Introduction .uk



A portable emissions measurement system (PEMS) study of NOx and primary NO2 emissions from Euro 6 diesel passenger cars and comparison with COPERT emission factorsRosalind O'Driscolla, Helen M. ApSimonb, Tim Oxleyb, Nick Moldenc, Marc E. J. Stettlerd, Aravinth Thiyagarajahda Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, 1326 Princes Gardens, London, SW7 1NA, United Kingdom, Tel:?+44 (0)20 7594 9347, Fax:?+44 (0)20 7594 9334, Email: rosalind.odriscoll09@imperial.ac.uk Corresponding Authorb Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, 13- 15 Princes Gardens, London, SW7 1NA, United Kingdomc Emissions Analytics, Kimball Smith Limited, Kings Worthy House, Court Road, Kings Worthy, Winchester, SO23 7QA, United Kingdomd Centre for Transport Studies, 6th Floor, Skempton Building, Imperial College London, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering?, London, SW7 2BU, United KingdomAbstract?Real world emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) often greatly exceed those achieved in the laboratory based type approval process. In this paper the real world emissions from a substantial sample of the latest Euro 6 diesel passenger cars are presented with a focus on NOx and primary NO2. Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS) data is analysed from 39 Euro 6 diesel passenger cars over a test route comprised of urban and motorway sections. The sample includes vehicles installed with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), lean NOx traps (LNT), or selective catalytic reduction (SCR). The results show wide variability in NOx emissions from 1 – 22 times the type approval limit. The average NOx emission, 0.36 (sd. 0.36) g km-1, is 4.5 times the Euro 6 limit. The average fraction primary NO2 (fNO2) is 44 (sd. 20) %. Higher emissions during the urban section of the route are attributed to an increased number of acceleration events. Comparisons between PEMS measurements and COPERT speed dependent emissions factors show PEMS measurements to be on average 1.6 times higher than COPERT estimates for NOx and 2.5 times for NO2. However, by removing the 5 most polluting vehicles average emissions were reduced considerably.Highlights?Largest Euro 6 PEMS study to date with 39 vehiclesDetailed analysis of fraction primary NO2 and absolute NO2 emissionsAnalysis of EGR, LNT and SCR NOx control technologiesComparison between real world emissions and COPERT emissions factorsComparison of urban and motorway driving and effect of acceleration on NOx emissionKeywords?Euro 6 emission standards; NOx; Primary NO2; Diesel exhaust aftertreatment; COPERTIntroductionIn the past decade the European Union (EU) has seen a reduction in emissions of air pollutants. Of these pollutants nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is prominent due to its direct negative effects on human health, including low lung function and increased risk of cancer ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1183/09031936.00130014", "ISSN" : "0903-1936", "abstract" : "The chronic impact of ambient air pollutants on lung function in adults is not fully understood. The objective of this study was to investigate the association of long-term exposure to ambient air pollution with lung function in adult participants from five cohorts in the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE). Residential exposure to nitrogen oxides (NO2, NOx) and particulate matter (PM) was modelled and traffic indicators were assessed in a standardised manner. The spirometric parameters forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC) from 7613 subjects were considered as outcomes. Cohort-specific results were combined using meta-analysis. We did not observe an association of air pollution with longitudinal change in lung function, but we observed that a 10 \u03bcg\u00b7m\u22123 increase in NO2 exposure was associated with lower levels of FEV1 (\u221214.0 mL, 95% CI \u221225.8 to \u22122.1) and FVC (\u221214.9 mL, 95% CI \u221228.7 to \u22121.1). An increase of 10 \u03bcg\u00b7m\u22123 in PM10, but not other PM metrics (PM2.5, coarse fraction of PM, PM absorbance), was associated with a lower level of FEV1 (\u221244.6 mL, 95% CI \u221285.4 to \u22123.8) and FVC (\u221259.0 mL, 95% CI \u2212112.3 to \u22125.6). The associations were particularly strong in obese persons. This study adds to the evidence for an adverse association of ambient air pollution with lung function in adults at very low levels in Europe. 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Recent evidence has linked NO2 to hundreds of thousands of premature deaths across Europe each year ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "ISSN 1977-8449", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "Air quality in Europe - 2015 report", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "RCP", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Every breath we take; the lifelong impact of air pollution", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "COMEAP", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "title" : "The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(COMEAP, 2010; EEA, 2015a; RCP, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(COMEAP, 2010; EEA, 2015a; RCP, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(COMEAP, 2010; EEA, 2015a; RCP, 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(COMEAP, 2010; EEA, 2015a; RCP, 2016). The EU First Daughter Directive (99/30/EC) sets an annual mean limit for NO2 concentrations of 40 ?gm-3 and an hourly mean limit of 200 μgm-3 (with an allowance of 18 exceedances per year). These limits have been legally binding for member states since January 2010. Consecutive regulations have so far failed to fully reduce concentrations of NO2 to acceptable levels. One tenth of Europe’s urban population still live in areas where NO2 concentrations exceed limits set for the protection of human health ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "9", "publisher" : "EEA- European Environment Agency", "title" : "Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas", "type" : "legislation" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EEA, 2015b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EEA, 2015b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EEA, 2015b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EEA, 2015b). The EU has introduced successive emission standards (the Euro standards) limiting grams per kilometre (g km-1) emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx = NO + NO2). The most recent Euro 6 standard sets the limit of 0.08 g NOx km-1 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Official Journal of the European Union L 199/1", "title" : "Commission Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 of 18 July 2008 implementing and amending Regulation (EC) No 715/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council", "type" : "legislation" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EC, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EC, 2008). Current type approval consists of the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) performed on a chassis dynamometer in laboratory conditions. There is currently no dedicated NO2 emissions standard and its necessity is yet undecided ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.11.042", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The annual NO2 concentrations in many European cities exceed the established air quality standard. This situation is mainly caused by Diesel cars whose NOx emissions are higher on the road than during type approval in the laboratory. Moreover, the fraction of NO2 in the NOx emissions of modern diesel cars appears to have increased as compared to previous models. In this paper, we assess 1) to which level the distance-specific NOx emissions of Diesel cars should be reduced to meet established air quality standards and 2) if it would be useful to introduce a complementary NO2 emissions limit. We develop a NO2 pollution model that accounts in an analysis of 9 emission scenarios for changes in both, the urban background NO2 concentrations and the local NO2 emissions at street level. We apply this model to the city of Antwerp, Belgium. The results suggest that a reduction in NOx emissions decreases the regional and urban NO2 background concentration; high NO2 fractions increase the ambient NO2 concentrations only in close spatial proximity to the emission source. In a busy access road to the city centre, the average NO2 concentration can be reduced by 23% if Diesel cars emitted 0.35 g NOx/km instead of the current 0.62 g NOx/km. Reductions of 45% are possible if the NOX emissions of Diesel cars decreased to the level of gasoline cars (0.03 g NOx/km). Our findings suggest that the Real-Driving Emissions (RDE) test procedure can solve the problem of NO2 exceedances in cities if it reduced the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars to the permissible limit of 0.08 g/km. The implementation of a complementary NO2 emissions limit may then become superfluous. If Diesel cars continue to exceed by several factors their NOx emissions limit on the road, a shift of the vehicle fleet to gasoline cars may be necessary to solve persisting air quality problems.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Degraeuwe", "given" : "Bart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thunis", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Clappier", "given" : "Alain", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lefebvre", "given" : "Wouter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Janssen", "given" : "Stijn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vranckx", "given" : "Stijn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "11" ] ] }, "title" : "Impact of passenger car NOx emissions and NO2 fractions on urban NO2 pollution \u2013 Scenario analysis for the city of Antwerp, Belgium", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Degraeuwe et al., 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Degraeuwe et al., 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Degraeuwe et al., 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Degraeuwe et al., 2015). This paper argues that this is an important omission.Real world emissions data (from Portable Emissions Measurement Systems, PEMS) for Euro 6 diesel cars is not abundant in literature with most sample sizes being limited ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Franco", "given" : "Vicente", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "S\u00e1nchez", "given" : "Francisco Posada", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "German", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mock", "given" : "Peter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Berlin, Germany", "title" : "Real-world Exhaust Emissions from Modern Diesel Cars. A Meta-analysis of Pems Emissions Data from EU (EURO 6) and Us (Tier 2 BIN 5/ULEV II) Diesel Passenger Cars. Part 1: Aggregated Results", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.056", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in urban areas of Europe can be partially attributed to the increasing market penetration of diesel cars that show higher distance-specific nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than gasoline cars. The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. This finding suggests that the current type-approval procedure does not adequately capture the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars. By introducing a complementary emissions test procedure that covers a wide range of normal operating conditions, the European legislative authorities can address this problem and ensure that Euro 6 will indeed deliver an adequate reduction in the NOx emissions of new diesel cars.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "K\u00fchlwein", "given" : "J\u00f6rg", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lambrecht", "given" : "Udo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alessandrini", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carriero", "given" : "Massimo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forni", "given" : "Fausto", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lanappe", "given" : "Gaston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lijour", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "Le", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montigny", "given" : "Francois", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sculati", "given" : "Mirco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "657-665", "title" : "Will Euro 6 reduce the NOx emissions of new diesel cars? \u2013 Insights from on-road tests with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "62" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012). In this study we present PEMS measurements from 39 Euro 6 diesel passenger cars. The findings of this paper should be considered in an air quality context. We compare PEMS data to the Euro 6 emission standard and the real driving emission (RDE) not-to-exceed limit for NOx. We also focus on absolute NO2 emissions in g km-1. This paper gives insight into real world Euro 6 g km-1 NOx and NO2 emissions and compares these to projections by the air quality emissions model COPERT (Computer Program to Calculate Emissions from Road Transport). We consider the nature of NOx emissions and which policy measures may be most effective in tackling air quality limit value exceedances in urban areas. We also investigate the fraction of NOx emitted as primary NO2, effect of exhaust aftertreatments, engine size and differences between urban and motorway driving. BackgroundTierIntroducedNOx limit g km-1Euro 4Sep-050.25Euro 5Sep-090.18Euro 6aSep-140.08Euro 6c (RDE)Sep-170.168Table SEQ Table \* ARABIC 1. Euro standards and emissions limits ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Official Journal of the European Union L 171/1", "title" : "REGULATION (EC) No 715/2007 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 20 June 2007 on type approval of motor vehicles with respect to emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 5 and Euro 6) and on access to vehicle repair and mai", "type" : "legislation" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "2", "3" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Europarl", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "title" : "Parliament decides not to veto car emissions test update", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EC, 2007; Europarl, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2007; Europarl, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2007; Europarl, 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EC, 2007; Europarl, 2016)From 1999 to 2010 atmospheric NOx concentrations have fallen in line with Euro standards ( REF _Ref443415475 \h Table 1), though they have fallen by a lesser amount than anticipated when legislation was introduced. However, NO2 concentrations have remained constant and in some cases increased. Transport emissions from diesel vehicles have been held widely responsible ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carslaw", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Beevers", "given" : "Sean", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Westmoreland", "given" : "E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Williams", "given" : "M.L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tate", "given" : "J.E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Murrells", "given" : "T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Stedman", "given" : "J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grice", "given" : "S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kent", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tsagatakis", "given" : "I", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "title" : "Trends in NOx and NO2 emissions and ambient measurements in the UK", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.02.028", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "In this paper we have compared detailed road traffic NOx emissions with the equivalent trends in ambient roadside NOx measurements. This was undertaken separately in Great Britain and London, for all of the major roads, and by road type and location. The emissions trends were created using different emissions factors, those used in UK emissions inventories (Base case), the Swiss-German handbook (HBEFA), and those created from recent remote sensing measurements in the UK (RSD). An alternative assumption for use of Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) in the articulated Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) fleet was also tested. For all scenarios traffic flows, speeds and vehicle age were kept constant. Comparison between the emissions scenarios in Great Britain showed that by 2009, NOx emissions estimates from road traffic could be as much as 25% greater than current UK estimates and 31% greater in London. The RSD emissions inventory gave the smallest downward trend in NOx emissions, from 2004 to 2009, of between 3 and 4%/year and this compared with a reduction of \u223c6%/year from the Base Case and HBEFA scenarios. All scenarios compared poorly with roadside NOx measurement trends from UK sites, which typically reduce by between 1% and 2%/year. We have shown that the differences in NOx emissions trends were driven, partially at least, by the relative contribution from light duty diesel vehicles. An analysis from 2700 NOx measurement sites throughout Europe has shown that this problem is unlikely to be limited to the UK, and identifies a difficulty in meeting EU limit values for NO2, obligations under the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD, 2001) and the Gothenburg Protocol (UNECE, 1999) and for forecasting future changes in PM2.5.