Module 8: The Brain



Chapter 12: Emotions

• What is emotion?

Emotion = a response of the whole organism, involving:

o Physiological arousal

o Expressive behaviors

o Conscious experience

Of all species, we seem the most emotional.

• What are the 2 main historical theories of emotion?

Early theories of emotion were psychophysiological:

Common sense suggests: stimulus ( emotion ( reaction

James-Lange theory = physical response precedes emotion, i.e., we react physically, then become aware of our body sensations, the awareness is our emotional experience.

Evidence for: Lack of physical feeling seems to correspond with a lack of emotion, i.e., spinal chord injury victims report not feeling emotions strongly (except for crying which takes place above the neck seem to substantiate).

If we act out an emotion we aren’t feeling, it can lead to an actual experience of that emotion. And in fact making facial expressions do in fact elicit emotions—subtly but detectably (holding a pen in your teeth [smile] versus your mouth [frown] will subtly affect your mood). This is also why asking people to imitate the feeling being observed is a good way to help them empathize, because it will prompt them subtly to feel the same feeling.

Cannon-Bard theory = response and emotion happen simultaneously.

CB noted that the physiology of our various emotions are very similar; so how can the same basic physiological activity lead to such varied interpretations.

Besides activities like peeling onions create a physical response similar to certain emotions (crying), but we don’t label the experience as sadness.

Modern psychophysiological explanations stress the importance of hormone levels to emotions. For example, high testosterone levels has been linked to aggression.

• What are modern theories of emotion?

Modern theories focus on the role of cognition upon emotion.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory = says that to experience an emotion we need both a physical response and a cognitive label.

The basic principle of the theory is that all emotions play out in physiologically similar ways, it’s cognition that determines what we’re feeling that is key.

Schachter and Singer conducted an experiment where they chemically arousing subjects then exposing them to euphoric or irritated accomplice. Half the time they informed the subjects about the effects of the drug (the C group) and half the time they didn’t). Those not informed picked up the mood of the confederate, showing the importance of cognition.

Controlling our cognitions do in fact affect our emotions, i.e., thinking more positively about ourselves and the world around us helps us feel better.

Arousal intensifies whatever emotion we’re feeling (so you’ll react more emotionally to an insult if you’ve just exercised; great sex after a huge fight).

Zajonc’s theory = argues that emotion and cognition are separate.

He points out that emotional reaction sometimes are quicker than cognition, i.e., reacting to a snake. Nervous system studies bear this out, i.e., sometimes the amygdala, which is the part of the limbic system which controls emotions in brain reacts directly to a stimulus, bypassing the higher levels of the brain altogether

Similarly, subliminally flashing an angry or happy too fast to register consciously still affects us.

Lazarus’ theory = argues that cognition is going on, albeit at a subconscious level, even if it’s too fast for conscious awareness (otherwise how would we know to react)

Although emotional arousal plays out in very physiologically similar ways, different emotions do have subtle physiological differences and use different parts of the brain. Interestingly, our right brain seems to be where we process negative emotions; the left where we process positive. Infants with more left-brain activity seem to be more cheerful.

Since most emotions are complex, it’s important not to underestimate cognitive factors.

• How does our body react physically when we’re frightened?

Our autonomic nervous system controls the physiology of emotional arousal: The sympathetic NS arouses while the parasympathetic NS calms.

The SNS is our “fight or flight” response:

o Pupils dilate to let in more light

o Salivation and digestion are inhibited, making more blood and energy available elsewhere

o Heart and respiration increase

o Blood sugar is dumped in the blood stream for energy

o More blood coagulants are made available

o We perspire to cool our aroused body

o Our muscles tense ready for action

o Our adrenal glands secrete stress hormones

The PNS has the reverse effects.

• What is a polygraph?

Polygraph = also called a lie-detector, is a machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies by measuring several physiological responses such as perspiration, heart rate, blood pressure and breathing changes that accompany emotion.

The problem is that PGs measure all emotional stress (it doesn’t distinguish between guilty lying and fearful honesty)

Research studies show PGs are inaccurate about a third of the time, more often labeling the innocent as guilty.

• What is nonverbal communication?

Much communication is nonverbal, i.e., a matter of tone, inflection, body language and the like. Nonverbal communication is powerful: simply gazing into another’s eyes creates attraction and affection.

