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Combined science notes form 2 pdf 2018 download online book

This heart is suspended in a pericardial cavity by ligaments. Immune Responses Immune response is the production of antibodies in response to antigens. Stomata close when the solute concentration inside guard cells become lower than that of surrounding epidermal cells. When it reaches maximum size the contractile vacuole moves to the cell membrane, bursts open releasing its contents to the surroundings. As the mouth closes and the floor of the mouth is raised, the volume of buccal cavity decreases while pressure in the opercular cavity increases due to contraction of opercular muscles. Oxygen diffuses through the thin walls of gill filaments/lamellae into the blood. The humidity difference between the inside of the leaf and the outside is called the saturation deficit. Amount of fluid at the ends of fine tracheoles varies according to activity i.e. oxygen demand of the insect. It contains dissolved food substances, plasma proteins,hormones and oxygen. Gaseous Exchange in Insects Gaseous exchange in insects e.g., grasshopper takes place across a system of tubes penetrating into the body known as the tracheal system. Air enters and leaves the tracheae as abdominal muscles contract and relax. The student whose breath has been taken runs on the sport vigorously for 10 minutes. This helps them to remain open during expiration when air pressure is low. Gaseous exchange takes place mainly through the stomata. Symptoms It is characterised by a dry cough, lack of breath and body wasting. This proves that carbon (IV) oxide gas is produced. Spiracles are located at the sides of body segments; Two pairs on the thoracic segments and eight pairs on the sides of abdominal segments. Fatty acids are used when the carbohydrates are exhausted. It diffuses from root hair cells into the cortex where it is used for respiration. Mitochondrion Structure and Function Structure Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of cells. There are about 250,000 platelets per cubic millimetre of blood. These ions cause an increase in solute concentration in guard cells that has been shown to cause movement of water into guard cells by osmosis. The remaining fluid consisting of water, urea, uric acid and some mineral salts is called urine. Absorption of Water and Mineral Salts Absorption of Water Root hair cell has solutes in the vacuole and hence a higher osmotic pressure than the surrounding soil water solution. It is therefore important to properly screen blood before any transfusion is done. Pain killing drugs like morphine. Boiling kills yeast cells. A blockage in the brain can lead to a stroke causing paralysis of part of the body, coma or even death. Fermentation of milk. Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses in the opposite direction. These are referred to as dead space. Nasal cavities are winding and have many blood capillaries to increase surface area to ensure that the air is warmed as it passes along. Measles used to be a killer disease but today, a vaccine injected into children at the age of rune months prevents it. Blood from the tissues has a high concentration of carbon (IV) oxide and very little oxygen compared to alveolar air. Give antihistamines to reduce itching. Once inside the xylem vessels, mineral salts are transported in solution as the water moves up due to root pressure, capillary attraction and cohesion and adhesion forces. Prevention Children may be immunised against whooping cough by means of a vaccine which is usually combined with those against diphtheria and tetanus. The process is not economical as far as energy production is concerned. Most minerals are absorbed in this way. Shivering is involuntary contraction of muscles which helps to generate heat thus raising the body temperature. Observations show that temperature in the flask with germinating seeds has risen. Lysins digest cell membranes of micro?organisms. Part of the tissue fluid pass back into capillaries at the venule end. Observation of Spiracle in Locust Some fresh grass is placed in a gas jar. Capillaries penetrate tissues, The lumen is narrow therefore blood flowing in capillaries is under high pressure. The valves are operated by action of paired muscles. Anaerobic Respiration in Animals Anaerobic respiration in animals produces lactic acid and energy. In the Dicotyledonous root, xylem forms a star shape in the centre, with phloem in between the arms. Antibodies include: Antitoxins which neutralise toxins. An antibody is a protein whose structure is complementary to the antigen. Prevention Proper nutrition with a diet rich in proteins and vitamins to boost immunity. The roots have many small lateral branches to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange. Others are eosinophils and basophils. The glomerulus receives blood from an afferent arteriole a branch of the renal artery. If oxygen is present, pyruvic acid is converted into a 2-carbon compound called acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl Co A). As glomerular filtrate moves down the descending loop, water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis in the distal convoluted tubule and in the collecting duct. The best way where applicable is to avoid whatever triggers an attack (allergen). The skin is kept moist by secretions from mucus glands. Mineral salts move from cell to cell by active transport until they reach the xylem vessel. In the embryo they are made in the liver and spleen. ABO Blood Groups There are four types of blood groups in human beings: A, B, AB and O. The condition can be corrected by a complete replacement of baby's blood with safe healthy blood. The water moves out by osmosis, and the guard cells shrink i.e. lose their turgidity and stoma closes. Cuticular transpiration: The cuticle is found on the leaves, and a little water is lost through it. Permeability of the collecting duct and proximal convoluted tubule is increased by anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) whose secretion is influenced by the osmotic pressure of the blood. Hydrogen is added to amino group to form ammonia which combines with carbon (IV) oxide to form urea. Structure of Guard Cells The stoma (stomata - plural) is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. Common Liver Diseases Cirrhosis Cirrhosis is a condition in which liver cells degenerate and are replaced by scar tissue . It allows for the changes in lung volume during breathing. At the same time the atria are filled with blood. This fluid is the medium in the space surrounding cells. The cortex is a layer next to the epidermis. Labelled drawings of each are made. Glycolysis consists of reactions in which glucose is gradually broken down into molecules of a carbon compound called pyruvic acid or pyruvate. Pneumonia is caused by bacteria and virus. Photosynthesis takes place during daytime and sugar produced raises the solute concentration of guard cells. From here, it moves into the intercellular space in the spongy mesophyll layer. Control includes dietary restrictions especially salt and proteins. Food substances are translocated through cytoplasmic strands. Also in the red blood cells is carbonic anhydrase which assists in the transport of carbon (IV) oxide. At the same time behavioural activities like moving to shaded areas when it is too hot assist in regulating their body temperature. Carbon (IV) oxide is at a higher concentration in the blood than in the water. These cells relay impulses to the pituitary gland which produces a hormone called anti-diuretic hormone - ADH (vasopressin) which is taken by the blood to the kidneys. The disease is more common in children under the age of five but adults may also be affected. Students can approach and observe in silence the spiracles and the abdominal movements during breathing. The bucket is covered tightly with a lid. Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the heart through the vena cava . Gaseous Exchange Through Stems Terrestrial Plants Stems of woody plants have narrow openings or slits at intervals called lenticels. An antigen is any foreign material or organism that is introduced into the body and causes the production of antibodies. Which Questions Always Must Appear on Kcse Papers? A person of blood group B can only donate blood to somebody with blood group B or a person with blood group AB. A healthy lifestyle, avoiding a lot of fat in meals and avoiding alcohol can control the disease. Transpiration Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water in the form of water vapour into the atmosphere. Gaseous Exchange in an Amphibian - Frog An adult frog lives on land but goes back into the water during the breeding season. Water is drawn into guard cells by osmosis from surrounding cells. Chloride ions flow to neutralise the charge on sodium ions. Those in extremely hot areas have tissue that tolerate high temperatures e.g. camels. Causes This is due to an infection of bronchi and bronchioles by bacteria and viruses. Systole When the ventricular muscles contract, the cuspid valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) close preventing backflow of blood into auricles. Impulses are also sent to the intercostal muscles. During the first pregnancy, enough antibodies are not formed to affect the foetus. Cohesion and Adhesion: The attraction between water molecules is called cohesion. This is because oxygen is supplied directly to the tissues by the tracheal system. Types of Immunity There are two types of immunity; natural and artificial. In locusts, air is drawn into the body through the thoracic spiracles and expelled through the abdominal spiracles. All multicellular organisms and most unicellular organisms e.g. some bactena respire aerobically. Guard cells lose turgidity and the stoma closes. Some animals have adaptive features e.g. animals in extreme cold climates have fur and a thick layer of subcutaneous fat like polar bear. The drugs are inhaled, taken orally or injected intravenously depending on severity of attack to relief bronchial spasms. The volume of the ventricles decreases while pressure increases. The skin between the digits in the limbs (i.e. webbed feet) increase the surface area for gaseous exchange. Blood pressure in the veins is low. The clump can block the flow of blood, and cause death. The contraction is said to be myogenic. Cytoplasmic strands pass through the pores in the plate into adjacent cells. The phosphorylated sugar is broken down into two molecules of a 3-carbon sugar (triose sugar) each of which is then converted into pyruvic acid. The biconcave shape increases their surface area over which gaseous exchange takes place. Pericyc1e forms a layer next to the endodermis. Nasal cavities are lined with cilia. In the proximal convoluted tube all the glucose, all amino acids and some mineral salts are actively reabsorbed by active transport. KCSE Results ? KCSE Results Top 100 Schools - Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education ? KCSE ? KCSE Top 100 Candidates ? Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education ? KCSE ? KNEC - Kenya National Examinations Council ? Secondary Schools in Kenya ? KNEC - Kenya National Examinations Council ? Free KNEC KCSE Past Papers Kenya Scholarships for Undergraduate Students ? Kenya Scholarships for Postgraduate Students ? Undergraduate Scholarships for Kenyan Students ? Kenya Undergraduate Scholarships ? Full Undergraduate Scholarships for Kenyans ? Kenya Postgraduate Scholarships ? Scholarships & Grants ? Undergraduate Scholarships ? Universities in Kenya ? Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service (KUCCPS) ? Colleges in Kenya ? KASNEB Registration & Results ? Secondary Schools Scholarships in Kenya ? 