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Beevers", "given" : "Sean D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Westmoreland", "given" : "Emily", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jong", "given" : "Mark C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "de", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Williams", "given" : "Martin L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carslaw", "given" : "David C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "7" ] ] }, "page" : "107-116", "title" : "Trends in NOx and NO2 emissions from road traffic in Great Britain", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "54" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.09.063", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "Ambient trends in nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) for many air pollution monitoring sites in European cities have stabilised in recent years. The lack of a decrease in the concentration of NOx and in particular NO2 is of concern given European air quality standards are set in law. The lack of decrease in the concentration of NOx and NO2 is also in clear disagreement with emission inventory estimates and projections. This work undertakes a comprehensive analysis of recent vehicle emissions remote sensing data from seven urban locations across the UK. The large sample size of 84,269 vehicles was carefully cross-referenced to a detailed and comprehensive database of vehicle information. We find that there are significant discrepancies between current UK/European estimates of NOx emissions and those derived from the remote sensing data for several important classes of vehicle. In the case of light duty diesel vehicles it is found that NOx emissions have changed little over 20 years or so over a period when the proportion of directly emitted NO2 has increased substantially. For diesel cars it is found that absolute emissions of NOx are higher across all legislative classes than suggested by UK and other European emission inventories. Moreover, the analysis shows that more recent technology diesel cars (Euro 3\u20135) have clear increasing NOx emissions as a function of Vehicle Specific Power, which is absent for older technology vehicles. Under higher engine loads, these newer model diesel cars have a NOx/CO2 ratio twice that of older model cars, which may be related to the increased use of turbo-charging. Current emissions of NOx from early technology catalyst-equipped petrol cars (Euro 1/2) were also found to be higher than emission inventory estimates \u2013 and comparable with NOx emissions from diesel cars. For heavy duty vehicles, it is found that NOx emissions were relatively stable until the introduction of Euro IV technology when emissions decreased by about 30%. The more limited data available for urban buses shows that there has been little change in NOx emissions from Euro I to Euro IV. There is general much better consistency across the different estimates of heavy duty vehicle NOx emissions than for light duty vehicles.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carslaw", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Beevers", "given" : "Sean D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tate", "given" : "James E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Westmoreland", "given" : "Emily J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Williams", "given" : "Martin L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "39", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "7053-7063", "title" : "Recent evidence concerning higher NOx emissions from passenger cars and light duty vehicles", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.10.050", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "An assessment of the formation of NO2 concentrations in heavily traffic-influenced environments in Helsinki, Finland was carried out. The proportion of primary NO2 emissions from road traffic was estimated using a statistical model for the relationship between the mixing ratios of nitrogen oxides (NO+NO2) and total oxidant (O3+NO2) measured in 1994\u20132009. Based on this analysis, a quantitative estimate was derived for the relative importance of the primary NO2 emissions, ambient NO\u2013NO2\u2013O3 equilibrium and background concentrations in the observed NO2 concentrations. The proportion of primary NO2 in the vehicular NOx emissions increased from below 10% in the 1990s to about 20% in 2009, with a more distinctive increase during the most recent years. This development was related to the changes in the proportion of diesel-powered passenger cars in Finland. Between 1994 and 2004, the photochemical NO-to-NO2 conversion comprised on average 51% of the mean NO2 concentration, while the primary NO2 emissions contributed 31%. The role of the primary NO2 emissions was limited by the steeply-decreasing total NOx emissions. More recent data (2005\u20132009) yielded higher primary NO2 emission fractions (15 \u201321%), with a clearly increasing trend. As a result, the contribution of chemical conversion steadily decreased from 54% in 2005 to 43% in 2009, while that of the primary NO2 emissions increased from 32 to 44%. In order not to exceed in future the annual limit of NO2 concentration, set by the European Union, in the busiest street canyons in downtown Helsinki, the primary NO2 emissions need to be addressed alongside the total NOx emissions.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Anttila", "given" : "Pia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tuovinen", "given" : "Juha-Pekka", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "V.", "family" : "Niemi", "given" : "Jarkko", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "986-992", "title" : "Primary NO2 emissions and their role in the development of NO2 concentrations in a traffic environment", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-5", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.07.013", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "Legislation controlling vehicle emissions has been credited with a general downward trend in NOx (NO2+NO) concentrations in Europe since the 1990's. However, recent studies suggest that traffic (roadside) (TR) NO2 concentrations have not decreased as expected, and in some cases increased, most likely due to the use of oxidation catalysts and particle filters in diesel vehicles (EURO III, IV, V, VI). In this study we describe the time trends in NOx, NO2 and NO concentrations in 9 European cities comparing TR and urban background (UB) monitoring locations. In each city, we collected hourly city-specific NOx, NO, and NO2 data from one TR and one UB monitoring site for each year. We describe hourly, weekly, seasonal and inter-annual patterns for periods corresponding to the implementation dates of various EURO vehicle emission standards regulating NOx emissions. The diurnal patterns in all 9 cities strongly reflected morning and evening traffic. In addition, lower weekend concentrations were observed. The NOx concentrations from the TR sites remain unchanged in the majority of the cities over the study period. When stratified by 3 time periods according to the implementation of the EURO standards, an increasing NO2/NOx ratio in 7/9 cities with time was noted. However, over the same time period the NO/NO2 ratio decreased in 8/9 cities. A permanent inversion of the NO/NO2 ratio was observed to occur in 2003 in 5/9 cities. Our analyses of temporal and diurnal patterns of NOx in European cities show reductions in concentrations consistent with reductions in primary emissions likely arising from the implementation of successive EURO standards. The generally constant or increasing NO2 concentrations in the majority of the cities assessed over the study period underline the need of further regulative measures to meet the air quality standards and consequently to minimise adverse effects on human health. The ongoing collection and analysis of pollution concentrations across the EU is recommended to monitor trends in pollutants associated with adverse health effects.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Henschel", "given" : "Susann", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tertre", "given" : "Alain", "non-dropping-particle" : "Le", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Atkinson", "given" : "Richard W.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Querol", "given" : "Xavier", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pandolfi", "given" : "Marco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zeka", "given" : "Ariana", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Haluza", "given" : "Daniela", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Analitis", "given" : "Antonis", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Katsouyanni", "given" : "Klea", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bouland", "given" : "Catherine", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pascal", "given" : "Mathilde", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Medina", "given" : "Sylvia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goodman", "given" : "Patrick G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "9" ] ] }, "page" : "234-241", "title" : "Trends of nitrogen oxides in ambient air in nine European cities between 1999 and 2010", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "117" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-6", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/S1001-0742(11)60878-4", "ISSN" : "10010742", "abstract" : "The real-world fuel efficiency and exhaust emission profiles of CO, HC and NOx for light-duty diesel vehicles were investigated. Using a portable emissions measurement system, 16 diesel taxies were tested on different roads in Macao and the data were normalized with the vehicle specific power bin method. The 11 Toyota Corolla diesel taxies have very good fuel economy of (5.9 \u00b1 0.6) L/100 km, while other five diesel taxies showed relatively high values at (8.5 \u00b1 1.7) L/100 km due to the variation in transmission systems and emission control strategies. Compared to similar Corolla gasoline models, the diesel cars confirmed an advantage of ca. 20% higher fuel efficiency. HC and CO emissions of all the 16 taxies are quite low, with the average at (0.05 \u00b1 0.02) g/km and (0.38 \u00b1 0.15) g/km, respectively. The average NOx emission factor of the 11 Corolla taxies is (0.56 \u00b1 0.17) g/km, about three times higher than their gasoline counterparts. Two of the three Hyundai Sonata taxies, configured with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) + diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) emission control strategies, indicated significantly higher NO2 emissions and NO2/NOx ratios than other diesel taxies and consequently trigger a concern of possibly adverse impacts on ozone pollution in urban areas with this technology combination. A clear and similar pattern for fuel consumption and for each of the three gaseous pollutant emissions with various road conditions was identified. To save energy and mitigate CO2 emissions as well as other gaseous pollutant emissions in urban area, traffic planning also needs improvement.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hu", "given" : "Jingnan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wu", "given" : "Ye", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wang", "given" : "Zhishi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Zhenhua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zhou", "given" : "Yu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wang", "given" : "Haitao", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bao", "given" : "Xiaofeng", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hao", "given" : "Jiming", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Environmental Sciences", "id" : "ITEM-6", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "5" ] ] }, "page" : "865-874", "title" : "Real-world fuel efficiency and exhaust emissions of light-duty diesel vehicles and their correlation with road conditions", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "24" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Anttila et al., 2011; Beevers et al., 2012; Carslaw et al., 2011a, 2011b; Henschel et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Anttila et al., 2011; Beevers et al., 2012; Carslaw et al., 2011a, 2011b; Henschel et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Anttila et al., 2011; Beevers et al., 2012; Carslaw et al., 2011a, 2011b; Henschel et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Anttila et al., 2011; Beevers et al., 2012; Carslaw et al., 2011a, 2011b; Henschel et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2012). This is a consequence of the tendency of on road diesel NOx emissions to exceed regulatory limits, which are only achieved during the lab based type approval process ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1021/es2008424", "ISSN" : "0013-936X", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hummel", "given" : "Rudolf", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science & Technology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "19", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "10", "1" ] ] }, "note" : "doi: 10.1021/es2008424", "page" : "8575-8581", "publisher" : "American Chemical Society", "title" : "On-Road Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles in Europe", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.056", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in urban areas of Europe can be partially attributed to the increasing market penetration of diesel cars that show higher distance-specific nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than gasoline cars. The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. This finding suggests that the current type-approval procedure does not adequately capture the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars. By introducing a complementary emissions test procedure that covers a wide range of normal operating conditions, the European legislative authorities can address this problem and ensure that Euro 6 will indeed deliver an adequate reduction in the NOx emissions of new diesel cars.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "K\u00fchlwein", "given" : "J\u00f6rg", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lambrecht", "given" : "Udo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alessandrini", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carriero", "given" : "Massimo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forni", "given" : "Fausto", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lanappe", "given" : "Gaston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lijour", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "Le", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montigny", "given" : "Francois", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sculati", "given" : "Mirco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "657-665", "title" : "Will Euro 6 reduce the NOx emissions of new diesel cars? \u2013 Insights from on-road tests with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "62" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Franco", "given" : "Vicente", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "S\u00e1nchez", "given" : "Francisco Posada", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "German", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mock", "given" : "Peter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Berlin, Germany", "title" : "Real-world Exhaust Emissions from Modern Diesel Cars. A Meta-analysis of Pems Emissions Data from EU (EURO 6) and Us (Tier 2 BIN 5/ULEV II) Diesel Passenger Cars. Part 1: Aggregated Results", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012, 2011b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012, 2011b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012, 2011b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012, 2011b) in combination with the deeper market penetration of diesel in Europe. This was driven by the promise of lower carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and associated tax incentives. When NOx is released into the atmosphere as a mixture of NO and NO2 chemical reactions take place with ozone (O3). O3 reacts with the NO component of NOx to produce NO2. This is balanced by the photo-dissociation of NO2 to NO and characterised by the equilibrium photo-stationary state equations-Equation SEQ Equation \* ARABIC 1i NO+ O3→ NO2+O2 iiNO2+hv+O2→NO+O3Given well mixed air and sufficient time this results in an equilibrium ratio of NO2 to NOx ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "(01)00378-8", "ISBN" : "1352-2310", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Clapp", "given" : "Lynette J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jenkin", "given" : "Michael E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "36", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "6391-6405", "title" : "Analysis of the relationship between ambient levels of O3, NO2 and NO as a function of NOx in the UK", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "35" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Clapp and Jenkin, 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Clapp and Jenkin, 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Clapp and Jenkin, 2001)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Clapp and Jenkin, 2001). However, at road-side locations there is insufficient?time for such reactions and often ozone is already depleted, limiting reactions with NO. In these circumstances the proportion of NOx emitted directly as primary NO2 becomes the dominant factor ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.11.042", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The annual NO2 concentrations in many European cities exceed the established air quality standard. This situation is mainly caused by Diesel cars whose NOx emissions are higher on the road than during type approval in the laboratory. Moreover, the fraction of NO2 in the NOx emissions of modern diesel cars appears to have increased as compared to previous models. In this paper, we assess 1) to which level the distance-specific NOx emissions of Diesel cars should be reduced to meet established air quality standards and 2) if it would be useful to introduce a complementary NO2 emissions limit. We develop a NO2 pollution model that accounts in an analysis of 9 emission scenarios for changes in both, the urban background NO2 concentrations and the local NO2 emissions at street level. We apply this model to the city of Antwerp, Belgium. The results suggest that a reduction in NOx emissions decreases the regional and urban NO2 background concentration; high NO2 fractions increase the ambient NO2 concentrations only in close spatial proximity to the emission source. In a busy access road to the city centre, the average NO2 concentration can be reduced by 23% if Diesel cars emitted 0.35 g NOx/km instead of the current 0.62 g NOx/km. Reductions of 45% are possible if the NOX emissions of Diesel cars decreased to the level of gasoline cars (0.03 g NOx/km). Our findings suggest that the Real-Driving Emissions (RDE) test procedure can solve the problem of NO2 exceedances in cities if it reduced the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars to the permissible limit of 0.08 g/km. The implementation of a complementary NO2 emissions limit may then become superfluous. If Diesel cars continue to exceed by several factors their NOx emissions limit on the road, a shift of the vehicle fleet to gasoline cars may be necessary to solve persisting air quality problems.