Nonverbal communication is not easily hidden. Research suggests that teachers who think they can hide their emotions from students or observers are mistaken. That said, some people read emotions better than others. Introverts are better at reading body language; extraverts are easier to read. Women are better readers than men. Both men and women find each other harder to read then their own sex.

Women are also more expressive: women smile more, gesture more, have more facial expression and talk more about emotions. Men express only anger more openly.

Why these gender differences? Regarding, emotion reading, power differential is an important factor, i.e., those with less power are more motivated to read the nonverbal emotional cues and read them better than those with more power.

Re: emotional expression, social environment is important, i.e., people from expressive families or cultures are generally more emotionally expressive.

Most nonverbal communication varies from culture to culture: James Baker/Tariq Aziz miscommunication about Iraq invasion; Nixon’s A-OK sign in Brazil meant “Let’s have sex”; whistling at American athletes at the Olympics.

The exception is facial expressions, which seem to be innate and universal (even primitive societies and blind children exhibit the same emotional expressions). Psychologists are now trying to map out the minute facial topography of real and feigned emotions. Physiological measures of emotion are also consistent across cultures.

Display rules = the cultural rules governing how and when a person may express emotion. Amount of expression expressed differs from culture to culture (Western countries tend to be more expressive; Asian countries less so).

• How many basic emotions are there?

Izard reports ten basic emotions: joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame and guilt. I want you to be aware of what I consider the five primary emotions: mad, sad, glad, scared, shamed.

Anger: Research suggests that holding in anger or other negative emotions increases the risk of coronary heart disease. Holding in any emotion is associated with health problems and a shorter life span. That said, research also shows that expressing anger tends to feed it, i.e., if we speak our anger aloud, we’re more apt to solidify it. This goes against the idea that expressing feelings is cathartic, i.e., leads to an experience of emotional release. Personally, I think the problem isn’t the expression of anger, but holding onto our justifications of why we’re angry (which is why clearings can make such a difference).

So, what to do? Wait, to calm down from aroused state (remember arousal intensifies emotions). Do a clearing to get cognition working for you, not against. Drain it off through exercising or talking it out with a friend. If appropriate, communicate your feelings and needs clearly and assertively.

Groups who are more collectivist as opposed to individualistic generally see anger as a threat to group harmony and interdependence.

• What makes us feel happy and why is it so elusive?

As you’d expect, feeling happy can make a big difference in our lives. Happy people experience the world as safer, make decisions more easily, cooperate more and more favorably disposed towards others. Happy people have higher self, esteem, are more optimistic, outgoing and agreeable, have close friendships and a satisfying marriage, have work and leisure that engage their skills, have a meaningful religious faith, sleep well and exercise.

The feel-good, do-good phenomena states that people tend to be helpful when already in a good mood. It’s a well-substantiated phenomenon.

What leads to happiness and what doesn’t?

o Engaging work or leisure rather than passive vegetating more inductive of happiness, usually the less expensive the better (friends over TV, gardening over motor-boating). Perhaps as much as 50% of cheerful attitude may be hereditary (different happiness set-points).

o Surprisingly, happiness or its lack doesn’t seem to be associated with trauma or tragedy. People with disabilities report just as much happiness as people without. We bounce back from even the most terrible tragedies (within a year, 90% of quadriplegics consider their life good or great).

o Affluence also doesn’t seem to affect happiness. Yes, like health, its utter lack creates unhappiness, but having it doesn’t guarantee happiness. In fact, people who are oriented to making money are more likely to unhappy then those who strive for intimacy, personal growth and community contribution. Valuing love not money is associated with happiness.

o Similarly, there is no apparent relationship to age, gender (women both more often depressed and more often joyful), education, parenthood or physical attractiveness.

Adaptation-level phenomenon = the tendency to form judgments relative to a “neutral” level defined by our prior experience. In other words, we all walk around with a “baseline” inside us defined by our prior experience. If we exceed our baseline, we feel happy; fall below it, we feel dissatisfied. Which is why happiness will always be elusive: if things are great, that becomes our new baseline or standard.

Relative deprivation = the perception that one is worse off relative to those you compare yourself to. Comparing ourselves with those who have more, brings us down; with those who have less builds us up. Which is why bumping into someone in real straits, often helps us put our own more minor complaints in perspective.

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