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Allergic Reactions An allergy is a hypersensitive reaction to an antigen by the body. Breakdown and Elimination of Haemoglobin Haemoglobin is released from dead or old red blood cells which are broken down in the liver and spleen. The concentration gradient favours diffusion of carbon (IV) oxide into the alveolus and oxygen into the capillaries . It consists of adenine, an organic base, five carbon ribose-sugar and three phosphate groups. Each lung is surrounded by a space called the pleural cavity. The lymph spaces contain lymphocytes which are phagocytic. This results in efficient ventilation. Dissect the rabbit to expose the respiratory organs. This volume is altered by the movement of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. When this fails, shivering occurs. Plasma This is a pale yellow fluid consisting of 90% water. The old and the weak in health are most vulnerable. A person with blood group AB is called a universal recipient. Due to this pressure, dissolved substances such as urea, uric acid, glucose, mineral salts and amino acids are forced out of the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule. The rate of the heartbeat is increased by the sympathetic nerve, while it is slowed down by the vagus nerve. The mitochondria generate energy required for translocation. They are moist to allow gases to dissolve. A delivery tube is connected and directed into a test-tube containing lime water. The rhythmic contraction of the heart arise from within the heart muscles without nervous stimulation. Gills: Some aquatic animals have gills which may be external as in the tadpole or internal as in bony fish e.g. tilapia. Structure and Function of Blood Composition of Blood The mammalian blood is made up of a fluid medium called plasma with substances dissolved in it. Mammalian Circulatory System Mammals have a closed circulatory system where a powerful heart pumps blood into arteries. A concentration gradient is maintained between the cytoplasm of the cells and the intercellular spaces. They are divided into two: - Granulocytes (also phagocytes or polymorphs) - Agranulocytes . The folding of the inner membrane is called cristae and the inner compartment is called the matrix. Capillaries join to form larger vessels called venules which in turn join to form veins which transport blood back to the heart. By pressing on one vein with two fingers, leaving one and pushing blood toward the heart then releasing the latter finger, it can be observed that the part in between is left with the vein not being visible. Some plants have reversed stomatal rhythm whereby stomata close during the day and open at night. Some white blood cells may die in the process of phagocytosis. Have a narrow lumen . The hypothalamus detect changes in the blood. 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Structure and Functions of the Kidneys The kidneys are organs whose functions are excretion, osmoregulation and regulation of pH. Blood flows only once through the heart for every complete circuit. The last bond connecting the phosphate group is a high-energy bond. Lungs: Mammals, birds and reptiles have lungs which are adapted for gaseous exchange. Pulmonary Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is a contagious disease that results in destruction of the lung tissue. Guard cells have chloroplasts while other epidermal cells do not. Treatment Antibiotics are administered. The discussion below shows the nature of these interactions. The heartbeat is initiated by the pacemaker or sino-artrio-node (SAN) which is located in the right atrium. The endodermis (starch sheath) is a single layer of cells with starch grains. Relaxation of muscles results in low pressure hence inspiration occurs while contraction of muscles results in higher air pressure and expiration occurs. A person of blood group a has no antigens on red blood cells and a and b antibodies in plasma. There are about 7,000 leucocytes per cubic millimetre of blood. Respiration Meaning and Significance of Respiration Respiration is the process by which energy is liberated from organic compounds such as glucose. Some of these substances are used illegally. Alveoli are richly supplied with blood and have a thin epithelium. The ascending loop has thick wall and is impermeable to water. The process of moving oxygen into the body and carbon (Iv) oxide out of the body is called breathing or ventilation. Buccal (Mouth) Cavity Gaseous exchange takes place all the time across thin epithelium lining the mouth cavity. These are based on types of proteins on the cell membrane of red blood cells. Water is lost through stomata, cuticle and lenticels. The tubule is well supplied with blood capillaries for transportation of reabsorbed substances. Flow of lymph is assisted by breathing and muscular contractions. In some young plant stems, cortex cells contain chloroplasts. Symptoms Asthma is characterized by wheezing and difficulty in breathing accompanied by feeling of tightness in the chest as a result of contraction of the smooth muscles lining the air passages. The baby is born anaemic and with yellow eyes (jaundiced). This makes the sap in the root hair cell to have a lower osmotic pressure than the surrounding cells. Ethanol is an organic compound, which can be broken down further in the presence of oxygen to provide energy, carbon (IV) oxide and water. Ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, lungs, bronchi, trachea, pleural membranes, thoracic cavity. Environmental factors Temperature High temperature increases the internal temperature of the leaf . They initiate the process of blood clotting. Subcutaneous Fat: Is a layer beneath the dermis. A locust is introduced into the jar. Large animals produce more heat but they lose less due to small surface area to volume ratio. Egestion is the removal of undigested materials from the alimentary canals of animals. This circulation is called pulmonary circulation. Oxygen diffuses in and carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out. Opsonins adhere to outer walls of micro?organisms making it easier for phagocytes to ingest them. The food is heated strongly to bum. They have roots that project above the ground level. Before glucose can be broken, it is first activated through addition of energy from ATP and phosphate groups. Coronary thrombosis is the most common. The solute concentration of guard cells falls and water moves out of the guard cells by osmosis. Oxygen diffuses into these cells along a concentration gradient. The amount of salt or water reabsorbed into the bloodstream is dependent on the osmotic pressure of the blood. Spiracles are guarded with valves that close and thus prevent excessive loss of water vapour. Lymph is excess tissue fluid i.e. blood minus blood cells and plasma proteins. Excretion and Homeostasis Introduction Excretion is the process by which living organisms separate and eliminate waste products of metabolism from body cells. Tissue fluid is made by ultra-filtration in the capillaries. Each bronchiole subdivides repeatedly into smaller tubes ending with fine bronchioles. To reduce the coughing, the patient should be given drugs. Sclereids (stone cells) are scattered in leaf surface and project into air spaces. Each kidney receives oxygenated blood from renal artery, while deoxygenated blood leaves through the renal vein. When harmful organisms or proteins invade the body, lymphocytes produce complementary antibodies, while bone marrow and thymus gland produce more phagocytes and lymphocytes respectively. Each gill is made up of a bony gill arch which has a concave surface facing the mouth cavity (anterior) and a convex posterior surface. Such organisms tend to thrive better when oxygen is present e.g. yeast. Photosynthetic cells of green plants use carbon (Iv) oxide as a raw material for photosynthesis and produce oxygen as a by?product. The disease is currently on the rise due to the lowered immunity in persons with HIV and AIDS (Human Immuno Deficiency Syndrome). Regulation of pH of body fluids. Cough that produces mucus. Oxygen dissolved in the water diffuses through the stem into the cells and carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out into the water. When stomata are open,carbon(IV)oxide from the atmosphere diffuses into the substomatal air chambers. How to Answer Paper 2 Biology Questions? Guard cells become turgid and stoma opens. Artificial Acquired Immunity: When attenuated (weakened) or dead micro?organisms are introduced into a healthy person. In animals, anaerobic respiration yields 150 kJ of energy. Pumping Mechanism of the heart The heart undergoes contraction (systole) and relaxation ( diastole). Excessive loss of water leads to wilting' and eventually death if water is not available in the soil. A filtering apparatus i.e. hairs also traps dust and parasites which would clog the trachea if they gained entry. Air is forced out of the lungs. The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically at an average rate of 72 times per minute. Subsequent pregnancies result in rapid production of Rhesus antibodies by the mother. Stem Prepared slides (TS) of stems of terrestrial and aquatic plants such as croton and reeds are obtained. The limewater becomes cloudy within 20 minutes. The structure of the guard cells is such that changes in turgor inside the cell cause changes in their shape. Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Temperatures above optimum denature enzymes, while temperature below the optimum range inactivate enzymes. Most of the plants at higher altitudes where atmospheric pressure is very low have adaptations to prevent excessive water-loss. KCSE Questions on Biology KCSE Results, Online Registration, KCSE Result Slip. A frog uses three different respiratory surfaces. The loop of Henle is short in semi?-aquatic mammals, and long in some mammals like the desert rat. Diseases like smallpox, tuberculosis and tetanus were killer diseases but this is no longer the case. Prompt treatment of bacterial infections. Water moves into the root hair cells by osmosis along a concentration gradient. The cross walls are perforated by many pores to make a sieve plate. The initial temperature is taken and recorded. A high level of lactic acid is toxic. The main trachea communicate with atmosphere through tiny pores called spiracles. Jaundice This is a yellow colouration of the skin and eyes. This happens due to blockage of bile duct or destruction of liver. A small amount of air always remains in the lungs even after a forced expiration. Artificial Passive Acquired Immunity: Serum containing antibodies is obtained from another organism, and confers immunity for a short duration. Regular exercise, healthy diet and avoiding smoking can help maintain normal blood pressure. These cannot be broken down further. They are found just behind the root tip, They are one cell thick for efficient absorption of substances. At birth children are given an inoculation through the mouth of the poliomyelitis vaccine. Pneumonia Pneumonia is infection resulting in inflammation of lungs. The main tracheae are strengthened with rings of cuticle. This is known as the residual volume. Ventilation in Insects Ventilation in insects is brought about by the contraction and relaxation of the abdominal muscles. From the tissues, deoxygenated blood flows back to the heart through the vena cava. Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out of the roots and into the water. Whooping Cough Whooping cough is an acute infection of respiratory tract. This shows that there is a force in the roots that pushes water up to the stem. Nostrils open and floor of the mouth is raised as its muscles relax. Oxygen in the air spaces in the soil dissolves in the film of moisture surrounding soil particles and diffuses into the root hair along a concentration gradient. This is because bleed does not flow back towards the first finger. Energy produced is used to make an energy rich compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Cells function efficiently if there is little or no fluctuation in the internal environment. Glycolysis results in the net production of two molecules of ATP. Use drugs to kill the schistosomes if that is the cause. C6H1P6 _ 2CH3CHOH.COOH + energy (Glucose) (Lactic acid) + energy When human muscles are involved in very vigorous activity, oxygen cannot be delivered as rapidly as it is required. The clear lime water turns white due to formation of calcium carbonate precipitate proving that carbon (Iv) oxide is produced. Gaseous Exchange in Roots Terrestrial Plants Gaseous exchange occurs in the root hair of young terrestrial plants. The carbon (IV) oxide is eliminated through expiration. Oxygen is used in the cell for respiration making its concentration lower than that in the surrounding water. placenta to the foetus and destroy foetal red blood cells. They are numerous and elongated providing a large surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts. Tracheids Tracheids have cross-walls that are perforated. Gaseous exchange involves the passage of oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide through a respiratory surface. The heart is the pumping organ which keeps the blood in circulation.M The types of circulatory system exist in animals: open and closed. Gill rakers are bony projections on the concave side that trap food and other solid particles which are swallowed instead of going over and damaging the gill filaments. Treatment Use of laser beams to disintegrate the stones. Repair of valves through surgery can also be done. Veins have valves along their length to prevent backflow of blood. This is taken to the gall bladder and eliminated as bile. Skin The skin is used both in water and on land. Some tracheoles penetrate into cells in active tissue such as flight muscles. From a mother suffering from the disease to a baby through breast feeding. When body temperature is below optimum the following takes place: Vasoconstriction of Arterioles: The arterioles near the surface of the skin become narrower. A flap of muscles, the epiglottis, covers the opening into the trachea during swallowing. Blood is not used as a medium for transport of oxygen in insects. Oxygen from the water diffuses into roots along a concentration gradient. The blood flows back into the heart through openings in each chamber called ostia. For example, Law Depot allows you to create a state-specific bill of sale form on its website if you sign up for a one-week free trial. Xylem vessels are narrow, so water moves through them by capillarity. Mineral salts are transported up the plant. A wire mesh is placed on top or muslin cloth tied around the mouth of the beaker with rubber band. The muscle respire anaerobically and lactic acid accumulates. The urea is carried in the blood stream to the kidneys. Pressure forces water and dissolved substances out of the blood to form tissue fluid. Detoxification. 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Meanwhile, the operculum is closed, preventing water from entering or leaving through the opening. Less antidiuretic hormone is produced, and the kidney tubules reabsorb less water hence large quantities of water is lost producing dilute urine (diuressis). The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases, thus increasing the pressure. A person of blood group AB has A and B antigens on red blood cells and no antibodies in plasma . When hair erector muscles contract, the hair is raised. Filtration The kidneys receive blood from renal artery a branch of the aorta. Causes It is caused by Bordetella pertusis bacteria and is usually spread by droplets produced when a sick person coughs. Dissolved substances in the blood are forced out of the capillaries and into intercellular spaces. The fermentation process is confirmed after three days when alcohol smell is detected in the mixture. When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises above normal due to dehydration or excessive consumption of salt, the osmo-receptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated. The process continues until the water gets into the xylem vessels . The alveoli get filled with fluid and bacterial cells decreasing surface are for gaseous exchange. The respiratory centre responds to the amount of carbon (IV) oxide in the blood. Proteins are not normally used for respiration. Heartbeat is also affected by hormones e.g. adrenaline raises the heartbeat. The pituitary secretes a number of hormones involved in homeostasis e.g. anti-duretic hormone (ADH). There may not be any reaction after this transfusion. This is called a negative feedback and it restores the conditions to normal. Diffusion is the main process involved in gaseous exchange. Vascular bundles are continuous from root to stems and leaves. Thrombin activates the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin which forms a meshwork of fibres on the cut surface to trap red blood cells to form a clot. Guard cells become turgid and extend. This puts stress on the walls of the heart and arteries. Tuberculosis is common in areas where there is dirt, overcrowding and malnourishment. Facultative anaerobes are those organisms which survive either in the absence or in the presence of oxygen. Experiment to Show Germinating Seeds Produce Heat Soaked bean seeds are placed in a vacuum flask on wet cotton wool. Blood flow in capillaries is under pressure due to the narrowness of the capillaries. The hypothalamus and pituitary are endocrine glands situated in the brain. Contraction of hair erector muscles. The pressure in the arteries originate from the pumping action of the heart. The movement of these gases between the cells of organisms and the environment comprises gaseous exchange. ATP is synthesised from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Signs and Symptoms: include headaches, fever, vomiting, oedema. They are well-supplied with blood to transport gases and maintain a concentration gradient. In carbohydrate metabolism plants use carbon (IV) oxide released from respiration in photosynthesis while oxygen released from photosynthesis is used in respiration. The remaining carboxyl group, after removal of amino group, is either oxidised to provide energy in respiration. Tissue Respiration Respiration takes place inside cells in all tissues. Blood comes into contact with tissues. Most organelles disappear and those that remain are pushed to the sides of the sieve tube. Practical Activities To Show the Gas Produced When the Food is burned A little food substance e.g., maize flour or meat is placed inside a boiling tube. Symptoms Symptoms include yellow colouration of skin, smell of urine in breath, nausea and vomiting. Due to their ability, they are able to change their shape to enable themselves squeeze inside the narrow capillaries. This results to retention of tissue fluid. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) In humans these cells are circular biconcave discs without nuclei. High temperatures dry the air around the leaf surface maintaining a high concentration gradient. In dry atmosphere, the saturation deficit is high. There are two types of proteins denoted by the letters A and B which are antigens. Kidney Stones Kidney stones are solid deposits of calcium and other saIts. Symptoms: Severe coughing and frequent vomiting. In anaerobic respiration the by products are organic compounds. Khat, cocaine and cannabis are used without a doctor's prescription and can be addictive. Phloem transports dissolved food substances like sugars. Respiration occurs all the time and if it stops, cellular activities are disrupted due to lack of energy. A mitochondrion has a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane. The hormone (ADH) makes the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct more permeable to water hence more water is reabsorbed into the body by the kidney tubules lowering the osmotic pressure in the blood. Rapid breathing occurs in order to break down lactic acid into carbon (IV) oxide and water and release more energy. Selective Reabsorption As the filtrate flows through the renal tubules the useful substances are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood. The epithelium is moist for gases to dissolve. Transport in Insects In an insect, there is a tubular heart just above the alimentary canal. Bacille Calmette Guerin (BCG) vaccine is injected at birth to children to protect them against tuberculosis. The concentration gradient created causes carbon (IV) oxide to diffuse into the alveoli lumen. Their walls are thinner than those of arteries. Ventilation As the fish opens the mouth, the floor of the mouth is lowered. Where the flow is along the same direction (parallel flow) less oxygen is extracted from the water. More water vapour is therefore lost from the leaf to the air. Rapid response is ensured in subsequent infections. This is because living cells need energy in order to perform the numerous activities necessary to maintain life. Diseases and Defects of Circulatory System Thrombosis Formation of a clot in the blood vessels is called thrombosis. Thick sticky mucus is produced. The ratio of the amount of carbon (IV) oxide produced to the amount of oxygen used for each substrate is referred to as Respiratory Quotient (RQ) and is calculated as follows: R.Q. = Amount of carbon (IV) oxide produced/ Amount of oxygen used Carbohydrates have a respiratory quotient of 1.0 lipids 0.7 and proteins 0.8. Respiratory quotient value can thus give an indication of types of substrate used. It takes place in some bacteria and some fungi. Proposed causes of turgor changes in guard cells. Atmospheric Pressure The lower the atmospheric pressure the higher the kinetic energy of water molecules hence more evaporation. Lymph vessels have valves to ensure unidirectional movement of lymph. How to Answer Paper 3 Biology Questions? The trachea opens into the mouth cavity through the larynx. The bordered pits are areas without lignin on xylem vessels and allow passage of water in and out of the lumen to neighbouring cells. Forces involved in Transportation of Water and Mineral Salts Transpiration pull As water vaporises from spongy mesophyll cells into sub-stomatal air spaces, the cell sap of mesophyll cells develop a higher osmotic pressure than adjacent cells. Respiration Aerobic Respiration This involves breakdown of organic substances in tissue cells in the presence of oxygen . The tubes are blood vessels through which dissolved substances are circulated around the body. The next series of reactions involve decarboxylation i.e. removal of carbon as carbon (IV) oxide and dehydrogenation, removal of hydrogen as hydrogen ions and electrons. At night potassium and chloride ions move out of the guard cells by diffusion and level of organic acid also decreases. Gaseous Exchange in a Mammal -Human The breathing system of a mammal consists of a pair of lungs which are thin-walled elastic sacs lying in the thoracic cavity. Transpiration ensures cooling of the plant in hot weather. In the embryo, red blood cells are formed in the liver. Adaptation of Insect Tracheoles for Gaseous Exchange The fine tracheoles are very thin about one micron in diameter in order to permeate tissue. This is natural acquired immunity. In amoeba excess water and chemicals accumulation in the contractile vacuole. When the nostrils are closed and the floor of the mouth is raised, air is forced into the lungs. The structure of the leaf is adapted for gaseous exchange by having intercellular spaces that are filled. Xerophytes have small narrow leaves to reduce water-loss. The gills are located in an opercular cavity covered by a flap of skin called the operculum. The fine bronchioles end in alveolar sacs, each of which gives rise to many alveoli. If the amount of carbon (IV) oxide rises, the respiratory centre sends impulses to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles which respond by contracting in order to increase the