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Degraeuwe", "given" : "Bart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thunis", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Clappier", "given" : "Alain", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lefebvre", "given" : "Wouter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Janssen", "given" : "Stijn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vranckx", "given" : "Stijn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "11" ] ] }, "title" : "Impact of passenger car NOx emissions and NO2 fractions on urban NO2 pollution \u2013 Scenario analysis for the city of Antwerp, Belgium", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1039/C5FD00162E", "ISSN" : "1359-6640", "abstract" : "Reducing ambient concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) remains a key challenge across many European urban areas, particularly close to roads. This challenge mostly relates to the lack of reduction in emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) from diesel road vehicles relative to the reductions expected through increasingly stringent vehicle emissions legislation. However, a key component of near-road concentrations of NO2 derives from directly emitted (primary) NO2 from diesel vehicles. It is well-established that the proportion of NO2 (i.e. the NO2/NOx ratio) in vehicle exhaust has increased over the past decade as a result of vehicle after-treatment technologies that oxidise carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and generate NO2 to aid the emissions control of diesel particulate. In this work we bring together an analysis of ambient NOx and NO2 measurements with comprehensive vehicle emission remote sensing data obtained in London to better understand recent trends in the NO2/NOx ratio from road vehicles. We show that there is evidence that NO2 concentrations have decreased since around 2010 despite less evidence of a reduction in total NOx. The decrease is shown to be driven by relatively large reductions in the amount of NO2 directly emitted by vehicles; from around 25 vol% in 2010 to 15 vol% in 2014 in inner London, for example. The analysis of NOx and NO2 vehicle emission remote sensing data shows that these reductions have been mostly driven by reduced NO2/NOx emission ratios from heavy duty vehicles and buses rather than light duty vehicles. However, there is also evidence from the analysis of Euro 4 and 5 diesel passenger cars that as vehicles age the NO2/NOx ratio decreases. For example the NO2/NOx ratio decreased from 29.5 +/- 2.0% in Euro 5 diesel cars up to one year old to 22.7 +/- 2.5% for four-year old vehicles. At some roadside locations the reductions in primary NO2 have had a large effect on reducing both the annual mean and number of hourly exceedances of the European Limit Values of NO2.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carslaw", "given" : "David C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Murrells", "given" : "Tim P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Andersson", "given" : "Jon", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Keenan", "given" : "Matthew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Faraday Discussions", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "0", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "439-454", "publisher" : "The Royal Society of Chemistry", "title" : "Have vehicle emissions of primary NO2 peaked?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "189" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Carslaw et al., 2016; Degraeuwe et al., 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Carslaw et al., 2016; Degraeuwe et al., 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Carslaw et al., 2016; Degraeuwe et al., 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Carslaw et al., 2016; Degraeuwe et al., 2015). Because of this high levels of primary NO2 are particularly associated with causing high road-side concentrations of NO2. Introduction of successive Euro standards have marked an increase in the fraction of NOx emitted as primary NO2 (fNO2). This is mainly due to the addition of oxidative after-treatment systems known as diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.01.019", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "An assessment of recent trends in primary NO2 emissions has been carried out for ten case study locations across the European Union. Estimates of the percentage of NOx from road traffic emitted as primary NO2 (f-NO2) have been derived for 1995, 2000 and 2005 by combining the results of a literature survey of primary NO2 emission factors for different vehicle types and technologies with an emission inventory. Estimates of f-NO2 have also been derived from ambient monitoring data at roadside sites in each case study location using a model. The results of the analysis of trends show that f-NO2 has increased in recent years and that the rate of increase has been greatest since 2000. f-NO2 has increased from 8.6% in 2000 to 12.4% in 2004 as an average across the monitoring sites and from an average of 6.3% in 2000 to 10.6% in 2005 as an average of the emission inventory based calculations for the case study countries. f-NO2 is predicted to increase further to an average of 19.6% in 2010 and 32.0% in 2020 as a result of the further penetration of exhaust after treatment technologies for diesel vehicles in the fleets. This increase is expected to be offset by the large reduction in NOx emissions over this period, resulting in an increase in NO2 emissions from road traffic to 2015, followed by a decline to close to 2004 levels by 2020. Estimates of future ambient NO2 concentrations have also been calculated for the roadside monitoring sites included in the study. At 29 out of 45 of these sites the annual mean NO2 limit value is predicted to be exceeded in 2010. At 22 of these sites, the annual mean concentration is expected to remain above the limit value until 2020 and beyond.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grice", "given" : "Susannah", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Stedman", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kent", "given" : "Andrew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hobson", "given" : "Melanie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Norris", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Abbott", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cooke", "given" : "Sally", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "13", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009", "4" ] ] }, "page" : "2154-2167", "title" : "Recent trends and projections of primary NO2 emissions in Europe", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "43" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.01.046", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "Ambient roadside concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) have stabilized in recent years while concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NOx) decline. Oxidation catalytic converters of modern vehicles facilitating the formation of NO2 in the exhaust line, especially in diesel cars equipped with original equipment manufacturer (OEM) particle filters, are assumed to be responsible. NO2 is toxic and increased proportions of NO2 in total NOx in the atmosphere cause higher ambient ozone concentrations. These observations lead to a need for reliable emission factors for NO and NO2 for road vehicles, while only NOx is recorded in standard emission measurements. In this regard, it was recently shown that NO2 needs to be detected by an adequate online measuring method. The present work provides novel insight into these topics gained from an experimental campaign carried out with modern gasoline and diesel vehicles of certification categories Euro 3 and Euro 4. Reliable emission factors for NO and NO2 are presented for different driving situations, such as real-world driving, cold start and statutory tests, together with corresponding particle emission data. Highest emissions of NOx are recorded for diesel cars equipped with OEM particle filters with mass ratios of NO2 within NOx of up to 70%. The NOx emissions exceed the statutory emission limit and real-world emissions are even more pronounced, especially in urban driving conditions. Their particle emissions are greatly reduced, but the contribution of NO2 to soot oxidation is thought to be minor.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alvarez", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weilenmann", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Favez", "given" : "Jean-Yves", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "19", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "6" ] ] }, "page" : "4699-4707", "title" : "Evidence of increased mass fraction of NO2 within real-world NOx emissions of modern light vehicles \u2014 derived from a reliable online measuring method", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "42" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.09.063", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "Ambient trends in nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) for many air pollution monitoring sites in European cities have stabilised in recent years. The lack of a decrease in the concentration of NOx and in particular NO2 is of concern given European air quality standards are set in law. The lack of decrease in the concentration of NOx and NO2 is also in clear disagreement with emission inventory estimates and projections. This work undertakes a comprehensive analysis of recent vehicle emissions remote sensing data from seven urban locations across the UK. The large sample size of 84,269 vehicles was carefully cross-referenced to a detailed and comprehensive database of vehicle information. We find that there are significant discrepancies between current UK/European estimates of NOx emissions and those derived from the remote sensing data for several important classes of vehicle. In the case of light duty diesel vehicles it is found that NOx emissions have changed little over 20 years or so over a period when the proportion of directly emitted NO2 has increased substantially. For diesel cars it is found that absolute emissions of NOx are higher across all legislative classes than suggested by UK and other European emission inventories. Moreover, the analysis shows that more recent technology diesel cars (Euro 3\u20135) have clear increasing NOx emissions as a function of Vehicle Specific Power, which is absent for older technology vehicles. Under higher engine loads, these newer model diesel cars have a NOx/CO2 ratio twice that of older model cars, which may be related to the increased use of turbo-charging. Current emissions of NOx from early technology catalyst-equipped petrol cars (Euro 1/2) were also found to be higher than emission inventory estimates \u2013 and comparable with NOx emissions from diesel cars. For heavy duty vehicles, it is found that NOx emissions were relatively stable until the introduction of Euro IV technology when emissions decreased by about 30%. The more limited data available for urban buses shows that there has been little change in NOx emissions from Euro I to Euro IV. There is general much better consistency across the different estimates of heavy duty vehicle NOx emissions than for light duty vehicles.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carslaw", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Beevers", "given" : "Sean D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tate", "given" : "James E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Westmoreland", "given" : "Emily J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Williams", "given" : "Martin L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "39", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "7053-7063", "title" : "Recent evidence concerning higher NOx emissions from passenger cars and light duty vehicles", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1039/C5FD00162E", "ISSN" : "1359-6640", "abstract" : "Reducing ambient concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) remains a key challenge across many European urban areas, particularly close to roads. This challenge mostly relates to the lack of reduction in emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) from diesel road vehicles relative to the reductions expected through increasingly stringent vehicle emissions legislation. However, a key component of near-road concentrations of NO2 derives from directly emitted (primary) NO2 from diesel vehicles. It is well-established that the proportion of NO2 (i.e. the NO2/NOx ratio) in vehicle exhaust has increased over the past decade as a result of vehicle after-treatment technologies that oxidise carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and generate NO2 to aid the emissions control of diesel particulate. In this work we bring together an analysis of ambient NOx and NO2 measurements with comprehensive vehicle emission remote sensing data obtained in London to better understand recent trends in the NO2/NOx ratio from road vehicles. We show that there is evidence that NO2 concentrations have decreased since around 2010 despite less evidence of a reduction in total NOx. The decrease is shown to be driven by relatively large reductions in the amount of NO2 directly emitted by vehicles; from around 25 vol% in 2010 to 15 vol% in 2014 in inner London, for example. The analysis of NOx and NO2 vehicle emission remote sensing data shows that these reductions have been mostly driven by reduced NO2/NOx emission ratios from heavy duty vehicles and buses rather than light duty vehicles. However, there is also evidence from the analysis of Euro 4 and 5 diesel passenger cars that as vehicles age the NO2/NOx ratio decreases. For example the NO2/NOx ratio decreased from 29.5 +/- 2.0% in Euro 5 diesel cars up to one year old to 22.7 +/- 2.5% for four-year old vehicles. At some roadside locations the reductions in primary NO2 have had a large effect on reducing both the annual mean and number of hourly exceedances of the European Limit Values of NO2.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carslaw", "given" : "David C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Murrells", "given" : "Tim P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Andersson", "given" : "Jon", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Keenan", "given" : "Matthew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Faraday Discussions", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issue" : "0", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "439-454", "publisher" : "The Royal Society of Chemistry", "title" : "Have vehicle emissions of primary NO2 peaked?