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Identifying Similarities and DifferencesInside-Outside CircleBasics:Time Needed: 10-20 minutesRoom Arrangement: Desks/tables to the side; open area in the middleMaterials: Discussion promptsProcess Directions:This is strategy is used to facilitate discussion time in a classroom. In it, half of the students in the class stand in a small circle in the middle of the room, facing outward. The other half stands in a larger circle around them, facing inward so that two students are paired up—one on the outside of the circle, one on the inside of the circle. This strategy can be used in various ways. The teacher can ask students questions and have them discuss with their partner and respond, or the pairs can hold mini discussions about a topic and then share. Either way, after each pair activity, the outside circle rotates around the inner circle, and the pairs are switched. After the strategy, the students will have spoken to many of their classmates, and they will gained valuable insights from their peers.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in an elementary lesson, prompting partners to use their already-created graphic organizers to talk about the ideas they have in common with their circle partner and the ideas they have different. At the end, we would come back together to discuss everyone’s thoughts and answers. Students would rotate around the circle to see as many similarities and differences as possible.Middle School: I would use this strategy as a way of reviewing for a math test. I would have students carry their review math homework with them around the circle, and each time they switched they would compare and contrast their answers and work with their partners, talking about why they think their answers are the same or different and which answers they think are correct. At the end, we would go over all of the answers together.Sources:Kagan, S. (1992).?Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.Gibbs, J. (2001). Tribes: A new way of learning and being together. Windsor, CA: Center Source Systems, LLC. Johnson, D., Johnson R., & Johnson-Holubec, E. (1993). Circles of learning: Cooperating in the classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book parison MatrixBasics:Time Needed: 10-20 minutesRoom Arrangement: Cooperative learning groups if done in small groups Whole class discussion/lecture set-up if done as classMaterials: Whiteboard or overhead projector Individual comparison matrix worksheets for all studentsProcess Directions:This comparison strategy can be used in small groups, whole group, or for individuals. It is used for within a lesson in which it is essential to compare things or ideas. Students take three or so items to compare and place them at the top of a graphic organizer and list characteristics of these items on the side. Then, the students check off the characteristics to visually see how various items are related…or not. The final column is for students to reflect on the specific similarities and differences of each characteristic. After completing this matrix, students will have a clear picture of the similarities and differences of all of the items they are comparing.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in a language arts lesson that compares two different characters in a story. I would have students list different characteristics of each character, and then they could fill in the rest of the comparison matrix in small groups, getting a visual picture of how the two characters are similar or different. For example, they could compare Little Red Riding Hood to the Wolf in the Little Red Riding Hood story to see that they do have similarities while also having differences.Middle School: In a middle school math class, I would use this strategy to help students compare different geometric shapes. I would even expand it to include more than two shapes for a more advanced analysis of comparisons and contrasts. For example, we could compare a rhombus and a square using characteristics such as “has four sides,” “has 2 sets of parallel sides,” “is made up of two triangles,” etc. Sources:Chen, Z. (1999). Schema induction in children’s analogical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(4), 703-715.Cole, J. C., & McLeod, J. S. (1999). Children’s writing ability. The impact of pictorial stimulus. Psychology in Schools, 36(4) 359-370.Glynn, S. M., & Takahashi, T. (1998). Learning from analogy-enhanced science text. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(10), 1129-1149.Lin, H. (1996). The effectiveness of teaching science with pictorial analogies. Research in Science Education, 26(4), 495-511.