ventilation rate. Storage of blood, vitamins A, K, BI2 and D and mineral salts such as iron' and potassium ions. Enter all the required information, including details about the car, the odometer reading, your name and the buyer's name. Some beneficial effects are: Replacement of water lost during the process. Transport in Animals The Circulatory System Large and complex animals have circulatory systems that consist of tubes, a transport fluid and a means of pumping the fluid. Emotional or mental stress Strains the body immune system hence predisposes to asthma attack. How to Answer Paper 1 Biology Questions? Parenchyma Cells are irregular in shape, thin walled and loosely arranged hence creating intercellular spaces filled with air. The body retains 'memory' of the structure of antigen. The diaphragm muscles contract and diaphragm moves downwards. Cellular components suspended in plasma include; erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes (white blood cells) thrombocytes (platelets) blood proteins. This provides a short distance for exchange of substances. Aldosterone also stimulates the colon to absorb more sodium ions into the blood. The boiling tube is stoppered using a rubber bung connected to a delivery tube inserted into a test-tube with limewater. Each spiracle lies in a cavity from which the trachea arises. Blood is the transport fluid which contains dissolved substances and cells. Histamine causes swelling and pain. However, during normal breathing only about 500 cm3 of air is exchanged. The endodermis has a casparian strip which has an impervious deposit controlling the entry of water and mineral salts into xylem vessels. If these substances were left to accumulate, they would be toxic to the cells. Characteristics of Respiratory Surfaces They are permeable to allow entry of gases. Websites including provide information on vehicle and driving related state laws, rules and requirements. Nerve endings detect changes in the internal and external environment and relay the information to the brain. Mineral salts lost in blood leads to osmotic imbalance in the body. However during starvation they are hydrolysed to amino acids, dearnination follows and the products enter Kreb's cycle as urea is formed. Arteriosclerosis can lead to thrombosis or hypertension. The tubule is coiled, which reduces the speed of flow of the filtrate e.g. giving more time for efficient re-absorption. They are enclosed and protected by the ribs which are attached to the sternum and the thoracic vertebrae. At night when no photosynthesis, Respiration produces carbon (IV) oxide which raises acidity .This favours conversion of sugar to starch. Lung Capacity The amount of air that human lungs can hold is known as lung capacity. As water passes over the gills, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide from the gills dissolves in the water. i.e. environmental and structural. They are made in the bone marrow of the short bones like sternum, ribs and vertebrae. These are called "respiratory organs". At night no photosynthesis occurs hence no sugar is produced. The slight contractions of atria force the , blood flow into ventricles. There are two types of respiration: Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic. This force is known as root pressure. These arteries divide into arterioles which further divide to form capillaries. Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Insects The main tracheae in the locust are located laterally along the length of the body on each side and they are interconnected across. The capsule encloses a bunch of capillaries called the glomerulus. Oxygen debt therefore refers to the extra oxygen the body takes in after vigorous exercise. Epithelium lining the inside of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles has cilia and secretes mucus. Structure and function of the human skin Nerve Endings: These are nerve cells which detect changes from the external environment thus making the body to be sensitive to touch, cold, heat and pressure. This is made up of loosely packed, thin walled parenchyma cells. The intercellular spaces in the leaf mesophyll are large. Gaseous exchange involves passage of oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide through a respiratory surface by diffusion. The latter increases the temperature to the optimum. Substrates for Respiration Carbohydrate, mainly glucose is the main substrate inside cells. The leucocytes are capable of amoebic movement. In older roots of woody plants, gaseous exchange takes place through lenticels. Check and ensure that your question has not been asked and answered in the enquiries appearing beneath the form. Each step is catalysed by a specific enzyme. Besides the role of the skin in thermoregulation as discussed above, the rate of metabolism is lowered when temperature is above optimum and increased when temperature is below optimum. Manufacture of Plasma Proteins. 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The one in the control has not risen. Far less energy is thus produced. Gaseous exchange occurs in the lungs, oxygen dissolves in the moisture lining of the lung and diffuses into the blood through the thin walls. The volume of air inspired or expired during forced breathing is called vital capacity. Arteriosclerosis This condition results from the inner walls having materials being deposited there or growth of fibrous connective tissue. They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. These cause the mother to produce Rhesus antibodies which can pass across the. Boiling expels all air. Practical Activities Observation of permanent slides of terrestrial and aquatic leaves and stems Leaves Observation of T.S. of bean and water lily are made under low and 'medium power objectives. Normal blood flow is hindered. They have many large air intercellular spaces through which gaseous exchange occurs. These reactions occur in the mitochondria and constitute the Tri-carboxylic Acid Cycle (T.C.A.) or Kreb's citric acid cycle. Dead red blood cells are broken down in the liver and the pigments eliminated in bile. They squeeze between the cells of the capillary wall to enter the intercellular spaces. It has no pith. How to Answer KCSE Biology Paper 2 Questions? The outer walls of the cells have waxy cuticle to prevent excessive loss of water. An internal pleural membrane covers the outside of each lung while an external pleural membrane lines the thoracic wall. It has a rich supply of blood vessels for efficient transport of respiratory gases. It stores fat and acts as an insulator against heat loss. Haemoglobin + Oxygen =oxyhaemoglobin (Hb) + (4O2) __ (HbOg) Oxygen is carried in form of oxyhaemoglobin. A longitudinal section of the kidney shows three distinct regions: a darker outer cortex, a lighter inner medulla and the pelvis. Once you are on the Law Depot website, select your state and county to get started. Gaseous Exchange Between the Alveoli and the Capillaries The walls of the alveoli and the capillaries are very thin and very close to each other. Xylem parenchyma: These are cells found between vessels. Two rows of gill filaments subtend from the convex surface. The high pressure is due to the pumping action of the heart. The gill filaments are served by a dense network of blood vessels that ensure efficient transport of gases. The ribs are attached to and covered by internal and external intercostals muscles. The Skin and Temperature Regulation The optimum human body temperature is 36.8?C. Oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide are obtained from the atmosphere in the case of terrestrial plants and from the surrounding water in the case of aquatic plants. The pulse or number of times the heart beats per minute can be detected by applying pressure on an artery next to the bone. They form wood. When the osmotic pressure of the blood falls below normal due to intake of a large quantity of water, osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are less stimulated. 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This fluid prevents friction between the lungs and the thoracic wall during breathing. The observations are made immediately and after three days the contents are tested for the presence of ethanol. Platelets (Thrombocytes) Platelets are small irregularly shaped cells formed from large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes. Secretion is the production and release of certain useful substances such as hormones, sebum and mucus produced by glandular cells. Sclerenchyma Cells are closely connected to vascular bundles. Blood flows out of the liver through hepatic vein. From here it moves to the substomatal air chambers and eventually diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata. Gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion just as in terrestrial plants. If breathing is difficult, oxygen may be given using an oxygen mask. Distributes heat round the body hence regulate body temperature. It is richly supplied with blood vessels for transport of respiratory gases. The diaphragm at the floor of thoracic cavity consists of a muscLe sheet at the periphery and a central circular fibrous tissue. The factors that need to be regulated include temperature, osmotic pressure and pH. Abdominal organs press against the lungs and force air out of the lungs into buccal cavity. Blood enters the right atrium, then through tricuspid valve into right ventricle. It is then removed with expired air. This adaptation ensures that maximum amount of oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood in the gill filament. Types and Characteristics of Respiratory surfaces Different animals have different respiratory surfaces. The energy comes from breakdown of food in respiration. Vasodilation of Arterioles: The arterioles near the surface become wider in diameter. Root hairs are microscopic outgrowths of epidermal cells. More infections occur during cold weather. Internal structure of roots and root hairs The main functions of roots are ; Anchorage absorption. Agglutinins cause bacteria to clump together and they die. Arteries have a thick, muscular wall, which has elastic and collagen fibres that resist the pressure of the blood flowing in them. A recipient will receive blood from a donor if the recipient has no corresponding antibodies to the donor's antigens. Banks and Financial Institutions Look for printable bill of sale forms on bank and credit union websites. These destroy the red blood cells of the foetus, the condition called haemolytic disease of the newborn. Solute concentration increases inside guard cells, water is drawn into the cells by osmosis. Relaxation of hair erector muscle: When hair erector muscles relax, the hair lies flat thus allowing heat to escape from the skin surface. During the latter stage of pregnancy, fragments of Rhesus positive red blood cells of the foetus may enter mother's circulation. This allows for respiratory gases to dissolve. A person with blood group AB can only donate blood to a person with blood groupAB. Yeast cells have enzymes that bring about anaerobic respiration. The epidermis forms a single layer of cells enclosing other tissues. Allergic reactions can be controlled by avoiding the allergen and administration of anti-histamine drugs. Application of Anaerobic Respiration in Industry and at Home Industry Making of beer and wines. Treatment includes dialysis to remove excess urea and a diet low in proteins and salts especially sodium and potassium. The wave of excitation spreads over the walls of atria. Trachea and bronchi are lined with rings of cartilage that prevent them from collapsing when air pressure is low. Natural Immunity is also called innate immunity. It is inherited from parent to offspring. Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses from the blood across the skin to the atmosphere along the concentration gradient. It is called "Triple Vaccine" or Diptheria, Pertusis and Tetanus (DPT). Wearing surgical stockings may ease a mild occurence. Blood groups Blood Transfusion Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from a donor to the circulatory system of the recipient. Xylem tissue is made up of vessels and tracheids. Sweat glands produce sweat and thus eliminate water and salt from the body. From the bladder, the urine is released to the outside via the urethra. Exchange of substances occurs between cells and tissue fluid. A person of blood group 0 is called a universal donor. Water lost through the stomata and cuticle by evaporation leads to evaporation of water from surfaces of mesophyll cells . Sugar in fruits is broken down anaerobically to produce ethanol in wines. Adaptation of Lungs The lungs are thin walled for fast diffusion of gases. They are made up of a single epithelial layer and have no spiral thickening to allow diffusion of gases. Factors Affecting Rate of Breathing in Humans Factors that cause a decrease or increase in energy demand directly affect rate of breathing. Besides transport of water, xylem has another function of strengthening the plant which is provided by xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. Aerobic Respiration in Plants All Biology Essays All Biology Notes for Senior Two All KCSE Past Papers Biology With Making Schemes All Marking Schemes Questions and Answers All Past K.c.s.e Questions With Answers Alliance Mocks 2017 Anaerobic Respiration Equation Animal Cell Organelles Quiz Answers Animal Cell Questions and Answers Animal Cell Quiz Animal Cell Quiz Labeling Ap Bio Quizzes Ap Biology 1 Textbook Pdf Ap Biology Essay Questions and Answers Are Sourced From KNEC. The Heartbeat The heart is capable of contracting and relaxing rhythmically without fatigue due to its special muscles called cardiac muscles. The direction of flow of blood in the gill lamellae is in the opposite direction to that of the water (counter current flow) to ensure maximum diffusion of gases. Water is then drawn into guard cells by osmosis. Lizards bask on the rocks to gain heat and hide under rocks when it is too hot. The number and distribution of stomata on the lower and upper leaf surface is noted. Severe pain when urinating. Besides values higher than one indicate that some anaerobic respiration is taking place. The mucus moistens air as it enters the nostrils. A person of blood group A can only donate blood to another person with blood group A or a person with blood group AB. Unlike the xylem vessels, their end walls are tapering or chisel-shaped. Guard cells lose turgor and the stoma closes. Explanation is based on accumulation of potassium ions In day time (light) adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is produced which causes potassium ions to move into guard cells by active transport. Veins Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues to the heart (except pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart). Obligate anaerobes are those organisms which do not require oxygen at all and may even die if oxygen is present. Leaf size and shape Plants in wet areas have large surface area for transpiration. Ethanol in beer comes from fermentation of sugar(maltose) in germinating barley seeds. How to Answer Biology Paper 3 Questions? Hence oxygen continually enters the cell along a concentration gradient. Certain organic products are stored in plant organs such as leaves, flowers, fruits and bark and are removed when these organs are shed. The antibody reacts with the antigen violently. Counter Current Flow In the bony fish direction of flow of water over the gills is opposite that of blood flow through the gill filaments . Sodium is actively pumped out of it towards the descending loop. This is referred to as phosphorylation. The citric acid is incorporated into a cyclical series of reactions that result in removal of carbon (IV) oxide molecules, four pairs of hydrogen, ions and electrons. Contractions of atria force the bicuspid and tricuspid valves to open allowing deoxygenated blood from right atrium into right ventricle which oxygenated blood flows from left atrium into the left ventricle. Aquatic Plant Stems The water lily, Salvia and Wolfia whose stems remain in water are permeable to air and water. Terminal ends of the fine tracheoles are filled with a fluid in which gases dissolve to allow diffusion of oxygen into the cells. From the loop of Henle is the distal convoluted tubule that is also coiled. Gaseous Exchange in Amoeba Gaseous exchange occurs across the cell membrane by diffusion. In monocotyledonous stems, vascular bundles are scattered all over the stem, while in dicotyledonous stems vascular bundles are arranged in a ring. Treatment If the condition is caused by pneumococcus bacteria, antibiotics are administered. Excretory products include nitrogenous wastes which originate from deamination of excess amino acids. The mucus traps dust particles, The cilia move the mucus up and out of the nasal cavities. Carbon (IV) oxide concentration inside the cell is higher than that in the surrounding water thus it continually diffuses out of the cell along a concentration gradient. Wind Wind carries away water vapour as fast as it diffuses out of the leaves. 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The muscles contract laterally so the abdomen becomes wider and when they relax it becomes narrow. Cell Membrane: In unicellular organisms the cell membrane serves as a respiratory surface. There are very many alveoli that greatly increases the surface area for gaseous exchange. It is kept moist by secretions from the epithelium for dissolving respiratory gases. Serum is blood from which fibrinogen and cells have been removed. ' Carbon (IV) oxide concentration inside the cells is higher than in the atmospheric . At night oxygen enters the cells while CO2 moves out. 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Light Intensity When light intensity is high; more stomata open hence high rate of transpiration. The products include tannins, resins, latex and oxalic acid crystals. Lymph is excess tissue fluid. Human tuberculosis is spread through droplet infection i.e., in saliva and sputum. This arises when the father is Rh+. It also ensures that a favourable diffusion gradient is maintained. Experiment to Show the Gas Produced During Fermentation Glucose solution is boiled and cooled. C6HI206 _ 2C2H50H + 2C02 + Energy (Glucose) (Ethanol) (Carbon (IV) oxide) Fermentation Is the term used to describe formation of ethanol and carbon (IV) oxide from grains. This can be corrected through blood transfusion and intravenous fluid. The frog also uses epithelium lining of the mouth or buccal cavity for gaseous exchange. A mixture of glucose and yeast is placed in a boiling tube, and covered with a layer of oil to prevent entry of air. The CO2 goes into solution when it comes into contact with the cell surface and diffuses into the cytoplasm. Adaptations of Mitochondrion to its Function The matrix contains DNA ribosomes for making proteins and has

enzymes for the breakdown of pyruvate to carbon (IV) oxide, hydrogen ions and electrons. Maximum extraction of oxygen from the air occurs sometimes when all spiracles close and hence contraction of abdominal muscles results in air circulating within the tracheoles. Pressure inside the mouth is lowered causing water to be drawn into the buccal cavity. For example, Direct Federal Credit Union lists a free bill of sale under the PDF section of its website. Immunisation with B.C.G. vaccine gives protection against tuberculosis. Hydrogen finally combines with oxygen to form water, and 36 molecules of ATP are synthesised. This causes the liver to shrink, harden, become fibrous and fail to carry out its functions. This centre sends impulses to the diaphragm through the phrenic nerve. Urine is carried by the ureter from the kidney to the bladder, which temporarily stores it. Gill bar, gill rakers and two rows of gill filaments are observed. Reticulate. Stomata are found on the leaves. It enters the haemocoel and flows towards the posterior. Swellings called lymph glands occur at certain points along the lymph vessels. These are found on stems of woody plants. Air is trapped between the hairs forming an insulating layer. If it's just a regular PDF file, you'll need to print it before you can fill it out. Ensure that you note the following features. Gases are removed from the plant by diffusion through stomata and lenticels. Stomata and air space are seen. The process requires calcium ions and vitamin K. The veins take the blood back to the heart. Blood clotting reduces loss of blood when blood vessels are injured. Treatment Treatment is by use of antibiotics. Semi-lunar valves close preventing the backflow of blood into ventricles. It thus assumes a dome shape. Transport hormones from sites of production to target organs. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart through pulmonary vein. The concentration of oxygen in the air within the mouth cavity is higher than that of the blood inside the blood vessels. This results in different types of thickening Annular. Plant Excretory Products their source and uses Excretion and Homeostasis in Unicellular Organisms Protozoa such as amoeba depend on diffusion as a means of excretion. Then via semi-lunar valves to aorta which takes oxygenated blood round the body. Lymphocytes produce antibodies which inactivate antigens. The initial steps in the breakdown of glucose are referred to as glycolysis and they take place in the cytoplasm. The process of clotting involves a series of complex reactions whereby fibrinogen is converted into a fibrin clot. The antibodies destroy the invading organisms. Each arteriole divides to form a network of capillaries inside the tissues. Homeostatic Control of Body Temperature in Humans Body size and Heat Loss The amount of heat produced by metabolic reactions in an animal body is proportional to its mass. Treatment and Control There is no definite cure for asthma. If the donor's blood and the recipient's blood are not compatible, agglutination occurs whereby red blood cells clump together. The forces of cohesion and adhesion maintain a continuous flow of water in the xylem from the root to the leaves. Energy is released in some of these steps and as a result molecules of ATP are synthesised. Tuberculosis can also spread from cattle to man through contaminated milk. Mechanism of Excretion Excretion takes place in three steps: Filtration, reabsorption and removal. Others have respiratory roots with large air spaces. The insect is left to settle. They engulf and digest disease causing organisms (pathogens) by phagocytosis. Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata In general stomata open during daytime (in light) and close during the night (darkness). If you're selling a used car, a bill of sale may be a requirement in your state. The lymphocytes synthesis the antibodies which are released into the lymph and eventually reach the blood. Importance of Transpiration Transpiration leads to excessive loss of water if unchecked. A bill of sale is a document that confirms the transfer of the car's title and serves as evidence of a contract. Their bodies are complex, so simple diffusion cannot suffice. The Lungs Carbon (IV) oxide formed during tissue respiration is removed from the body by the lungs. This is because they synthesise proteins according to their requirements. Anaerobic Respiration in Plants Glucose is broken down to an alcohol, (ethanol) and carbon (IV) oxide. Under the buying and selling section of the site, click "bill of sale form" to learn about the form, laws in your state and to download and print a free, generic form. Thromboplastin neutralises heparin the anti-clotting factor in blood and activates prothrombin to thrombin. The pleural membranes secrete pleural fluid into the pleural cavity. Toxic substances ingested e.g. drugs or produced from metabolic reactions in the body are converted to harmless substances in a process called detoxification. e.g. by placing the finger/thumb on the wrist. Accumulation of sugar. Leucocytes (White Blood Cells) These white blood cells have a nucleus. Excessive loss of blood leads to anaemia and dehydration. In some insects, tracheoles widen at certain places to form air sacs. Absence of nucleus leaves room for more haemoglobin to be packed in the cell to enable it to carry more oxygen. These can be broken down further in the presence of oxygen to give more energy. Lenticular transpiration Is loss' of water through lenticels. The type depends mainly on the habitat of the animal, size, shape and whether body form is complex or simple. Uptake of Mineral Salts If the concentration of mineral salts in solution is greater than its concentration in root hair cell, the mineral salts enter the root hair cell by diffusion. Causes: Allergy Due to pollen, dust, fur, animal hair, spores among others. The outermost layer in a root is the piliferous layer. Symptoms Difficulty in breathing. Transport metabolic wastes like nitrogenous wastes and carbon (IV) oxide in solution about 85% of the carbon (IV) oxide is carried in form of hydrogen carbonates. These are referred to as intracellular tracheoles. The skin is involved in regulation of body temperature as follows: The skin has receptors that detect changes in the temperature of the external environment. Some of the fluid gets back into the blood capillaries while excess fluid is drained into the lymph vessels. If you can't find one on your state's websites, check to make sure it's needed. White blood cells defend the body against disease. It is noticed that the rate of breathing is much higher after exercise than at rest. Free bill of sale forms are available online to download and print. The carbon (IV) oxide produced as a by-product is harmful to cells and has to be constantly removed from the body. When the body temperature is above optimum the following takes place: Sweat: Sweat glands secrete sweat onto the skin surface. Dissection of a Small Mammal (Rabbit) to Show Respiratory Organs The rabbit is placed in a bucket containing cotton wool which has been soaked in chloroform. The thinner outer walls extend more than the thicker walls. The coronary vein carries blood from the heart muscle to the pulmonary artery which then takes it to the lungs for oxygenation. The main functions of blood in an insect are to transport nutrients, excretory products and hormones. Importance of Vaccination A vaccine is made of attenuated, dead or non?virulent micro-organism that stimulate cells in the immune system to recognise and attack disease causing agent through production of antibodies. The heart has five chambers and extends along the thorax and abdomen . When attacked by diseases like chicken pox, measles and mumps, those who recover from these diseases develop resistance to any subsequent infections of the same diseases. The afferent arteriole entering the glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole leaving it. It is quite efficient and accounts for 60% of the oxygen taken in while on land. CO2 therefore continues to diffuse into the cells. Root Pressure: If the stem of a plant is cut above the ground level, it is observed that cell sap continues to come out of the cut surface. The skin helps in elimination of urea, lactic acid and sodium chloride which are released in sweat. Cristae increase surface area of mitochondrial inner membranes where attachment of enzymes needed for the transport of hydrogen ions and electrons are found. Lymph glands are oval bodies consisting of connective tissues and lymph spaces. Energy is expended (used) whenever an organism exhibits characteristics of life, such as feeding, excretion and movement. Convulsions in some cases. Their lumen is narrower. Erythrocytes have a life span of about three to four months after which they are destroyed in the liver and spleen. It diffuses out of blood through walls of gill filaments into the water. The alveolus is thin walled for faster diffusion of respiratory gases. The left ventricle has thicker muscles than the right ventricle, and pumps blood for a longer distance to the tissues. Adaptations of Alveolus to Gaseous Exchange Each alveolus is surrounded by very many blood capillaries for efficient transport of respiratory gases. In production of organic acids e.g., acetic acid, that are used in industry e.g., in preservation of foods. Also the size of air spaces and their distribution. It is one of the most important characteristics of living organisms. Such individuals are said to be Rhesus positive (Rh+), while those without the antigen are Rhesus negative (Rh-). A force is created in the leaves which pulls water from xylem vessels in the stem and root. The diaphragm muscles relaxes and it is pushed upwards by the abdominal organs. Use of body protein in respiration result to body wasting, as observed during prolonged sickness or starvation. Others have stomata on the lower leaf surface hence reducing the rate of water-loss. Moisture lining for gases to dissolve. It offers least possible resistance to blood flow. 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Organisms which obtain energy by anaerobic respiration are referred to as anaerobes. Capillarity: Is the ability of water to rise in fine capillary tubes due to surface tension. When an ATP molecule is broken down, it yields energy. Expiration When the nostrils are closed and the floor of mouth is lowered by contraction of its muscles, volume of mouth cavity increases. A constant body temperature favours efficient enzyme reaction. The lignin has been deposited in various ways. Cells of the tubule have microvilli which increases the surface area for re-absorption. This prevents entry of food into the trachea. Their walls are deposited with lignin. Observations under low power and medium power of a microscope are made. Each main trachea divides to form smaller tracheae, each of which branches into tiny tubes called tracheoles. In an open circulatory system; The heart pumps blood into vessels which open into body spaces known as haemocoel. Collenchyma Is next to the epidermis and has thickened walls at the corners which strengthen the stem. Inspiration The ribs are raised upwards and outwards by the contraction of the external intercostal muscles, accompanied by the relaxation of internal intercostal muscles. Labelled drawings are made and the following are noted: Lenticels on terrestrial stems. Lactate Fermentation Is the term given to anaerobic respiration in certain bacteria that results in formation of lactic acid. There are dissolved substances which include; glucose, amino acids, lipids, salts, hormones, urea, fibrinogen, albumen, antibodies, some enzymes suspended cells. Stomata open when osmotic pressure in guard cells becomes higher than that in surrounding cells due to increase in solute concentration inside guard cells. Lymphocytes' are made in the thymus gland and lymph nodes. If the sodium ion concentration rises above optimum level, adrenal cortex Notes missing - The liver Formation of Red Blood Cells. Neuro-Endocrine System and Homeostasis Homeostatic mechanisms are brought about by an interaction between nervous and endocrine systems. Aquatic Plants Roots of aquatic plants e.g. water lily are permeable to water and gases. A thermometer is inserted and held in place with cotton wool . The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. Plants with thick cuticles do not lose water through the cuticle. They form the packing tissue. Lipids i.e. fatty acids and glycerol are also used. Diastole When ventricular muscles relax, the volume of each ventricle increases while pressure decreases. Homeostasis is a self-adjusting mechanism to maintain a steady state in the internal environment Excretion in Plants Plants have little accumulation of toxic waste especially nitrogenous wastes. In humans it is used to maintain a constant body temperature. Excretion in Human Beings Excretion in humans is carried out by an elaborate system of specialised organs. They only regulate body temperature through behavioural means. A serious blockage can result in heart attack which can be fatal. or built up into carbohydrate reserve and stored as glycogen or converted into fat and stored. Transport dissolved food substances round the body. Role of Liver in Excretion The liver lies below the diaphragm and it receives blood from hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein. If blood from an Rh+ individual is introduced into a person who is Rh- , the latter develops antibodies against the Rhesus factor. The lungs lie within the thoracic cavity. A rich supply of blood capillaries for efficient transport of gases. The way the valves work can be demonstrated on the arm. The arteries divide into smaller vessels called arterioles. Air and diffuses out of the cells along a concentration gradient. Neutrophils form 70% of the granulocytes. As sweat evaporates it takes latent heat from the body, thus lowering the temperature. However a subsequent transfusion with Rh+ blood causes a severe reaction, and agglutination occurs i.e. clumping of red blood cells. Carbon (IV) oxide is a by product of respiration and its accumulation in cells is harmful which has to be removed. There are four gills within the opercular cavity on each side of the head. Air rushes into the lungs from outside through the nostrils. Water is then drawn into mesophyll cells by osmosis from adjacent cells and finally from xylem vessels. The dead phagocytes, dead organisms and damaged tissues form pus. As a result of gaseous exchange in the alveolus, expired air has different volumes of atmospheric gases as compared to inspired air. The lungs of an adult human are capable of holding 5,000 cm3 of air when fully inflated. In the plasma are antibodies specific to these antigens denoted as a and b. Diseases of the Respiratory System Asthma Asthma is a chronic disease characterised by narrowing of air passages. The skin of the frog is adapted for gaseous exchange both in water and on land. These are many and large in the spongy mesophyll. Symptoms: include blood in urine, frequent urination, pain, chills and fever. A person of blood group B has B antigens on red blood cells and a antibodies in plasma. They are usually formed in the pelvis of the kidney where they may obstruct the flow of urine. There are about five million red blood cells per cu bic millimetre of blood. Plasma proteins like albumen, fibrinogen and globulin are manufactured in the liver. These are the skin, buccal cavity and lungs. Each tracheole branches further to form a network that penetrates the tissues. Mammalian lungs have many alveoli which are the sites of gaseous exchange. Haemoglobin is then free to pick up more oxygen molecules. This increases the volume of the buccal cavity. Symptoms Headache, nausea, vomiting of blood and lack of appetite, weight loss, indigestion and jaundice. The internal environment consists of intercellular or tissue fluid. Vaccination protects individuals from infections of many diseases like smallpox, tuberculosis and poliomyelitis. Pith Is the central region having parenchyma cells. Each gill filament has very many gill lamellae that further increase surface area. The companion cell is connected to the tube through plasmodesmata. Process of Respiration The breakdown of glucose takes place in many steps. The ureter carries the urine to the bladder where it is stored temporarily and discharged to the outside through the urethra at intervals. This creates pressure in the glomerulus. Simple spiral. Next to the pericycle is the vascular tissue. Use of these substances should be avoided. These cells are thickened by deposition of lignin and they provide support to plants. Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata. Causes: Bacterial infection, sore throat or tonsillitis, blockage of glomeruli by antibody-antigen complex. Other animals do not maintain a constant body temperature e.g. lizards. The capillaries eventually re-unite to form venules, which form larger vessels called veins. The cells lining this tubule have numerous mitochondria which provide the energy needed. Below the piliferous layer is the cortex. They have a large surface area to volume ratio for efficient diffusion. Alkaline pH favours conversion of starch to sugar. Excess tissue fluid is drained into lymph vessels by hydrostatic pressure. A control experiment is set in the same way except that yeast which has been boiled and cooled is used. Stones can be removed by surgery. Taking hot baths and massage. Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the body, they are deaminated in the liver. Factors Affecting Transpiration The factors that affect transpiration are grouped into two. Unlike the rest of the bark, lenticels are permeable to gases and water. Cells obtain their requirements from tissue fluid while waste products from cells diffuse out into the tissue fluid. Ventilation Exchange of air between the lungs and the outside is made possible by changes in the volumes of the thoracic cavity. Blood supply to the skin is reduced and less heat is lost to the surroundings. Treatment is usually by administering drugs called bronchodilators. You can start with your bank or do a general search for any financial institution offering a bill of sale. Rhesus Factor The Rhesus factor is present in individuals with the Rhesus antigen in their red blood cells. Adaptations of Buccal Cavity for Gaseous Exchange It has a thin epithelium lining the walls of the mouth cavity allowing fast diffusion of gases. A person of blood group A has A antigens on the red blood cells and b antibodies in plasma. Air spaces (aerenchyma) in spongy mesophyll are very large. Alternatively the locust is held by the legs and observation of spiracles is made by the aid of hand lens. The Nephron A nephron is a coiled tubule at one end of which is a cup-shaped structure called the Bowman's capsule. The muscles of the diaphragm are attached to the thorax wall. Have internal foldings to increase surface area for gaseous exchange. The Kidney and Osmoregulation The kidney is the main organ that regulates the salt and water balance in the body. This involves decreasing their metabolic activities. Skin and Osmoregulation Osmoregulation is the control of salt and water balance in the body to maintain the appropriate osmotic pressure for proper cell functioning. During development, the cross walls and organelles disappear and a continuous tube is formed. Humidity The higher the humidity of the air around the leaf, the lower the rate of transpiration. Xerophytes have few stomata which reduce water-loss. About 24% agronulocytes are called lymphocytes, while 4% agranulocytes are monocytes. Allergic reactions lead to production of histamine by the body. Regular physical exercise will prevent this condition. Nephritis Nephritis is the inflation of glomerulus of the kidney. They are joined at the ends and the cell walls facing the pore (inner walls) are thicker and less elastic than the cell walls farther from the pore (outer wall). A molecule of lipid yields much more energy than a molecule of glucose. Oxygen enters the cells by diffusion while carbon (IV) oxide leaves. Forward flow of blood in veins is assisted by contraction of skeletal muscles, hence the need for exercise. Small animals eat a lot of food in relation .to their size in order to raise their metabolic rate. At such times, transpiration rate is high. The operculum is forced to open and water escapes. These have pores through which gaseous exchange takes place e.g. in Avicenia the tips of the roots have pores. Movement of water up the plant is by continuous absorption of water from the soil. The opening from the urethra is controlled by a ring-like sphincter muscle. 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Summary of Biology Form 1 Popular Questions in Biology Form 2 Kcse Revision Biology Paper Form One Biology Questions and Answers A Level Biology Revision Notes Pdf Biology Questions and Answers Form 3 Biology Paper 1 Questions and Answers Pdf Biology Form Two Notes Pdf Download Antigens are protein in nature. The oxygen produced during photosynthesis moves out of the cells and into the intercellular spaces. In day time carbon (IV) oxide is used for photosynthesis. This forces blood out of the heart to the lungs through semi-lunar valves and pulmonary artery, and to the body tissues via semi-lunar valve and aorta respectively. Veins have a wider lumen than arteries. More blood flows near the surface and more heat is lost to the surrounding by convection and radiation. Severe broncho-pneumonia. This is a special epidermis of young roots whose cells give rise to root hairs. These are translocated to the growing regions like stem, root apex, storage organs e.g. corms, bulbs and secretory organs such as nectar glands. They are found alongside each sieve element. This leads to the collecting duct which receives contents of many nephrons. Structure and Function of Arteries,Capillaries and Veins Arteries Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They are adapted for gaseous exchange in water. The trachea divides into two bronchi, each of which enters into each lung. The lymph vessels unite to form major lymphatic system. Stomatal transpiration: This accounts for 80-90% of the total transpiration in plants. Treatment Antibiotics are administered. When a molecule of glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen, 2880 KJ of energy are produced (38 molecules of ATP). They have air spaces that help the plants to float. The main excretory organs in mammals such as human beings include lungs, kidneys, skin and liver. The acetyl Co A combines with 4carbon compound with oxalo-acetic acid to form citric acid - a 6 carbon compound. Air is forced out through the nostrils. Availability of Water The more water there is in the soil, the more is absorbed by the plant and hence a lot of water is lost by transpiration. A hand lens is used to view the gills. Control of Rate Of Breathing The rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory centre in the medulla of the brain. Haemoglobin is broken down in the liver and a green pigment biliverdin results which is converted to yellow bilirubin. If the bill of sale is a fillable PDF, you can type the information in directly on form spaces before printing. Large sized molecules in the plasma such as proteins and red blood cells are not filtered out because they are too large. The xylem in the leaf is continuous with xy lem in the stem and root. Small animals produce less heat and lose a lot, due to large surface area to volume ratio. Each _gill consists of a number of thin leaf-like lamellae projecting from a skeletal base branchial arch (gill bar) situated in the wall of the pharynx. This ensures that blood flows towards the heart. Hydrogen ions and electrons are taken to the inner mitochondria membrane where enzymes and electron carriers effect release of a lot of energy. The following are some of the features that can be observed in the leave of an aquatic plant; Absence of cuticle Palisade mesophyll cells are very close to each other pact. A hormone called Aldosterone produced by the adrenal cortex regulates the level of sodium ions. Most organisms use oxygen for respiration which is obtained from the environment. Observations are made on the changes in lime water (calcium hydroxide) as gas is produced. The aorta forms branches which supply blood to all parts of the body. Elimination of Sex Hormones Once they have completed their functions, sex hormones are chemically altered by the liver and then taken to the kidney for excretion. Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus (DPT) vaccine protects children against diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus. When the level of sodium ions in the blood is low, adrenal cortex releases aldosterone into the blood. storage gaseous exchange. Phloem phloem is made up of; sieve tubes, companion cells parenchyma, a packing tissue schlerenchyma, a strengthening tissue Sieve Tubes These are elongated cells arranged end to end along the vertical axis. Causes Chronic alcohol abuse, schistosomiasis infection, obstruction of gall-bladder. Excess fluid drains into small channels called lymph capillaries which empty their contents into lymphatic vessels. They strengthen the leaf making it firm and assist it to float. Prevention Maintain good health through proper feeding. In the process, glucose is fully broken down to carbon (IV) oxide and hydrogen which forms water when it combines with the oxygen. Give patient fat-free diet, reduced amount of proteins. In each complete circulation, the blood flows into the heart twice. The pelvis is a collecting space leading to the ureter which takes the urine to the bladder from where it is eliminated through the urethra. They are packing tissues and food storage areas. Blood from the heart goes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and then back to the heart through pulmonary vein. Phloem Parenchyma These are parenchyma cells between sieve elements. It is caused by blockage of coronary artery which supplies blood to the heart. It may be due to formation of cysts in tubules or reduction in blood supply to the glomeruli as a result of contraction of renal artery. Diabetes insipidus is a disease that results from the failure of the pituitary gland to produce ADH and the body gets dehydrated. Avoidance of crowded places and living in well ventilated houses. Comparison Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration Comparison Between Energy Output in Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic respiration results in the formation of simple inorganic molecules, water and carbon (Iv) oxide as the by?products. And when the increase is above normal, mechanisms that lower the temperature are set in place. This is called double circulation. End of Topic Gaseous Exchange in Plants and Animals Necessity for Gaseous Exchange in Living Organisms Living organisms require energy to perform cellular activities. Structural Factors Cuticle Plants growing in arid or semi-arid areas have leaves covered with a thick waxy cuticle. Heredity Asthma is usually associated with certain disorders which tend to occur in more than one member of a given family, thus suggesting' a hereditary tendency. They are usually thin in order to reduce the distance of diffusion. Sickness Emotions like anger, flight Sleep. They have a large surface area in order to increase diffusion. Utensils used by the sick should be sterilised by boiling. When you are finished, click the printer icon to print your form. Ventilation Inspiration During inspiration, the floor of the mouth is lowered and air is drawn in through the nostrils. Pin the rabbit to the dissecting board by the legs. Blood capillaries around the alveoli have a high concentration of carbon (Iv) oxide than the alveoli lumen. Root hairs penetrate the soil and make close contact with it. Erythroblastosis foetalis (haemolytic disease of the newborn) results when an Rh- mother carries an Rh+ foetus. The Bowman's capsule leads to the proximal convoluted tubule that is coiled and extends into a U-shaped part called loop of Henle. Control and Treatment Avoid alcohol consumption and fatty diet. This ensures efficient uptake of oxygen from the water. The lungs communicate with the outside atmosphere through the bronchi, trachea, mouth and nasal cavities. A person with hypertension which is also called high blood pressure has his/her blood being pumped more forcefully through the narrow vessels. Carbon (IV) oxide is therefore removed at a faster rate. Most animals have structures that are adapted for taking in oxygen and for removal of carbon (IV) oxide from the body. The ostia have valves which prevent the backflow of blood. Such immunity