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "189" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Alvarez et al., 2008; Carslaw et al., 2011b, 2016; Grice et al., 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Alvarez et al., 2008; Carslaw et al., 2011b, 2016; Grice et al., 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alvarez et al., 2008; Carslaw et al., 2011b; Grice et al., 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Alvarez et al., 2008; Carslaw et al., 2011b, 2016; Grice et al., 2009). After passing through the DOC emissions flow through a reducing environment. The majority of Euro 6 vehicles are installed with either lean NOx traps (LNT) or selective catalytic reduction (SCR) in combination with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "3", "1" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ICCT", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "European Vehicle Market Statistics, Pocketbook 2015/16", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ICCT, 2015).The recent Volkswagen “defeat device” emissions scandal has expedited and intensified reform of the EU type approval process. To address discrepancies between type approval and real world emissions as of September 2017 new models registered for sale in the EU will be subject to RDE test procedures ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "number" : "692/2008", "publisher" : "European Comission", "title" : "Amending Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 as regards emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 6)", "type" : "article" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EC, 2015a)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2015a)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2015a)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EC, 2015a). However, all new vehicles sold will not be subject to RDE until 2019. It has been decided by the European Parliament that the on road emission limit will be higher than the Euro 6 standard. The RDE emission limit will take the form of a not-to-exceed (NTE) value dependant on a conformity factor (CF)Equation SEQ Equation \* ARABIC 2 NTEpollutant = CFpollutant x Euro 6 emission standardThe agreed conformity factor for NOx of 2.1 (NTE limit of 0.168 g km-1) will be legally binding as of September 2017, to be reduced to 1.5 in September 2020 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "2", "3" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Europarl", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "title" : "Parliament decides not to veto car emissions test update", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Europarl, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Europarl, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Europarl, 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Europarl, 2016). The EU is also planning to move away from a solely pre-market compliance procedure and introduce market surveillance for vehicles in circulation ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "2", "3" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Comission Press Release Database", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - FAQ - Air pollutant emissions standards", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EC, 2015b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2015b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2015b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EC, 2015b). The RDE element of the new light duty type approval procedure will utilise PEMS. PEMS were developed in the late 1990’s and approved for EU engine certification of heavy duty engines in 2009, becoming mandatory for heavy duty type approval in 2011 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Official Journal of the European Union L 188/1", "title" : "Regulation (EC) No 595/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2009 on type-approval of motor vehicles and engines with respect to emissions from heavy duty vehicles (Euro VI)", "type" : "legislation" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Official Journal of the European Union", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Official Journal of the European Union L 167/1", "title" : "COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 582/2011 of 25 May 2011 implementing and amending Regulation (EC) No 595/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council with respect to emissions from heavy duty vehicles (Euro VI) and amending Annexes I and III to Direct", "type" : "legislation" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EC, 2011, 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2011, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EC, 2011, 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EC, 2011, 2009). PEMS, along with remote sensing, exposed the discrepancies between certification and on road emissions, ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.4271/2007-24-0113", "ISSN" : "0148-7191", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rubino", "given" : "L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hummel", "given" : "R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Krasenbrink", "given" : "A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "U.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Santi", "given" : "G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Perotti", "given" : "M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bomba", "given" : "G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007", "9", "16" ] ] }, "language" : "English", "title" : "PEMS Light Duty Vehicles Application: Experiences in downtown Milan", "type" : "paper-conference" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1021/es2008424", "ISSN" : "0013-936X", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hummel", "given" : "Rudolf", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science & Technology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "19", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "10", "1" ] ] }, "note" : "doi: 10.1021/es2008424", "page" : "8575-8581", "publisher" : "American Chemical Society", "title" : "On-Road Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles in Europe", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.06.023", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "A statistical analysis of roadside concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in London shows that from 1997 to 2003 there has been a statistically significant downward trend (at the p=0.004 level) in NOX averaged across a network of 36 sites. Conversely, there has been no statistically significant trend in the concentrations of NO2 over the same period. Hourly modelling using a simple constrained chemical model shows that the NO2/NOX emissions ratio from road traffic has increased markedly from a mean of about 5\u20136vol% in 1997 to about 17vol% in 2003. Calculations show that if the NO2/NOX emissions ratio had remained the same as that towards the beginning of each time series, 14 out of the 36 sites would have shown a statistically significant downward trend in NO2 at the p=0.10 level compared with only five that did. The increase in the NO2/NOX emissions ratio from road traffic in recent years has therefore had a significant effect on recent trends in roadside NO2 concentrations. It is shown that the increased use of certain types of diesel particulate filters fitted to buses is likely to have made an important contribution to the increasing trends in the NO2/NOX emissions ratio. However, it is unlikely that these filters account for all of the observed increase and other effects could be important, such as the increased penetration of diesel cars in the passenger car fleet and new light- and heavy-duty engine technologies and management approaches.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carslaw", "given" : "D C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "26", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005", "8" ] ] }, "page" : "4793-4802", "title" : "Evidence of an increasing NO/NO emissions ratio from road traffic emissions", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "39" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Carslaw, 2005; Rubino et al., 2007; Weiss et al., 2011b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Carslaw, 2005; Rubino et al., 2007; Weiss et al., 2011b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Carslaw, 2005; Rubino et al., 2007; Weiss et al., 2011b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Carslaw, 2005; Rubino et al., 2007; Weiss et al., 2011b). Their introduction to light duty test procedure is expected to reduce the problem of NO2 exceedances in urban areas ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.11.042", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The annual NO2 concentrations in many European cities exceed the established air quality standard. This situation is mainly caused by Diesel cars whose NOx emissions are higher on the road than during type approval in the laboratory. Moreover, the fraction of NO2 in the NOx emissions of modern diesel cars appears to have increased as compared to previous models. In this paper, we assess 1) to which level the distance-specific NOx emissions of Diesel cars should be reduced to meet established air quality standards and 2) if it would be useful to introduce a complementary NO2 emissions limit. We develop a NO2 pollution model that accounts in an analysis of 9 emission scenarios for changes in both, the urban background NO2 concentrations and the local NO2 emissions at street level. We apply this model to the city of Antwerp, Belgium. The results suggest that a reduction in NOx emissions decreases the regional and urban NO2 background concentration; high NO2 fractions increase the ambient NO2 concentrations only in close spatial proximity to the emission source. In a busy access road to the city centre, the average NO2 concentration can be reduced by 23% if Diesel cars emitted 0.35 g NOx/km instead of the current 0.62 g NOx/km. Reductions of 45% are possible if the NOX emissions of Diesel cars decreased to the level of gasoline cars (0.03 g NOx/km). Our findings suggest that the Real-Driving Emissions (RDE) test procedure can solve the problem of NO2 exceedances in cities if it reduced the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars to the permissible limit of 0.08 g/km. The implementation of a complementary NO2 emissions limit may then become superfluous. If Diesel cars continue to exceed by several factors their NOx emissions limit on the road, a shift of the vehicle fleet to gasoline cars may be necessary to solve persisting air quality problems.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Degraeuwe", "given" : "Bart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thunis", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Clappier", "given" : "Alain", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lefebvre", "given" : "Wouter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Janssen", "given" : "Stijn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vranckx", "given" : "Stijn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "11" ] ] }, "title" : "Impact of passenger car NOx emissions and NO2 fractions on urban NO2 pollution \u2013 Scenario analysis for the city of Antwerp, Belgium", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.056", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in urban areas of Europe can be partially attributed to the increasing market penetration of diesel cars that show higher distance-specific nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than gasoline cars. The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. This finding suggests that the current type-approval procedure does not adequately capture the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars. By introducing a complementary emissions test procedure that covers a wide range of normal operating conditions, the European legislative authorities can address this problem and ensure that Euro 6 will indeed deliver an adequate reduction in the NOx emissions of new diesel cars.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "K\u00fchlwein", "given" : "J\u00f6rg", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lambrecht", "given" : "Udo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alessandrini", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carriero", "given" : "Massimo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forni", "given" : "Fausto", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lanappe", "given" : "Gaston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lijour", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "Le", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montigny", "given" : "Francois", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sculati", "given" : "Mirco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "657-665", "title" : "Will Euro 6 reduce the NOx emissions of new diesel cars? \u2013 Insights from on-road tests with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "62" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Degraeuwe et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Degraeuwe et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Degraeuwe et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Degraeuwe et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012). Vehicle emissions are dependent on a wide variety of operating and environmental conditions including acceleration, traffic congestion, driving style, wind and temperature ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.09.062", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "This paper discusses the development and validation of passenger car emission factors, using real world operation data. In total, six passenger cars of different technologies were studied. The tested vehicles were operated under various driving conditions and over two different routes in the region of Lombardia, Italy. These routes were specifically defined in order to provide a range of driving conditions, including urban, rural and highway driving. Tailpipe emissions and exhaust gas flows were measured on-board the vehicle, using a portable emissions measurement system (PEMS). In addition, all vehicles were tested over the European type-approval driving cycle (NEDC) with the same PEMS equipment. The testing of gasoline vehicles showed that emissions are well below the emission standards and do not raise any concern. However, the testing of diesel vehicles both under real-world driving conditions and over the NEDC brought to the surface important concerns regarding the actual NOx emissions of modern diesel vehicles, since they seem to comply with the corresponding emission standard over the type-approval cycle, but they constantly exceed the specified limit when tested under real-world driving conditions. Results from real-world operation revealed that there is a significant deviation from the NOx emission standard limit (especially for the newly introduced Euro 5 technology). These observations raise concerns regarding the actual NOx emissions of modern vehicles and their impact on urban air-quality. The emission factors originally measured on the road are also compared to the corresponding COPERT average speed emission factors. In general, emissions of CO2, THC and CO correlate fairly well with COPERT, for all vehicles. In the case of NOx emissions, emission levels of the two tested Euro 5 diesel passenger cars are consistently higher in urban, rural, and highway driving compared to the corresponding COPERT emission factor. Thus, leading to the conclusion that more experimental data are necessary, especially for post-Euro 4 compliant diesel vehicles of different engine capacities particularly when it comes to NOx emissions from diesel vehicles.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kousoulidou", "given" : "Marina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fontaras", "given" : "Georgios", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ntziachristos", "given" : "Leonidas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samaras", "given" : "Zissis", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dilara", "given" : "Panagiota", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "329-338", "title" : "Use of portable emissions measurement system (PEMS) for the development and validation of passenger car emission factors", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "64" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kousoulidou et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kousoulidou et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kousoulidou et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Kousoulidou et al., 2013). As a result, even with repeated testing, PEMS data has attached a greater level of variability than laboratory measurements where these external factors can be controlled and regulated ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1021/es2008424", "ISSN" : "0013-936X", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hummel", "given" : "Rudolf", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science & Technology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "19", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "10", "1" ] ] }, "note" : "doi: 10.1021/es2008424", "page" : "8575-8581", "publisher" : "American Chemical Society", "title" : "On-Road Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles in Europe", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2011b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2011b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2011b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weiss et al., 2011b). However, it is precisely this that makes PEMS more representative of real world situations.PEMS already play a substantial role in emissions inventories, development of emissions models and emissions factors for projections ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1021/es0627850", "ISSN" : "0013-936X", "abstract" : "Emissions from ?low emitting? modern vehicles were measured on-road using a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) on-board emissions measurement system. Twenty vehicles were tested on road and on a chassis dynamometer. A subset of four vehicles was tested on a test track as well as on the dynamometer. Comparison of on-board measurements with laboratory measurements while operating on the dynamometer showed agreement within measurement and test to test variability. Comparison of dynamometer measurements with test track measurements showed some larger differences attributable to track test conditions. On-road and dynamometer tests were conducted on the remaining 16 vehicles, with the on-road testing including freeway, arterial, and residential streets. The on-road testing showed that most of the low emitting vehicles under most operating conditions are operating below certification levels. Most vehicles reached a hot stabilized condition within 60 to 100 s. Hot running emissions were on average very low once the catalyst lights off. For NMHC, the majority of the ?certification? emissions occur during the start-up, especially for PZEVs. NOx and CO also showed a high fraction of ?certification? emissions during start-up, but also showed emission spikes under hot running conditions, especially during transients.