Community Psychology: Linking Individuals and …

Copyright American Psychological Association

CONTENTS

Preface xix

I. Introducing Community Psychology Chapter 1 The Fundamentals of Community Psychology:

Promoting Social Change1 What Is Community Psychology? 3 Individualistic Versus Structural Perspectives 6 Community Psychology: A Shift in Perspective 8 Persons, Contexts, and Change 9

Persons and Contexts 9 Structural Perspectives and First-Order and Second-Order

Change11 Ecological Levels of Analysis in Community Psychology 15 Individuals17 Microsystems17 Organizations18 Localities18 Macrosystems19 Levels of Intervention 20 Eight Core Values in Community Psychology 22 Social Justice 25 Respect for Human Diversity 25 Sense of Community 26 Collective Wellness 26 Empowerment and Citizen Participation 27 Collaboration27 Empirical Grounding 28 Multilevel, Strengths-Based Perspective 28 The Interrelationship of Community Psychology Values 28 Overview of This Book 30 Using Respectful Language to Discuss Social Identities 30 Learning Goals 31

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Chapter 2 The Development and Practice of Community Psychology33

Community Psychology as a Linking Science and a Linking Practice35

The Practice of Psychology in the 20th Century 36 Individualistic Practice 37 Psychology in Cultural Perspective 38

The Formative Contexts of Community Psychology 39 The Growth of Psychology After World War II 39 Preventive Perspectives on Problems in Living 41 Reforms in Mental Health Systems 42 Group Dynamics and Action Research 45 Movements for Social Change and Liberation 47 Undercurrents of Optimism 50

Community Psychology: Developing an Identity 51 The Swampscott Conference 51 Establishing a Field of Community Psychology 52

Community Psychology in Shifting Social Contexts 53 Societal Shifts Toward Individual-Level Conceptualization of Social Problems 54 Emergence of Globalization as a Movement 55 Defining Social Issues in Progressive and Conservative Eras56

Developing New Conceptual Frameworks to Inform the Practice of Community58 Addressing Social Issues and Equity 58 Bottom-Up and Top-Down: Contrasting Approaches to Social Change61 Diversity of Viewpoints, Divergent Reasoning, and Dialogue62

What Do Community Psychologists Do? 63 Training for Community Psychology 63 Community Psychology Practice 64 Community Psychology Practice Skills 65 Ethics in Community Psychology 69

The Global Contexts of Community Psychology 70 Unique Development in Different Contexts 71 Community Psychology in North America 71 Community Psychology in Latin America 72 Community Psychology in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand73

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Community Psychology in Africa 74 Community Psychology in Asia 75 Moving Toward Global Dialogues in Community

Psychology76 Conclusion77

II. Community Research

Chapter 3 The Aims of Community Research80

Action Research in Community Psychology 81 Community Research Practice: Shared Commitments in Contextually Grounded Inquiry 83

Examining the Values and Assumptions We Bring to Our Work84 Three Philosophies of Science for Community Psychology Research84 Problem Definition in Research 88 Attending to Marginalized Voices 89

Promoting Community Participation and Collaboration in Research Decisions 91 Developing a Relationship "Before the Beginning" 93 Research Decisions: Defining the Topic and Collecting Data95 Interpreting Findings 96 Reporting Research and Evaluating Its Impact 97 Ethics of Participatory Approaches 101

Attending to the Cultural and Social Contexts of Research 102 Three Methodological Issues Involving Culture 102 Conducting Culturally Anchored Research 105

Conducting Research With an Ecological Perspective 107 An Example of the Importance of Considering Levels of Analysis: Supported Housing Environments 107 How Can Ecological Levels Be Studied? 108

Conclusion109

Chapter 4 Methods of Community Psychology Research111

Answering Research Questions in Community Psychology 113 Qualitative Methods 113

Participant Observation 116 Qualitative Interviewing 117 Focus Groups 118

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Case Studies 119 Two Concluding Issues 122 Quantitative Methods 124 Common Features of Quantitative Methods 125 Quantitative Description and Inference 126 Randomized Field Experiments 130 Nonequivalent Comparison Group Designs 132 Interrupted Time-Series Designs 134 Mixed-Methods Research 137 Combining Participatory Methods and GIS Mapping to

Understand Community 138 A Mixed-Methods Evaluation of Peer Support for Early

Adolescents138 A Mixed-Methods Evaluation of the Sexual Assault Nurse

Examiner Program 140 Conclusion141

III. Understanding Communities

Chapter 5 Understanding Individuals Within Environments144

Conceptual Models of Ecological Context 147 Four Ecological Principles 147 Social Climate Dimensions 152 Social Regularities 154 Ecological Psychology and Behavior Settings 155 Activity Settings 158 Environmental Psychology 161 Comparing the Six Perspectives on Ecological Context: An Example163

The Importance of Understanding Ecological Contexts for Intervention166 Research: Linking Neighborhoods, Families, and Individuals166 Promoting Neighborhood Quality of Life 171

Creating and Altering Settings 172 The Community Lodge: Creating an Alternative Setting 172

Conclusion: Promise and Challenges of Changing Environments176 How Are Contexts Both Powerful and Fragile in Their Influences on Individuals? 176 How Can We Understand Ecological Contexts as Dynamic Systems That Change Over Time? 177

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How Can We Clarify the Mutual Relationships Between Individuals and Contexts? 177

How Are Ecological Contexts Influenced by Culture, Ethnicity, Gender, and Other Social Processes? 177

Chapter 6 What Defines Community?179

An Ecological-Transactional Model of Communities 180 What Is a Community? 181

Types of Communities 182 Levels of Communities 183 Who Defines Communities? 184 Sense of Community 185 Benefits of a Sense of Community 186 Four Elements of Sense of Community 188 Questions and Issues for Defining and Measuring Sense of

Community191 Concepts Related to Sense of Community 192 The Complex Realities of Communities 194 Counterspaces196 Multiple Communities in a Person's Life 198 Conflict and Change Within a Community 199 Respect for Diversity and Sense of Community 201 The Importance of Community 202 Social Capital 202 Building Communities 206 The Physical and Natural Environments 207 Sense of Community Online 209 Hope, Spirituality, and Transcendence in Relation to Sense of Community211 Conclusion213

Chapter 7 Understanding Human Diversity in Context214

Fostering Brave Spaces: An Invitation to Engage In Diversity Conversations With Courage and Humility 215

What Is Human Diversity? 216 Intersectionality: A Tool for Understanding Human Diversity 217 Key Dimensions of Human Diversity for Community

Psychology218 Culture219 Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Social Class 220 Dimensions of Diversity Receiving Greater Attention in Community Psychology 224 Social Inequities 229

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