used in conjunction with other methods of learning. In the case of socio-cultural or instructional psychology, methods of group work could be used bring context and further meaning to the topic. Social learning theories combined with cognitive theory as social constructivism shows these social processes to be essential to the learning processes CITATION Ker03 \p 183 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 183).Brain storming different layouts available for formal letter writing, involved with tasks interpreting the written text and choosing how to display it on the word processed document, and how each layout is used in different social and work contexts are examples of how constructivism can be used in this learning task. Constructivism is centred on the students “active construction of meaning through interaction with the social and physical environment” CITATION Bus06 \p 16 \l 1033 (Bush, 2006, p. 16).Using a behaviourism style of teaching would include stimulus response methods of teaching and observing students, breaking information into small pieces, presenting it, and offering praise to reinforce correct behaviours CITATION Sch981 \p 6 \l 1033 (Scheurman, 1998, p. 6). Rehearsal and reinforcement of tasks and procedures is a further use of behavioural methods of learning. Students would type several practice letters during the learning process. Further use of this theory would be to use behavioural objectives to assess students for “pre-specified performances” CITATION Joh03 \p 29 \t \l 1033 (Stevenson, 2003, p. 29). Thorndike’s trial-and-error learning is a commonly seen method of self-learning in the computer field. Correct guesses about menu and toolbar options can lead to successful computer use, generating successful outcomes and the reward of not being annoyed with the computer, strengthening the response-stimulus relationships CITATION Ker03 \p 132 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 132). Therefore behaviourism can be applied to much of the procedural knowledge associated with the computer use domain, but cannot explain the meta-cognitive and underlying declarative knowledge involved.While humanism learning processes are valid they have little influence on the specific area of learning covered here. Maslow’s ideas of human needs and self-actualisation can be considered to have generalised influence within the classroom CITATION Ker03 \p 204 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 204). Further, Maslow sees cognitive abilities as tools to help achieve self-actualisation CITATION Mas43 \p 384 \l 1033 (Maslow, 1943, p. 384). Both individualised and cooperative learning methods can be implemented in the classroom. Using self-paced tutorials supports individualised instruction, while group activities can provide motivational rather than cognitive learning CITATION Ker03 \p 216 \l 1033 (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 216). Cognitive learning theory has developed in response to behaviourisms inability to describe our internal intelligence processes. Using a blend of learning theories available in teaching, and thinking about teaching helps explain why and how knowledge is learnt and how to promote self-learning. It is an effective theory in explaining processes that cannot be strictly seen or observed during the learning process, and while it has limitations and criticisms, cognitive learning theory is useful in analysing and improving teaching and learning methods.References BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexander, P. A., & Murphy, K. (1999). Chapter 2: Nurturing the seeds of transfer: a domain-specific perspective. International Journal of Educational Research (31), 561-576.Bush, G. (2006). learning abour learning: from theories to trends. Teacher Librarian , 2 (34), 14-19.Kral. (2004). What is all that learning for? Indigenous adult English literacy practices, training, community capacity and health. Adelaid: NCVER.Krause, K.-L., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2003). Educational psychology for learning and teaching . South Melbourne: Thomson Learning.Mackay, S., Burgoyne, U., Warwick, D., & Cipollone, J. (2006). Current and future professional development needs of the language, literacy and. Sydney: Access and General Education Cirriculm Centre, TAFE NSW.Maslow, A. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review , 50 (4), 370-396.McGuirk, J. (2001). Adult liceracy and numeracy practices 2001: A national snapshot. Sydney: TAFE New South Wales Access Division, New South Wales Department of Education and Training.Pittman, J. (2002). Preservice Teachers and Cognitive Literacy Skills: Implications for Technology Pedagogy. Journal of Research on Technology in Education , 34 (4), 375-388.Reed, S. K. (2004). Cognition: theory and applications. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson.Scheurman, G. (1998). From behaviorist to constructivist teaching. Social Education , 62 (1), 6-10.Schraw, G. (1998). The development of metacognition. In T. P. M. Cecil Smith (Ed.), Adult learning and development : perspectives from educational psychology (pp. 89-106). London: L. Erlbaum Associates.Spinella, M., & Miley, W. M. (2003). Impulsivity and academic achievement in college students. College Student Journal , 4 (37), 545-550.Stevenson, J. (2003). Expertise for the Workplace. In J. Stevenson, Developing Vocational Expertise: Principle and Issues in Vocational Education (pp. 3-25). Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.Stevenson, J. (1994). Vocational expertise. In J. Stevenson (Ed.), Cognition at work (pp. 7-35). Adelaide: NCVER.Stevenson, J. (2003). Vocational teaching and learning in context. In J. Stevenson, Developing Vocational Expertise: Principles and issues in vocational education (pp. 26-43). Crows Nest: Allen and Unwin.Yashin-Shaw, I. (2003). Developing creativity. In J. Stevenson (Ed.), Developing vocational expertise: principles and issues in vocational education (pp. 169-198). Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. ................
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