\nEmissions from ?low emitting? modern vehicles were measured on-road using a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) on-board emissions measurement system. Twenty vehicles were tested on road and on a chassis dynamometer. A subset of four vehicles was tested on a test track as well as on the dynamometer. Comparison of on-board measurements with laboratory measurements while operating on the dynamometer showed agreement within measurement and test to test variability. Comparison of dynamometer measurements with test track measurements showed some larger differences attributable to track test conditions. On-road and dynamometer tests were conducted on the remaining 16 vehicles, with the on-road testing including freeway, arterial, and residential streets. The on-road testing showed that most of the low emitting vehicles under most operating conditions are operating below certification levels. Most vehicles reached a hot stabilized condition within 60 to 100 s. Hot running emissions were on average very low once the catalyst lights off. For NMHC, the majority of the ?certification? emissions occur during the start-up, especially for PZEVs. NOx and CO also showed a\u2026", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Collins", "given" : "John F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shepherd", "given" : "Paul", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Durbin", "given" : "Thomas D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lents", "given" : "James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Norbeck", "given" : "Joseph", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Barth", "given" : "Matthew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science & Technology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "18", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007", "9" ] ] }, "page" : "6554-6561", "publisher" : "American Chemical Society", "title" : "Measurements of In-Use Emissions from Modern Vehicles Using an On-Board Measurement System", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "41" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1080/10473289.2003.10466245", "ISBN" : "10.1080/10473289.2003.10466245", "ISSN" : "1096-2247", "abstract" : "Abstract A study design procedure was developed and demonstrated for the deployment of portable onboard tailpipe emissions measurement systems for selected highway vehicles fueled by gasoline and E85 (a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline). Data collection, screening, processing, and analysis protocols were developed to assure data quality and to provide insights regarding quantification of real-world intravehicle variability in hot-stabilized emissions. Onboard systems provide representative real-world emissions measurements; however, onboard field studies are challenged by the observable but uncontrollable nature of traffic flow and ambient conditions. By characterizing intravehicle variability based on repeated data collection runs with the same driver/vehicle/route combinations, this study establishes the ability to develop stable modal emissions rates for idle, acceleration, cruise, and deceleration even in the face of uncontrollable external factors. For example, a consistent finding is that avera...", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Frey", "given" : "H. Christopher", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Unal", "given" : "Alper", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rouphail", "given" : "Nagui M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colyar", "given" : "James D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "8", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003", "8", "22" ] ] }, "language" : "en", "page" : "992-1002", "publisher" : "Taylor & Francis Group", "title" : "On-Road Measurement of Vehicle Tailpipe Emissions Using a Portable Instrument", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "53" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Collins et al., 2007; Frey et al., 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Collins et al., 2007; Frey et al., 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Collins et al., 2007; Frey et al., 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Collins et al., 2007; Frey et al., 2003). This includes COPERT, which is used by the UK for NOx emissions projections, road transport emissions modelling and the Emissions Factor Toolkit ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "DEFRA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "title" : "Emission Factor Toolkit (Version 6), User Guide", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.09.062", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "This paper discusses the development and validation of passenger car emission factors, using real world operation data. In total, six passenger cars of different technologies were studied. The tested vehicles were operated under various driving conditions and over two different routes in the region of Lombardia, Italy. These routes were specifically defined in order to provide a range of driving conditions, including urban, rural and highway driving. Tailpipe emissions and exhaust gas flows were measured on-board the vehicle, using a portable emissions measurement system (PEMS). In addition, all vehicles were tested over the European type-approval driving cycle (NEDC) with the same PEMS equipment. The testing of gasoline vehicles showed that emissions are well below the emission standards and do not raise any concern. However, the testing of diesel vehicles both under real-world driving conditions and over the NEDC brought to the surface important concerns regarding the actual NOx emissions of modern diesel vehicles, since they seem to comply with the corresponding emission standard over the type-approval cycle, but they constantly exceed the specified limit when tested under real-world driving conditions. Results from real-world operation revealed that there is a significant deviation from the NOx emission standard limit (especially for the newly introduced Euro 5 technology). These observations raise concerns regarding the actual NOx emissions of modern vehicles and their impact on urban air-quality. The emission factors originally measured on the road are also compared to the corresponding COPERT average speed emission factors. In general, emissions of CO2, THC and CO correlate fairly well with COPERT, for all vehicles. In the case of NOx emissions, emission levels of the two tested Euro 5 diesel passenger cars are consistently higher in urban, rural, and highway driving compared to the corresponding COPERT emission factor. Thus, leading to the conclusion that more experimental data are necessary, especially for post-Euro 4 compliant diesel vehicles of different engine capacities particularly when it comes to NOx emissions from diesel vehicles.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kousoulidou", "given" : "Marina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fontaras", "given" : "Georgios", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ntziachristos", "given" : "Leonidas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samaras", "given" : "Zissis", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dilara", "given" : "Panagiota", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "329-338", "title" : "Use of portable emissions measurement system (PEMS) for the development and validation of passenger car emission factors", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "64" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(DEFRA, 2014; Kousoulidou et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(DEFRA, 2014; Kousoulidou et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(DEFRA, 2014; Kousoulidou et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(DEFRA, 2014; Kousoulidou et al., 2013). COPERT is used by 22 of the 28 EU member states for road transport inventories and emissions projections ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.05.181", "ISSN" : "18770428", "abstract" : "COPERT is used by 22 out of the EU27 member states for the official submission of road transport inventories to international conventions. This study aimed at quantifying the uncertainty of road transport inventories in the case of two countries that use COPERT. The uncertainty of the emission factors was quantified by analysis of the variance in the relevant experimental information used to develop the emission factors. The uncertainty in the input data was determined by comparing information from different national and international sources. In this process, the sensitivity of the model output to its inherent parameters and the input variables was quantified. This provides useful guidance on how to reduce the uncertainty of the inventory.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kioutsioukis", "given" : "Ioannis", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kouridis", "given" : "Chariton", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gkatzoflias", "given" : "Dimitrios", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dilara", "given" : "Panagiota", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ntziachristos", "given" : "Leonidas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "7690-7691", "title" : "Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis of National Road Transport Inventories Compiled with COPERT 4", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kioutsioukis et al., 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kioutsioukis et al., 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kioutsioukis et al., 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Kioutsioukis et al., 2010). MethodologyA Portable Emissions Measurement System was used to measure real driving emissions of 39 Euro 6 diesel passenger cars. The cars were category M1, made by 13 different manufacturers, ranged in engine size and used standard diesel fuel. Emissions were analysed for entire trips as well as separately for urban and motorway sections. Emissions measurements were then compared to the equivalent emissions projections from COPERT 4v11 speed dependent emission factors. Test vehiclesVehicles have been assigned a Vehicle ID which reflects the NOx aftertreatment installed and engine size. The mix of NOx aftertreatments, 7 EGR, 19 LNT and 13 SCR, reflects the 2014 sales mix of diesel cars in the EU ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "3", "1" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ICCT", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "European Vehicle Market Statistics, Pocketbook 2015/16", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ICCT, 2015) (all vehicles are fitted with EGR though most are fitted with EGR in combination with a second technology, vehicles labelled EGR operate EGR only). Engine sizes range from 1.4?- 3? and are an accurate reflection of the size distribution of the diesel fleet in Europe ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "2", "4" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Eurostat", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "title" : "Passenger cars in the EU - Statistics Explained", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Eurostat, 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Eurostat, 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Eurostat, 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Eurostat, 2013). The 13 manufacturers sampled made up 70% of new vehicle registrations in the UK in 2015, were among the 20 most popular and accounted for the majority of 2014 EU sales ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "2", "29" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "SMMT", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "title" : "SMMT new car registrations- December 2015", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "3", "1" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ICCT", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "European Vehicle Market Statistics, Pocketbook 2015/16", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015; SMMT, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015; SMMT, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ICCT, 2015; SMMT, 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ICCT, 2015; SMMT, 2016). All vehicles started with a low mileage. REF _Ref460935003 \h Table 2 describes the vehicles used in this study.Table SEQ Table \* ARABIC 2. Specification of test vehiclesVehicle IDYear of manufactureEngine displacement [?]Mileage at start [km]NOx after-treatmentE1.520151.51675EGRE1.620141.62363EGRE2.2a20122.26013EGRE2.2b20122.2225EGRE2.2c20132.21164EGRE2.2d20152.2590EGRE2.2e20152.2531EGRL1.4a20141.42245LNTL1.4b20141.41463LNTL1.520151.51263LNTL2.0a20152.01059LNTL2.0b20142.02568LNTL2.0c20142.0745LNTL2.0d20152.0451LNTL2.0e20152.01312LNTL2.0f20132.02019LNTL2.0g20142.0640LNTL2.0h20142.02563LNTL2.0i20152.02910LNTL2.0j20142.01000LNTL2.0k20142.01492LNTL2.0l-2.0742LNTL2.0m20142.04356LNTL2.0n20152.04276LNTL2.0o20142.01696LNTL2.0p20142.04192LNTS1.6a20141.62406SCRS1.6b20141.6544SCRS1.6c20131.62178SCRS1.6d20141.62028SCRS2.0a20152.02502SCRS2.0b20152.02093SCRS2.0c20142.02567SCRS2.0d20142.05270SCRS2.0e20132.04061SCRS2.0f20142.03842SCRS2.0g20152.01184SCRS3.0h-3.01861SCRS3.0i-3.01393SCRdata not availableTest routeVehicles were tested on open roads in the Greater London area. Each vehicle was measured for one trip over the same route though slight variations occurred for some cars (this was unavoidable due to the real world nature of the tests i.e. road works and diversions). The route was comprised of an urban and motorway section. In order to analyse real world urban and motorway emissions trips were broken down by purpose built software into motorway and urban sections. Sections were identified using GPS co-ordinates and will henceforth be referred to as urban or motorway sections. A, B or C roads (UK) in built up urban/ residential areas with a speed limit of 30 mph were identified as urban. M roads (UK) were identified as motorway. The new RDE type approval regulation (Regulations 2016/427) categorise urban, rural and motorway using speed bins. This study does not aim to replicate the RDE type approval process but to inform air quality policy makers of the real world emissions in urban locations. For this reason the speed bin approach has not been adopted. REF _Ref442723240 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 3 gives the average driving characteristics across all trips and all GPS selected urban and motorway sections. The vehicles were tested at different times of the year, resulting in an ambient temperature range of 3 - 29?C. At lower temperatures NOx emission controls are less effective (DfT, 2016). This paper presents emission measurements of vehicles in real world driving situations. As temperatures in Northern Europe vary widely by season and the ambient temperatures measured fall within this range we present measurements taken at different ambient temperatures without adjustment. Temperature effects were found to be modest as compared with the overall variability (see supporting information).As the area in which the tests were performed was relatively flat (< 60m elevation gain over 85km) the effect of road gradient is not considered in this study.Table SEQ Table \* ARABIC 3. Driving characteristics?TripUrbanMotorwayNEDCRoute distance [km]84.3 (sd. 16.6)34.8 (sd. 6.0)37.7 (sd. 5.3)11.02Avg. vehicle speed [km h-1]45.6 (sd. 4.9)26.5 (sd. 2.9)103.8 (sd. 5.6)34 (sd. 31)Avg. RPA* [m s-2]0.25 (sd. 0.12)0.26 (sd. 0.12)0.15 (sd. 0.16)0.15 (sd. 0.03)Max elevation [m asl**]54.7 (sd. 22.2)28.6 (sd. 7.6)51.9 (sd. 22.4)-Min elevation [m asl**]-4.7 (sd. 6.6)-4.5 (sd. 6.6)4.7 (sd. 4.0)-Share[%] (time)Idle( v ≤ 2km h-1)10.2 (sd. 4.8)13.7 (sd. 6.7)1.5 (sd. 0.8)22.9Low ( 2 < v ≤ 50km h-1)62.5 (sd. 7.4)84.0 (sd. 6.7)5.1 (sd. 5.1)55.3Medium ( 50 < v ≤ 90km h-1)8.7 (sd. 3.0)2.4 (sd. 2.5)13.7 (sd. 4.8)14.6High ( v > 90km h-1)18.6 (sd. 4.5)0 (sd. 0)83.7 (sd. 7.6)7.2*Relative Positive Acceleration **above sea levelOn road emissions tests capture a large range of driving characteristics not replicated by the lab based NEDC. The speed distribution of each trip was comparable to the NEDC ( REF _Ref442296448 \h Figure 1a). However, when considering relative positive acceleration (RPA) PEMS tests display a variety of driving characteristics not captured by the NEDC ( REF _Ref442296448 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 1c) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.trd.2015.07.011", "ISSN" : "13619209", "abstract" : "This paper presents the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC), developed under the Working Party on Pollution and Energy (GRPE) and sponsored by the European Union (with Switzerland) and Japan. India, Korea and USA have also actively contributed. The objective was to design the harmonized driving cycle from \u201creal world\u201d driving data in different regions around the world, combined with suitable weighting factors. To this aim, driving data and traffic statistics of light duty vehicles use were collected and analyzed as basic elements to develop the harmonized cycle. The regional driving data and weighting factors were then combined in order to develop a unified database representing the worldwide light duty vehicle driving behavior. From the unified database, short trips were selected and combined to develop a driving cycle as representative as possible of the unified database. Approximately 765,000km of data were collected, covering a wide range of vehicle categories, road types and driving conditions. The resulting WLTC is an ensemble of three driving cycles adapted to three vehicle categories with different power-to-mass ratio (PMR). It has been designed as a harmonized cycle for the certification of light duty vehicles around the world and, together with the new harmonized test procedures (WLTP), will serve to check the compliance of vehicle pollutant emissions with respect to the applicable emissions limits and to establish the reference vehicle fuel consumption and CO2 performance.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tutuianu", "given" : "Monica", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ciuffo", "given" : "Biagio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Haniu", "given" : "Takahiro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ichikawa", "given" : "Noriyuki", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marotta", "given" : "Alessandro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pavlovic", "given" : "Jelica", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Steven", "given" : "Heinz", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "10" ] ] }, "page" : "61-75", "title" : "Development of the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC) and a possible pathway for its introduction in the European legislation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "40" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tutuianu et al., 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tutuianu et al., 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tutuianu et al., 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tutuianu et al., 2015). The majority of driving conditions within the study are characterised as low RPA (range of 0.1 - 0.4 m s-2, velocity under 50 km h-1). 