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Mason, L. (1994). Cognitive and metacognitive aspects in conceptual change by analogy. Instructional Science 22(3), 157-187.Venn DiagramBasics:Time Needed: 5-10 minutes depending on the complexityRoom Arrangement: Cooperative learning groups if done in small groups Whole class discussion/lecture set-up if done as classMaterials: Whiteboard or overhead projector Individual Venn diagram worksheets for all students (if desired)Process Directions:This is a graphic organizer used to compare two things. It can be used in any lesson in which the teacher needs to show similarities and differences between two things. First, the students draw two circles overlapping each other. In the middle section, the students write the similarities between the two things, and in the outside sections, they write the differences. Another version would be to have students group the actual items themselves in the various regions of the diagram. For example, items that green on one side, items that are blue on the other, and items that are blue and green in the middle. Note: Students should use a new Venn diagram for each comparison category. For example, when comparing the food and major holidays from pioneer days and today they would use two diagrams. This strategy can be carried out as a whole group, a small group, or as an individual. After this strategy, the students will have a visual representation of similarities and differences between the two items they compared.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: See “Trees are Friends” lesson later in this profileMiddle School: This strategy can be used to compare virtually anything. For example, in a language arts classroom, I could compare two different genres of writing using examples from stories we have read in class to spark such a discussion. This could be anything from comparing drama and prose to comparing two different styles of poetry.An example of a Venn diagram:Source:Venn, J. (1880). On the diagrammatic and mechanical representation of propositions and reasonings. Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 9(59), 1-18.Metaphors Basics:Time Needed: 1-5 minutes depending on the complexityRoom Arrangement: Cooperative learning groups if done in small groups Whole class discussion/lecture set-up if done as classMaterials: Whiteboard or overhead projector (if desired) Individual metaphor worksheets for all students (if desired)Process Directions:This identifying similarities and differences strategy is used when a teacher wants to connect a concept to the real-world or something that students can relate to. Students are asked to create a metaphor to describe something they are learning about. A successful metaphor has an abstract bridge between the two things being compared. The sequence is: literal, abstract, literal. The teacher should guide students through choosing something literal, abstract, and literal from which to create a metaphor. Students can do this on their own once they have been taught, and it will help them think more creatively and allow them to make connections between concepts and the real-world.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Upper Elementary: For example, if students are looking at structures in a cell they would first discover what structures did what. Then, they would state these functions in general, abstract terms. After that, they would find another common knowledge thing that can be compared to each specific cell structure (something that would also fit the general, abstract statement). An example of this would be as follows:CellGeneral, AbstractClassroomNucleusThe part that runs the systemThe teacherMiddle School: For a middle school math lesson on fractions, we may construct the following metaphor:NumberGeneral, AbstractFoodFractionA piece of a wholeA piece of a pieSources:Dagher, Z. R. (1995). Does the use of analogies contribute to conceptual change? Science and Education, 78(6), 601-604.Gottfried, G. M. (1998). Using metaphors as modifiers: Children’s production of metaphoric compounds. Journal of Child Language, 24(3), 567-601.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Mason, L. (1995). Analogy, meta-conceptual awareness, and conceptual change: A classroom study. Educational Studies, 20(2), 267-291.Analogies Basics:Time Needed: Varies (usually 5-10 minutes depending on the complexity)Room Arrangement: AnyMaterials: whiteboard/overhead projector (if desired) Analogies worksheet for all students (if desired)Process Directions:In this comparative strategy, students learn the relationships between different things by comparing them in an analogy. Analogies are presented as A is to B as C is to D where the relationship between A and B is the same relationship as what exists between C and D. Analogies can be very useful in helping students understand relationships between seemingly unrelated things. They can be used in any subject area, and they can be scaffolded up to the point where students are creating them entirely on their own. On the next page is a graphic organizer that can be used to help students understand analogies better.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in an elementary math lesson that deals with monetary value to link the money’s value with a number students are more familiar with. For example, I could use the analogy: Eighty is to eightAsDime is to _________Middle School: Again, I would use this in a middle school math class to compare different math sets of information. For example, I could use it in a lesson on volume and use a problem such as this:Surface area is to additionAsVolume is to _________Source:Lee, A. Y. (n.d.). Analogical reasoning: A new look at an old problem. Boulder: University of Colorado, Institute of Cognitive Science.