is said to be passive because the body is not activated to produce the antibodies. Lungs There is a pair of small lungs used for gaseous exchange. In the tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down (dissociates) easily into haemoglobin and oxygen. A branch of the aorta called coronary artery supplies blood to the heart muscle. On a windy day, the rate of transpiration is high. Haemoglobin readily picks up oxygen in the lungs where concentration of oxygen is high. Anaerobic Respiration Anaerobic respiration involves breakdown of organic substances in the absence of oxygen. Skin: Animals such as earthworm and tapeworm use the skin or body surface for gaseous exchange. The body works as a self-regulating system and can detect changes in its working conditions bringing about corrective responses. Double spiral. Nitrogenous waste and carbon (IV) oxide are highly concentrated in the organism hence they diffuse out. Internal structure of a root hair cell The Stem The main functions of the stem are; support and exposure of leaves and flowers to the environment, conducting water and mineral salts conducting manufactured food from leaves to other parts of the plant. Process of Gaseous Exchange in Root Stem and Leaves of Aquatic and Terrestrial Plants Gaseous Exchange in leaves of Terrestrial Plants Gaseous exchange takes place by diffusion. Itching of skin. Adaptation of Gills for Gaseous Exchange Gill filaments are thin walled. Breakdown and elimination of old and dead blood cells. During flight, some of the fluid is withdrawn from the tracheoles such that oxygen reaches muscle cells faster and the rate of respiration is increased. This causes a bulge and stoma opens. The thoracic cavity consists of vertebrae, sternum, ribs and intercostal muscles. The volume of thoracic cavity increases, thus reducing the pressure. They act as packing tissue. No gaseous exchange takes place in the trachea and bronchi. Tracheoles in between the cells are known as intercellular tracheoles. In monocotyledonous root, xylem alternates with phloem and there is a pith in the centre. Treatment Removal of stones from the gall bladder by surgery. A control experiment is set in the same way using boiled and cooled bean seeds which have been washed in formalin to kill micro?organisms. The mesophyll cells draw water from the xylem vessels by osmosis. At the end of 10 minutes the number of breaths per minute is immediately counted and recorded. Exercise, any muscular activity like digging. A person of blood group AB can receive blood from any other group. In locusts, air enters through spiracles in the thorax during inspiration and leaves through the abdominal spiracles during expiration. This process of filtration is called ultra-filtration or pressure filtration and the filtrate is called glomerular filtrate. Avoid extreme cold. Cellular activities depend directly on ATP as an energy source. One student stands still while the other counts (his/her) the number of breaths per minute. Xylem Vessels Xylem vessels are formed from cells that are elongated along the vertical axis and arranged end to end. Artificial Immunity can be natural or induced. Kidneys are located at the back of the abdominal cavity. They are poikilotherms (ectotherms) as their temperature varies according to that of surroundings. Some other animals like fish have a single circulation. The innermost layer of the artery is called endothelium which is smooth. Narrow coronary artery results in less blood reaching the heart muscles. This helps to reduce water-loss. Lymphatic System The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels. This causes a drop in solute concentration that leads to movement of water out of guard cells by osmosis. It has collenchyma, parenchyma and schlerenchyma cells. If little or no ADH is produced, the body may become dehydrated unless large quantities of water are consumed regularly. low sugar concentration lead to loss of turgidity in guard cells and stoma closes. Bronchitis This is an inflammation of bronchial tubes. The form is typically titled "Vehicle/Vessel Bill of Sale." Not all states require a bill of sale. pH changes in guard cells occur due to photosynthesis. Behavioural and Physiological Responses to Temperature Changes Animals gain or lose heat to the environment by conduction, radiation and convection. Stomata The more the stomata, the higher the rate of transpiration. Substances translocated include glucose, amino acids, vitamins. Observation is made within three days. During the period of exercise, the body builds up an oxygen debt. Blood typing A person of blood group 0 can donate blood to a person of any other blood group. Atmospheric air that dissolves in the fluid at the end of tracheoles has more oxygen than the surrounding cells of tracheole epithelium'. The functions of plasma include: Transport of red blood cells which carry oxygen. Most organisms require oxygen of the air for respiration and this takes place in the mitochondria. Some have sunken stomata which reduces the rate of transpiration as the water vapour accumulates in the pits. The process of taking in oxygen into the body and carbon (IV) oxide out of the body is called breathing or ventilation. Carbon (IV) oxide is required as a raw material for the synthesis of complex organic substances. Nasal cavities are connected to the atmosphere through the external nares(or nostrils)which are lined with hairs and mucus that trap dust particles and bacteria, preventing them from entering into the lungs. The valves in the spiracles regulate the opening and closing of spiracles. Blood screening has become a very important step in controlling HIV/AIDS. Gaseous exchange in the leaves of aquatic(floating)plants Aquatic plants such as water lily have stomata only on the upper leaf surface. Expiration The internal intercostal muscles contract while external ones relax and the ribs move downwards and inwards. Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses from blood into the lung lumen. Mangroove plants grow in permanently waterlogged soils, muddy beaches and at estuaries. In the dairy industry, bacterial fermentation occurs in the production of several dairy products such as cheese, butter and yoghurt. How to Answer KCSE Biology Paper 1 Questions? Causes Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Observation of internal structure of leaves of aquatic plants Transverse section of leaves of an aquatic plant such as Nymphaea differs from that of terrestrial plant. Gill filaments are very many (about seventy pairs on each gill), to increase surface area. Lymph has the same composition as blood except that it does not contain red blood cells and plasma proteins. The main lymph vessels empty the contents into sub-clavian veins which take it to the heart. Common Kidney Diseases Uraemia This is a condition in which concentration of urea in the blood. Every living cell requires energy to stay alive. This may result in death e.g., if cells in brain lack oxygen that is needed for respiration for a short time, death may occur. Haemoglobin contained in red blood cells is responsible for the transport of oxygen. When blood vessels are injured platelets are exposed to air and they release thromboplastin which initiates the blood clotting process. On the other hand, carbon (IV) oxide diffuses in the opposite direction along a concentration gradient. This requires a negative feedback mechanism e.g. when body temperature falls below normal, mechanisms are set in place that bring about increase in temperature. Translocation of organic compounds Translocation of soluble organic products of photosynthesis within a plant is called translocation. Capillaries Capillaries are small vessels whose walls are made of endothelium which is one cell thick. If these substances are inhaled, they trigger release of chemical substances and they may cause swelling of the bronchioles and bring about an asthma attack. People with allergies are oversensitive to foreign materials like dust, pollen grains, some foods, some drugs and some air pollutants. It is picked by the artrio-ventricular node which is located at the junction: Of the atria and ventricles, from where the purkinje tissue spreads the wave to the walls of the ventricles. Symptoms: Yellow pigmentation of skin and eyes, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite. Cause: Presence of excess bile pigments. Guard cells become turgid and the stoma opens. This circulation is called systemic circulation. The cells are dead and their walls are strengthened by deposition of lignin. The urine is discharged into the collecting d ct and carried to the pelvis. Blockage may be due to artery becoming fibrous or accumulation of fatty material on the artery walls. Isolation of sick persons reduces its spread. Large air spaces (aerenchyma) in aquatic stems. Gaseous Exchange in Animals All animals take in oxygen for oxidation of organic compounds to provide energy for cellular activities. Water molecules pass through this tissue to reach the vascuiar bundles. Varicose Veins Superficial veins especially at the back of the legs become swollen and flabby due to some valves failing to function properly. Each bronchus divides into smaller tubes, the bronchioles. The attraction between water molecules and the walls of xylem vessels is called adhesion. They do this mainly by internally installed physiological mechanisms hence they are endotherms, also known as homoiotherms. The clot forms a scab that stops bleeding and protects the damaged tissues from entry of micro-organisms. This reduces acidity while the oxygen produced increases alkalinity. How to Answer KCSE Biology Paper 3 Questions? Observation of Gills of a Bony Fish (Tilapia) Gills of a fresh fish are removed and placed in a petri-dish with enough water to cover them. Then via semi-lunar valve to the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Oxygenated blood leaves the heart through the aorta and goes to all the tissues of the body. This is done a few days after birth with subsequent boosters. How to Answer Biology Paper 2 Questions? Companion Cells Companion cells are small cells with large nuclei and many mitochondria. Gaseous Exchange in Plants Oxygen is required by plants for the production of energy for cellular activities. As the water flows over the gill filaments oxygen in the water is at a higher concentration than that in the blood flowing, in the gill. Animals in cold areas have a thick layer of subcutaneous fat, which helps to insulate the body. All the steps can be grouped into three main stages: Glycolysis. Therefore water moves from root hair cells into the surrounding cortex cells by osmosis. Blood is pumped forwards into the aorta by waves of contractions in the heart. These are inflated or deflated to facilitate gaseous exchange as need arises. Removal The urine is conveyed from the pelvis to the ureter. The breakdown is incomplete. If the concentration of mineral salts in the root hair cells is greater than in the soil water, the mineral salts enter the root hairs by active transport. Xylem fibres ; Are cells that are strengthened with lignin. It occurs in phloem in sieve tubes. Structure and Function of the Heart The heart has four chambers: Two artria (auricles) and two ventricles. which in turn increases kinetic energy of water molecules which increases evaporation. Oxygen, therefore dissolves in the moisture lining the mouth cavity and then diffuses into the blood through the thin epithelium. After vigorous activity, one has to breathe faster and deeper to take in more oxygen. Effects of Exercise on Rate of Breathing Students to work in pairs. When a molecule of glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen in plants, 210 KJ are produced (2 molecule ATP). Oxygen dissolved in the film of moisture diffuses across the thin epithelium and into the blood which has a lower concentration of oxygen.

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