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REF _Ref442296448 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 1c shows that the driving style during PEMS testing was representative of normal European driving as defined by the World Harmonized Light-duty Test Cycle (average 0.1 m s-2 and 0.2 m s-2 for motorway and urban respectively ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.trd.2015.07.011", "ISSN" : "13619209", "abstract" : "This paper presents the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC), developed under the Working Party on Pollution and Energy (GRPE) and sponsored by the European Union (with Switzerland) and Japan. India, Korea and USA have also actively contributed. The objective was to design the harmonized driving cycle from \u201creal world\u201d driving data in different regions around the world, combined with suitable weighting factors. 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For speed profiles of NEDC and WLTC see supplementary information.-77533520955000Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1. 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REF _Ref442296448 \h Figure 1a shows the speed distributions of the PEMS tests were consistent and comparable to the NEDC and WLTC. Figure 1b identifies one motorway section containing lower speeds. Further investigation found this section to have a mean speed of 80 (sd. 36) km h-1, below the motorway section average. During this test there had been congestion on the motorway. As the aim of this study is to represent emissions during real world driving (including congestion) and no measurements from this vehicle were anomalous the vehicle is included in all analysis.PEMSAll tailpipe emissions measurements were conducted by Emissions Analytics using a SEMTECH-DS, developed by Sensors Inc ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sensors Inc", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2.01", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "title" : "SEMTECH-DS On Board Vehicle Emissions Analyzer User Manual", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Sensors Inc, 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Sensors Inc, 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Sensors Inc, 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Sensors Inc, 2010). 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Power is provided by external batteries meaning engine operation is not affected, apart from additional load due to the weight of the PEMS. The PEMS add a weight of approximately 95kg, brought up to 220 kg when including drivers (supplemented by additional weights if necessary to ensure consistency). This may bias results, affecting the power to mass vehicle ratio ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.056", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in urban areas of Europe can be partially attributed to the increasing market penetration of diesel cars that show higher distance-specific nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than gasoline cars. The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. 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This paper attempts to study possible changes in vehicle characteristics for meeting this limit taking into account the average European passenger car of 2007\u20132008. For this purpose first the most important factors affecting vehicle fuel consumption over the reference cycle (NEDC) are identified. At a second step, the CO2 benefit from the optimisation of these factors is quantified, through simulations of 6 different passenger cars commonly found in the European fleet. For the simulations Advisor 2002 was employed and validated against published type approval data. The analysis indicated that substantial reductions in vehicle weight, tyre rolling resistance and engine efficiency are necessary to reach even the 2008 target. 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The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. 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Driver behaviour was normal (non-aggressive driving) and consistent between tests. PEMS were installed and operated following manufacturers recommendations. A leak test and a zero and span (known gas concentration) calibration were performed before and after each test run, if the zero or span test showed an error of >3% the PEMS test was deemed invalid and repeated. (For gas concentrations used see supplementary material). Measurements were made at a frequency of 1 Hz (giving a one second time resolution). SEMTECH-DS PEMS measurements fulfil official emissions testing requirements of the EU and US and are accurate within the range of lab based testing methods ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This site is EPA premier site for accessing EPA publications, with more than 7,000 in stock and 40,000 digital titles, free of charge! 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The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. This finding suggests that the current type-approval procedure does not adequately capture the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars. 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Extract of vehicle L2.0p real time PEMS data showing NOx, NO2, and speed REF _Ref442793002 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 2 is a 1000 second extract of the 1 Hz raw PEMS data with speed in kilometres per hour and emissions of NOx and NO2 in grams per second. The high resolution of PEMS sampling allows insights that other snapshot measurement techniques may overlook. REF _Ref442793002 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 2 shows NOx emissions are delivered in peaks that coincide with acceleration. COPERT 4v11COPERT is a software tool developed by the European Environment Agency. It is the recommended tool for calculation of vehicle emissions by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Technical guidance to prepare national emission inventories. The joint EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook supports the reporting of emissions data under the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) and the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive. It provides expert guidance on how to compile an atmospheric emissions inventory. The Guidebook is published by the EEA with the CLRTAP Task Force on Emission Inventories and Projections responsible for the technical content of the chapters. The present edition replaces all earlier versions.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "language" : "en", "title" : "EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook, 2013", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EEA, 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EEA, 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EEA, 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EEA, 2013). It is widely used in modelling studies in European countries. This study uses the latest COPERT emissions factors, 4v11, introduced in September 2014. COPERT’s Euro 6 emission factors are derived from emissions data compiled in the Handbook on Emission Factors of Road Transport (HBEFA). HBEFA emissions factors are developed from measurements of the ERMES driving cycle on a chassis dynamometer and expanded to all driving conditions by the simulation tool PHEM (Passenger car and Heavy duty vehicle Emission Model). Measurements for Euro 6 came from 20 vehicles ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "3", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rexeis", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hausberger", "given" : "S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "K\u00fchlwein", "given" : "J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Luz", "given" : "R", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "title" : "Update of Emission Factors for EURO 5 and EURO 6 vehicles for the HBEFA Version 3.2", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pastramas", "given" : "Nikos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samaras", "given" : "Christos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mellios", "given" : "Giorgos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ntziachristos", "given" : "Leonidas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "title" : "Update of the Air Emissions Inventory Guidebook - Road Transport 2014 Update", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pastramas et al., 2014; Rexeis et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pastramas et al., 2014; Rexeis et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pastramas et al., 2014; Rexeis et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pastramas et al., 2014; Rexeis et al., 2013). To compare PEMS data and COPERT emissions factors the approach of the INCERT (Interface for the Comparison of Emissions from Road Transport) model was replicated with software purpose built by the authors ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.09.062", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "This paper discusses the development and validation of passenger car emission factors, using real world operation data. In total, six passenger cars of different technologies were studied. The tested vehicles were operated under various driving conditions and over two different routes in the region of Lombardia, Italy. These routes were specifically defined in order to provide a range of driving conditions, including urban, rural and highway driving. Tailpipe emissions and exhaust gas flows were measured on-board the vehicle, using a portable emissions measurement system (PEMS). In addition, all vehicles were tested over the European type-approval driving cycle (NEDC) with the same PEMS equipment. The testing of gasoline vehicles showed that emissions are well below the emission standards and do not raise any concern. However, the testing of diesel vehicles both under real-world driving conditions and over the NEDC brought to the surface important concerns regarding the actual NOx emissions of modern diesel vehicles, since they seem to comply with the corresponding emission standard over the type-approval cycle, but they constantly exceed the specified limit when tested under real-world driving conditions. Results from real-world operation revealed that there is a significant deviation from the NOx emission standard limit (especially for the newly introduced Euro 5 technology). These observations raise concerns regarding the actual NOx emissions of modern vehicles and their impact on urban air-quality. The emission factors originally measured on the road are also compared to the corresponding COPERT average speed emission factors. In general, emissions of CO2, THC and CO correlate fairly well with COPERT, for all vehicles. In the case of NOx emissions, emission levels of the two tested Euro 5 diesel passenger cars are consistently higher in urban, rural, and highway driving compared to the corresponding COPERT emission factor. Thus, leading to the conclusion that more experimental data are necessary, especially for post-Euro 4 compliant diesel vehicles of different engine capacities particularly when it comes to NOx emissions from diesel vehicles.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kousoulidou", "given" : "Marina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fontaras", "given" : "Georgios", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ntziachristos", "given" : "Leonidas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samaras", "given" : "Zissis", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dilara", "given" : "Panagiota", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "329-338", "title" : "Use of portable emissions measurement system (PEMS) for the development and validation of passenger car emission factors", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "64" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kousoulidou et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kousoulidou et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kousoulidou et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Kousoulidou et al., 2013). PEMS data was split into links of equal length and the average speed of each link was calculated. This generated the speed profile required by COPERT. In this study COPERT emissions estimates were calculated using the iMove model ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Valiantis", "given" : "M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oxley", "given" : "T.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ApSimon", "given" : "H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "6th International Conference on Urban Air Quality, Cyprus", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "27\u201329", "title" : "Assessing alternative transport scenarios in relation to the UK air quality strategy", "type" : "paper-conference" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Valiantis et al., 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Valiantis et al., 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Valiantis et al., 2007)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Valiantis et al., 2007). iMove has been embedded in the BRUTAL model ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.envsci.2012.01.004", "abstract" : " With the abatement potential of end-of-pipe technologies for road transport becoming increasingly marginal, and with greater emissions reductions still needed in order to reduce pollution, alternative strategies involving behavioural change and choices between fossil fuelled or low carbon vehicles becomes more important. The environmental requirements include local air quality objectives, meeting national emissions ceilings to limit transboundary effects, and to aspire to significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. In this paper we use the BRUTAL sub-model of the UK integrated Assessment Model (UKIAM) to investigate a selection of alternative strategies including downsizing of cars, switching from petrol to diesel, and the introduction of electric, bio-fuelled or hydrogen vehicles into the fleet, relative to a business-as-usual projection for 2020. Projected impacts upon air quality limit values, national emissions ceilings and CO 2 emissions are assessed in relation to local, national and international objectives. We discuss related life-cycle impacts, implications for infrastructure, and potential impacts upon emissions from other sectors in order to highlight the full potential implications of the different strategies within the context of changes resulting from other policy developments at different scales. ", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oxley", "given" : "T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Elshkaki", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kwiatkowski", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Castillo", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Scarbrough", "given" : "T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ApSimon", "given" : "H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science and Policy", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "Complete", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "16-32", "title" : "Pollution abatement from road transport: cross-sectoral implications, climate co-benefits and behavioural change", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "19-20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Oxley et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Oxley et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Oxley et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Oxley et al., 2012), the road transport sub-model of the UK Integrated Assessment Model ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "", "ISBN" : "0160-4120", "abstract" : "Integrated assessment modelling has evolved to support policy development in relation to air pollutants and greenhouse gases by providing integrated simulation tools able to produce quick and realistic representations of emission scenarios and their environmental impacts without the need to re-run complex atmospheric dispersion models. The UK Integrated Assessment Model (UKIAM) has been developed to investigate strategies for reducing UK emissions by bringing together information on projected UK emissions of SO2, NOx, NH3, PM10 and PM2.5, atmospheric dispersion, criteria for protection of ecosystems, urban air quality and human health, and data on potential abatement measures to reduce emissions, which may subsequently be linked to associated analyses of costs and benefits. We describe the multi-scale model structure ranging from continental to roadside, UK emission sources, atmospheric dispersion of emissions, implementation of abatement measures, integration with European-scale modelling, and environmental impacts. The model generates outputs from a national perspective which are used to evaluate alternative strategies in relation to emissions, deposition patterns, air quality metrics and ecosystem critical load exceedance. We present a selection of scenarios in relation to the 2020 Business-As-Usual projections and identify potential further reductions beyond those currently being planned.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oxley", "given" : "Tim", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dore", "given" : "Anthony J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ApSimon", "given" : "Helen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hall", "given" : "Jane", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kryza", "given" : "Maciej", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environment International", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "0", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "17-35", "title" : "Modelling future impacts of air pollution using the multi-scale UK Integrated Assessment Model (UKIAM)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "61" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Oxley et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Oxley et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Oxley et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Oxley et al., 2013) and derives emissions using the 4v11 speed dependent emission factors and a speed profile. COPERT’s reliability increases as road link length increases above 400m ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samaras", "given" : "C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tsokolis", "given" : "D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Toffolo", "given" : "S.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Garcia-Castro", "given" : "A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vock", "given" : "C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ntziachristos", "given" : "L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samaras", "given" : "Z.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "20th International Transport and Air Pollution Conference 2014", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "title" : "Limits of Applicability of COPERT Model to Short Links and Congested Conditions", "type" : "paper-conference" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Samaras et al., 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Samaras et al., 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Samaras et al., 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Samaras et al., 2014), in this analysis road links were taken as a uniform 1km in length (illustration in supplementary material).Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 3. COPERT 4v11 speed dependent emissions factors for NOxCOPERT 4v11 Euro 6 diesel car emission factors lie in the range of between 2 and 4 times the emissions limit of 0.08 g km-1 ( REF _Ref442722058 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 3) and have a flat rate 30% primary NO2 emission ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pang", "given" : "Yvonne", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "February", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "COPERT 4 emission factors for Euro 6 diesel cars used in the NAEI and in the Emission Factors Toolkit", "type" : "article" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pang, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pang, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pang, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pang, 2015). Though COPERT emission factors are speed dependant they are not highly sensitive to speed, the curve is relatively flat. The Euro 6 emissions factors are less sensitive to speed than the Euro 5 factors. COPERT is not adept at modelling very low speeds (less than 10km h-1), as this study uses a mean speed over a 1 km link modelling within this range was avoided.Data analysisNOx measurements were not corrected for ambient air humidity in order to present emissions as they occurred in real-world driving ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.056", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in urban areas of Europe can be partially attributed to the increasing market penetration of diesel cars that show higher distance-specific nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than gasoline cars. The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. This finding suggests that the current type-approval procedure does not adequately capture the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars. By introducing a complementary emissions test procedure that covers a wide range of normal operating conditions, the European legislative authorities can address this problem and ensure that Euro 6 will indeed deliver an adequate reduction in the NOx emissions of new diesel cars.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "K\u00fchlwein", "given" : "J\u00f6rg", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lambrecht", "given" : "Udo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alessandrini", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carriero", "given" : "Massimo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forni", "given" : "Fausto", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lanappe", "given" : "Gaston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lijour", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "Le", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montigny", "given" : "Francois", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sculati", "given" : "Mirco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "657-665", "title" : "Will Euro 6 reduce the NOx emissions of new diesel cars? \u2013 Insights from on-road tests with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "62" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Franco", "given" : "Vicente", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "S\u00e1nchez", "given" : "Francisco Posada", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "German", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mock", "given" : "Peter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Berlin, Germany", "title" : "Real-world Exhaust Emissions from Modern Diesel Cars. A Meta-analysis of Pems Emissions Data from EU (EURO 6) and Us (Tier 2 BIN 5/ULEV II) Diesel Passenger Cars. Part 1: Aggregated Results", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Franco et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2012). Cold start emissions (defined as the first 300 seconds of each PEMS test ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hummel", "given" : "Rudolf", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lanappe", "given" : "Gaston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "Le", "family" : "Lijour", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sculati", "given" : "Mirco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "note" : "Martin Weiss, Pierre Bonnel, Rudolf Hummel, Urbano Manfredi,\nRinaldo Colombo, Gaston Lanappe, Philippe Le Lijour, Mirco Sculati", "title" : "Analyzing on-road emissions of light-duty vehicles with Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2011a)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2011a)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2011a)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weiss et al., 2011a)) were removed to ensure continuity as not all engines were soaked overnight (left outside overnight before trip to ensure aftertreatment system, engine coolant and engine were completely cold).The RDE Regulations 2016/427 lay out specific boundary conditions, constraints, data analysis and treatment to be performed on PEMS data during the RDE type approval process. Our tests do not attempt to replicate the RDE type approval process and do not follow the data smoothing, CO2 window averaging or any data omissions that form this process. For an outline of the key areas in which our tests differ from the RDE regulation see supporting information. Comparison between type approval limits and PEMS results are for comparison only, vehicles are not legally required to achieve limits under the conditions of our PEMS testing. Trip average emissions were calculated by dividing the accumulated emissions over a trip by the distance travelled. Results are stated in grams per kilometre for comparison with regulation and the dimensionless deviation ratio (DR) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.2788/23820", "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "9", "23" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Joint Research Council", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "JRC 62639", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "title" : "Analyzing on-road emissions of light-duty vehicles with Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thompson", "given" : "Gregory J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carder", "given" : "Daniel K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Besch", "given" : "Marc C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thiruvengadam", "given" : "Arvind", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kappanna", "given" : "Hemanth K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "title" : "In-use emission testing of light duty vehicles in the united states", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Joint Research Council, 2011; Thompson et al., 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Joint Research Council, 2011; Thompson et al., 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Joint Research Council, 2011; Thompson et al., 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Joint Research Council, 2011; Thompson et al., 2014) which measures by how much on road emissions deviate from the applicable emissions standard.Equation SEQ Equation \* ARABIC 3DRi=misiES where: DRi = deviation ratio for trip of pollutant i, mi = mass of pollutant i emitted over trip in g, si = distance of trip , ES = emission standard in g km-1Emissions are compared to the Euro 6 emission standard (henceforth referred to as the euro standard, 0.08 g NOx km-1) and the not-to-exceed limit (hence force referred to as the NTE, 0.168 g NOx km-1). Results are presented as the mean and standard deviation (sd.).ResultsTrip averagesFigure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 4. Trip average NOx and deviation ratio We found significant variability in emissions of NOx and NO2 within different aftertreatment technologies and engine sizes. The study trip average NOx emission of 0.36 sd. 0.36 g NOx km-1 was 4.6 times the euro standard. Two vehicles, one using LNT the other using SCR (L2.0b, S2.0e) had emissions lower than the type approval limit during real world driving. A further two (L2.0a, S2.0e) were within the 3% margin (potentially added by weight of PEMS). 11 vehicles performed within the NTE limit, though one vehicle (S2.0c) met the NTE whilst exceeding 0.08 g NO2 km-1. The worst vehicle (S3.0h) produced NOx emissions 22 times higher than the emission standard. Of the 39 vehicles, 22 exceeded the Euro 6 NOx standard with NO2 emissions alone (i.e. trip average over 0.08 g NO2 km-1). Our results show high values of primary NO2 emissions with a study average of 0.17 sd. 0.19 g NO2 km-1. Vehicle L2.0j produced the highest primary NO2 emission of 0.801 g NO2 km-1, ten times the Euro 6 limit for total NOx ( REF _Ref450150505 \h Figure 4). There was large variability in fNO2 and only moderate correlation between fNO2 and g NO2 km-1. Large absolute NO2 emissions are found to occur with average fNO2, demonstrating the importance of discussing NO2 as an absolute emission rather than solely as a fraction of NOx ( REF _Ref450138286 \h Figure 5).The study mean fNO2 was 44 (sd. 20) % with the highest trip average ratio of 88% from vehicle L2.0j and lowest of 10% from L2.0a, both LNT. This shows how different manufacturers use the same technology to varied effect. Trip average NOx and NO2 emissions were not found to vary between aftertreatment technologies. However, SCR had a higher average fNO2 of 55 (sd. 12) % compared to EGR and LNT (which were not significantly different to one another) of 38 (sd. 21) %. Although the average SCR NO2 emission of 0.20 (sd. 0.19) g km-1 was higher than LNT (0.17 (sd. 0.23) g km-1) and almost double EGR (0.12 (sd. 0.08) g km-1) the large variability resulted in no statistically significant difference between NOx control technologies.Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 5. Trip average NO2 against ratio fNO2Vehicles fitted with both SCR and LNT were able to meet the Euro 6 standard in real driving. However, SCR and LNT vehicles also made up the 5 highest emitters of NO2 and four of the five highest for NOx. In this study no vehicle fitted with EGR achieved the euro standard but neither did EGR equipped vehicles emit the highest levels of NO2. Engine size was found to have significant effect, 2? engines performed better than all other sizes, though not all 2? engines performed well. The lowest 15 NOx emitters were 2? engines and 12 of the lowest 15 NO2 emitters. The mean emissions (0.26 (sd. 0.22) g NOx km-1 and 0.14 (sd. 0.20) g NO2 km-1) from 2? engines were 2 and 1.5 times lower than the non 2? average. There was still wide variability within the 2? engines and it should be noted that not all engine sizes were evenly represented in this study.Observation of raw PEMS data ( REF _Ref442793002 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 2) showed that NOx emissions are delivered in peaks that coincide with acceleration. In agreement with this Figure 6a shows a clear trend of increasing average NOx in sub-trips with higher RPA values (i.e. sub-trips containing more acceleration). For NO2 emissions the relationship with acceleration is less pronounced. Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 6. Boxplot of NOx (a) and NO2 (b) average of sub-trips by relative positive acceleration (Whiskers extend 1.5* interquartile range from the 1st and 3rd quartile, blue points are outliers, red points are speed bin means (some outliers have been cropped out of this graph) REF _Ref443386488 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 7 shows the magnitude of sub-trip NOx (a) and NO2 (b) emission by speed and RPA. The size and colour each of points corresponds to average sub-trip emission in g km-1, the larger and redder the point the higher the emission from that sub-trip (point size scale and colour scale are in units of g km-1). The majority of the worst NOx sub-trips (large red and orange points) occurred at low average speeds (< 20km h-1) with a higher RPA. High RPA in a sub-trip with a low average speed indicates high numbers of acceleration events occur in the sub-trip. For NO2 ( REF _Ref443386488 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 7b) the worst emitting sub-trips (large red points) had a low RPA and low average speed, though sub-trips with higher RPA at low speed were worse than the average.Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 7. Sub-trip NOx (a) and NO2 (b) by relative positive acceleration and speedAnalysis of instantaneous acceleration showed instantaneous NOx and NO2 were much higher during acceleration than deceleration and the magnitude of the acceleration did not have a large effect on emission size for accelerations above around 4 m s-2. This agrees with findings from analysis of RPA sub trips that more frequent acceleration events lead to higher emissions (see supporting material).PEMS trip average comparison with COPERTIn comparison with COPERT (which represents an average emission for the fleet) PEMS measurements have wider variation between vehicles.Figure 8 shows COPERT estimates (green) of trip average NOx and NO2 alongside PEMS averages (red). The PEMS measurements were higher in some instances and lower in others but overall were higher. The COPERT average (green line) was lower than that found in this study (red line) for both NOx and NO2.Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 8. Comparison of COPERT 4v11 projections to PEMS measurements for NOx (a) and NO2 (b). Green line is COPERT average, red line is PEMS averageCOPERT estimated an average of 0.23 (sd. 0.01) g NOx km-1 and 0.07 (sd. 0.003) g NO2 km-1 across the study. On average PEMS trip average NOx emissions were 1.6 times the corresponding COPERT estimate and PEMS NO2 emissions were 2.5 times COPERT estimates. 24 vehicles trip average PEMS emissions were higher than the COPERT average, by as much as 12.2 times for NO2 and 11.7 times for NOx. PEMS average fNO2 (44 %) was 1.5 times higher than COPERT’s fixed 30%.-59309031369000 Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 9. Boxplot of NOx (a) and NO2 (b) PEMS data by speed and comparison to COPERT 4v11 emission factors (some outliers have been cropped) REF _Ref442786617 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 9a shows the trend in PEMS mean speed bin NOx emission (red points) follows the curve of COPERT’s speed dependent emissions factors (green line). Mean speed binned PEMS NO2 emissions (red points REF _Ref442786617 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 9b) also follow a similar curve to COPERT. However, at some points the PEMS median (black central line in box) for NO2 is closer to COPERT’s estimate than the mean. As previously stated, the PEMS average NOx and NO2 was found to be 1.6 and 2.5 times COPERT’s. This indicates that large variability at the more polluting end of our study resulted in higher real world average emissions, and that higher emissions assumed to be outliers (blue dots) have a significant effect on trip average emissions. As discussed, PEMS data often shows high peaks in emissions associated with acceleration which are not represented in the speed dependent COPERT estimates, which present an average.GPS selected urban and motorway sections Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 10. Comparison of urban and motorway trip average NOx emissions (caution y axis varies)The sections of the trip identified by GPS as urban and motorway driving are now analysed. When compared to their motorway counterparts urban NOx emissions were 1.7 (sd. 1.0) times higher, though there was large variability. Similarly for NO2 urban emissions were 1.7 (sd. 0.9) times higher. 9 vehicles from a mix of all control technologies had higher motorway than urban emissions for NOx and NO2, though in these cases the magnitude of the difference was small. The average RPA of the urban sections was nearly double that of the motorway.Urban sections average NOx emissions were 0.43 (sd. 0.42) g km-1, 5.4 times the type approval limit. The average urban NO2 emission of 0.21 (sd. 0.24) g km-1 exceeded the Euro 5 standard limit of 0.18 g NOx km-1 with NO2 alone. The highest urban NO2 emission (0.96 g km-1, L1.4b) was nearly 4 times the Euro 4 emission limit for total NOx. The highest emissions over an urban section were 27.3 times the euro standard by vehicle S3.0h. fNO2 was unchanged from the trip average (43 sd. 22%). 2 vehicles (L2.0a, L2.0b) achieved the euro standard and 11 the NTE over the urban section. Motorway section emissions were lower than urban; 0.31 (sd. 0.37) g NOx km-1 (3.9 times the type approval limit) and 0.15 (sd. 0.19) g NO2 km-1. Again there was large variability, the highest motorway emission was 21.6 times the type approval limit. fNO2 was not significantly different (45 sd. 21%) to the trip and urban averages. 15 vehicles achieved the NTE and 5 performed within the euro standard for motorway sections.GPS urban and motorway sections comparison with COPERTAgain there was much more variation in PEMS emissions than COPERT’s estimates, and again the PEMS emissions were higher in some instances and lower in others. Though the mean speeds of the urban sections were much lower than the motorway, COPERT’s average estimate was similar for both (0.24 (sd. 0.01) g NOx km-1, 0.07 (sd. 0.003) g NO2 km-1 and 0.22 (sd. 0.01) g NOx km-1, 0.07 (sd. 0.002) g NO2 km-1 for urban and motorway respectively). This is because (as seen in REF _Ref442722058 \h Figure 3) COPERT’s Euro 6 emission factors are not highly sensitive to speed. The PEMS average urban NO2 emission was 2.8 times the COPERT estimate. On average urban PEMS measurements of NOx were 1.8 times the COPERT estimate and motorway 1.4 times. The average ratio fNO2 from motorway and urban sections was higher than COPERT’s assumed 30%.DiscussionThis paper analyses the on road NOx emissions of 39 Euro 6 diesel cars. Of the vehicles tested 2 achieved a trip average within the Euro 6 type approval limit (0.08 g NOx km-1) and 11 within the impending Euro 6 not-to-exceed limit for real driving emissions (0.168 g NOx km-1). Huge variation between vehicles with emissions as much as 22 times the limit indicate caution should be used when discussing Euro 6 compliant vehicles as a uniform body. The composition of engine sizes, NOx aftertreatment technologies and variety of manufactures ensures the findings of this study are likely to be representative of the Euro 6 fleet ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Franco", "given" : "Vicente", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "S\u00e1nchez", "given" : "Francisco Posada", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "German", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mock", "given" : "Peter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Berlin, Germany", "title" : "Real-world Exhaust Emissions from Modern Diesel Cars. 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Average vehicle speeds (45.6 (sd. 4.9) km h-1) and idling percentages (10.2 (sd. 4.8) %) were within the range of new the World-harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (51km-1, and 13%, respectively ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.trd.2015.07.011", "ISSN" : "13619209", "abstract" : "This paper presents the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC), developed under the Working Party on Pollution and Energy (GRPE) and sponsored by the European Union (with Switzerland) and Japan. India, Korea and USA have also actively contributed. The objective was to design the harmonized driving cycle from \u201creal world\u201d driving data in different regions around the world, combined with suitable weighting factors. To this aim, driving data and traffic statistics of light duty vehicles use were collected and analyzed as basic elements to develop the harmonized cycle. The regional driving data and weighting factors were then combined in order to develop a unified database representing the worldwide light duty vehicle driving behavior. From the unified database, short trips were selected and combined to develop a driving cycle as representative as possible of the unified database. Approximately 765,000km of data were collected, covering a wide range of vehicle categories, road types and driving conditions. The resulting WLTC is an ensemble of three driving cycles adapted to three vehicle categories with different power-to-mass ratio (PMR). It has been designed as a harmonized cycle for the certification of light duty vehicles around the world and, together with the new harmonized test procedures (WLTP), will serve to check the compliance of vehicle pollutant emissions with respect to the applicable emissions limits and to establish the reference vehicle fuel consumption and CO2 performance.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tutuianu", "given" : "Monica", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ciuffo", "given" : "Biagio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Haniu", "given" : "Takahiro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ichikawa", "given" : "Noriyuki", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marotta", "given" : "Alessandro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pavlovic", "given" : "Jelica", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Steven", "given" : "Heinz", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "10" ] ] }, "page" : "61-75", "title" : "Development of the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC) and a possible pathway for its introduction in the European legislation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "40" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.056", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in urban areas of Europe can be partially attributed to the increasing market penetration of diesel cars that show higher distance-specific nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than gasoline cars. The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. This finding suggests that the current type-approval procedure does not adequately capture the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars. By introducing a complementary emissions test procedure that covers a wide range of normal operating conditions, the European legislative authorities can address this problem and ensure that Euro 6 will indeed deliver an adequate reduction in the NOx emissions of new diesel cars.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "K\u00fchlwein", "given" : "J\u00f6rg", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lambrecht", "given" : "Udo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alessandrini", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carriero", "given" : "Massimo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forni", "given" : "Fausto", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lanappe", "given" : "Gaston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lijour", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "Le", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montigny", "given" : "Francois", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sculati", "given" : "Mirco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "657-665", "title" : "Will Euro 6 reduce the NOx emissions of new diesel cars? \u2013 Insights from on-road tests with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "62" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tutuianu et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tutuianu et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tutuianu et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tutuianu et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2012)), assuring PEMS tests were representative of normal European driving.Our results show large variability in the urban performance of Euro 6 vehicles with emissions between 0.7 and 27 times the type approval limit, with an average of 5.4. This is lower than earlier findings ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Franco", "given" : "Vicente", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "S\u00e1nchez", "given" : "Francisco Posada", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "German", "given" : "John", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mock", "given" : "Peter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Berlin, Germany", "title" : "Real-world Exhaust Emissions from Modern Diesel Cars. A Meta-analysis of Pems Emissions Data from EU (EURO 6) and Us (Tier 2 BIN 5/ULEV II) Diesel Passenger Cars. 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This variability has implications for air quality policies aiming to reduce emissions in urban areas. The vehicle models tested in this study will be available to buy new until 2019. Action against the worst emitters may help to improve the effectiveness of all air quality policies relying on Euro 6 technology.We found both LNT and SCR were able to meet the type approval limit for NOx. There was huge variability in primary NO2 emissions within each aftertreatment group (for example the highest SCR NO2 emission was 20 times the lowest). This makes it difficult to make recommendations or draw conclusions about the relationship between NOx control and primary NO2. The mean SCR NO2 emission was higher than that of LNT and EGR, though not statistically significant. The only statistically significant difference between control technologies is found in the percentage primary NO2. SCR vehicles averaged (55 (sd. 12) % compared to EGR and LNT’s 38 (sd. 21) %. The average COPERT 4v11 emission factor for Euro 5 diesel is 0.63 NOx g km-1 ( REF _Ref442722058 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 3), this is in a similar range as the value found in PEMS studies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.056", "ISSN" : "13522310", "abstract" : "The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in urban areas of Europe can be partially attributed to the increasing market penetration of diesel cars that show higher distance-specific nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than gasoline cars. The on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars, furthermore, appear to exceed substantially applicable emissions standards. This observation raises concerns that the introduction of more stringent Euro 6 emissions standards in 2014 may not adequately reduce the distance-specific on-road NOx emissions of new diesel cars. We address the existing concerns by analyzing the gaseous emissions of one novel Euro 6 diesel car and six Euro 4\u20135 diesel cars with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS). We find that the average on-road NOx emissions of the Euro 6 car (0.21\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.09\u00a0g per kilometer [g\u00a0km\u22121]) are considerably lower than those of the Euro 4 cars (0.76\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.12\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121) and the Euro 5 cars (0.71\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.30\u00a0g\u00a0km\u22121). The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of the Euro 6 diesel car is suitable to limit NOx emissions during real-world on-road driving. Still, all tested cars, including the Euro 6 diesel car, exceed their NOx emissions standards on the road by 260\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0130%. This finding suggests that the current type-approval procedure does not adequately capture the on-road NOx emissions of diesel cars. By introducing a complementary emissions test procedure that covers a wide range of normal operating conditions, the European legislative authorities can address this problem and ensure that Euro 6 will indeed deliver an adequate reduction in the NOx emissions of new diesel cars.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bonnel", "given" : "Pierre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "K\u00fchlwein", "given" : "J\u00f6rg", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Provenza", "given" : "Alessio", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lambrecht", "given" : "Udo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alessandrini", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Carriero", "given" : "Massimo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forni", "given" : "Fausto", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lanappe", "given" : "Gaston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lijour", "given" : "Philippe", "non-dropping-particle" : "Le", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manfredi", "given" : "Urbano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montigny", "given" : "Francois", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sculati", "given" : "Mirco", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Atmospheric Environment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "657-665", "title" : "Will Euro 6 reduce the NOx emissions of new diesel cars? \u2013 Insights from on-road tests with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "62" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weiss et al., 2012). Our study identified 5 vehicles (over 10% of those sampled) with real world NOx emissions ≈ 10 times the type approval limit. We analysed the effect of removing all vehicles with emissions higher than 0.63 g km-1 (i.e. the potential effect of permitting only vehicles with on road emissions certified lower than on road Euro 5). REF _Ref443330177 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Figure 11 shows the trip average NOx emissions of the remaining vehicles once the 5 emitting over 0.63 g km-1 have been removed.Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 11. Trip average NOx (a) and NO2 (b) and comparison to COPERT with 5 worst performing vehicles removedWhen the worst emitters were removed the study average NOx became 0.25 (sd. 0.13) g NOx km-1, 3.1 times the type approval limit and far closer to the COPERT estimate. Likewise NO2 emissions fell to 0.11 (sd. 0.10) g NO2 km-1. This also brought down the urban mean emission to 3.8 times the type approval limit. We also removed the 5 worst emitters for NO2 (as they were not the same as for NOx) but found this produced the same reduction in mean for NO2 whilst delivering less of a reduction in NOx. Our results indicate policies to improve smooth vehicle flow through towns and cities will improve urban NO2 concentrations, as sub-trips with higher relative positive acceleration (RPA) at lower speeds generated the highest emissions. This indicates regulation of traffic flows in urban areas and avoidance of congestion is essential in tackling urban NOx emissions. Complementary to this eco-driving, which has been found to successfully reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in transport fleets, if promoted and adopted in urban centres may help reduce urban NOx concentrations ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1109/TITS.2011.2142182", "ISBN" : "1524-9050", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Liimatainen", "given" : "Heikki", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Intelligent transportation systems, IEEE transactions on", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "1087-1095", "publisher-place" : "[New York, NY] :", "title" : "Utilization of Fuel Consumption Data in an Ecodriving Incentive System for Heavy-Duty Vehicle Drivers", "type" : "article", "volume" : "12" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Liimatainen, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Liimatainen, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Liimatainen, 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Liimatainen, 2011) though further work is required to confirm the relationship between eco-driving and NOx reduction.NO2 emissions varied hugely and were best described by the absolute emission in g km-1, as high fNO2 did not always correlate to high g NO2 km-1. REF _Ref443394531 \h Figure 12 shows the trip average NOx and NO2 of the 11 vehicles that performed within the real world NTE limit of 0.168 g NOx km-1. One vehicle was able to not exceed the NTE limit for NOx whilst exceeding 0.08 g NO2 km-1. This indicates that the NTE for NOx may not be as effective as hoped in reducing NO2 concentrations in urban areas and an additional dedicated NO2 limit should be considered. This will be of particular importance in reducing roadside concentrations and exceedances.Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 12. Trip average NOx (a) and ratio fNO2 against average NO2 (b) for the 11 vehicles that met the real world not-to-exceed limitWith additional data regarding drag coefficients, frontal area and rolling resistance, a power based metric could be used in future studies.ConclusionsThe main conclusions of our study are:Primary NO2 emissions from Euro 6 diesel passenger cars varied widely, the average NO2 emission of 0.17 (sd. 0.19) g km-1 was over double the Euro 6 limit for total NOx. The average fNO2 was 44 (sd. 20) %. The average urban section NO2 emission of 0.21 (sd. 0.24) g km-1 was higher than the Euro 5 emission limit for total NOx. High g NO2 km-1 did not always correlate with high fNO2 or high g NOx km-1, therefore measures aiming to reduce NO2 concentrations should consider a dedicated g NO2 km-1 limitThere was huge variability in the on road NOx emissions of Euro 6 diesel passenger cars. All but 2 exhibited higher NOx than the type approval limit and many substantially exceeded it. The average NOx emission of 0.36 (sd. 0.36) g km-1 equates to 4.5 times the type approval limit which rose to 5.4 for urban driving. To effectively reduce NO2 concentrations in areas with danger of limit value exceedance policy makers should consider discriminating on the basis of actual on road emissions as opposed to Euro standards of vehiclesTrip average emissions were higher than COPERT’s in the majority of cases. COPERT emission factors matched well the mean NO2 emissions by speed but variability at the more polluting end of the study led to real world emissions being on average 2.5 times COPERT estimates, growing to 2.8 for urban driving. The study average fNO2 was higher than the COPERT assumption of 30% There was no clear best between the after-treatment technologies though both SCR and LNT were able to meet the Euro 6 standard and NTE limit whilst EGR alone was not. SCR systems had a higher ratio fNO2 (55 sd. 12%) but this did not translate to a significantly higher NO2 g km-1Urban section NOx emissions were 1.7 (sd. 1.0) times those of motorway sections. This was found in part to be due to more frequent acceleration events. Urban driving emissions could be reduced by more effective management of traffic flows, easing of congestion and promotion of eco-driving, though further work is required to confirm thisAcknowledgementsThis work was produced as part of a Department of Environment Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) studentship. 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