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Sternberg, R.J. (1997). Intelligence, information processing and analogical reasoning: The componential analysis of human abilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Sternberg, R.J. (1978). Toward a unified componential theory of human reasoning (Tech. Rep. No. 4). New Haven, CT: Yale University, Department of Psychology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 154-421)-7239001790700T ChartBasics: Time Needed: 10-15 minutesRoom Arrangement: Cooperative learning groups or lecture styleMaterials: White board (if desired), T chart worksheet for all students (if desired)Process Directions: This comparing and contrasting strategy is used in a lesson that requires a quick, easy, and visual comparison of two things. To use this strategy, students (or the teacher) write a large T written on paper or the whiteboard. Then, they write a different heading on each side of the T to compare between the two columns. For example, one side might say “similarities” and the other say “differences.” Other labels might be the two items the class is trying to compare and “looks like” and “sounds like.” The final step is for the students to list everything they can think of that fits in that category under its side of the T. This is a visual way for them to compare and contrast information.Examples of this Strategy Implemented: Elementary: I would use this strategy if we are doing a lesson, for example, on the different types of trees in science class. One column of the T chart would say “Conifers” and the other would say “deciduous.” The students would then fill in the two halves of the chart with all of the characteristics of these two types of trees.Middle School: I would use this strategy in a language arts lesson to compare two different characters in a story we read together. One side would have one character’s name and the other would have another’s. The students would then list all the characteristics of that character under each heading. I could even extend this lesson using another T-chart in which they listed the characters’ similarities and differences, deciding whether they are more similar or more different.Sources:Enchanted Learning. (2006a). T-chart. Retrieved August 28, 2006, from organizers/tchart/English, R., & Dean, S. (2004). Show me how to learn: Key strategies and powerful techniques that promote cooperative learning. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.Gregory, G. (2000, December). Enhancing teacher quality. Presentation at the National Staff Development Council annual conference.Gregory, G., & Kuzmich, L. (2007). Teacher teams that get results. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.Hill, S., & Hancock J. (1993). Reading and writing communities. Armadale, Australia.Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1991). Cooperative learning. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.Johnson, D., Johnson R., & Johnson-Holubec, E. (1993). Circles of learning: Cooperating in the classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.T-ChartCompare and Contrast Response ChartBasics:Time Needed: At least 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: Compare and Contrast Response worksheet copiesProcess Directions:This strategy is used in a lesson that requires a more extensive exploration of similarities and differences. For this strategy, the teacher leads the students through a very structured comparing and contrasting worksheet. They fill out the worksheet (on the next page) with ways two things are similar and different. This can be done whole-group, small-group, or individual. Afterwards, students can examine the various ways the two items they compared were similar and different. This worksheet can even be used as a starting point for writing a compare/contrast paper. Examples of this Strategy Implemented: Lower Elementary: I would use this strategy in order to help my students start a compare/contrast paper about two things of their choosing. They could work with a partner to brainstorm and fill in the spaces on their worksheet, and then they could use their worksheet to springboard their thinking and help them write their paper.Middle School: I don’t think I would use this strategy in middle school. It’s a little too remedial.Source:Instructional strategies. (2012). Alaska Seas and Rivers Curriculum, Retrieved from Basics: Time Needed: 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: Any set-up conducive to partner workMaterials: PaperProcess Directions:This strategy is a variation of the Think-Pair-Share strategy. It can be used as a quick strategy to get students engaged in talking about similarities and differences in almost any lesson. In this strategy, the students take a moment to write down their individual response to the posed question or prompt. After they have tangible evidence of their answer, they compare their statements with a partner. This gives increased accountability to each individual, and it helps them to collaboratively decide similarities and differences and put them into practice by solving the original prompt. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy during a Word Wall activity. I would say a definition of a Word Wall word or an example of it, and ask students to think-write-pair-compare to find the correct Word Wall word that is the answer. Then we would discuss the answers and explain why the correct answer is correct.Middle School: During instruction time in a math classroom, I would give students a practice math problem and give them a short amount of time to answer it by themselves. Then, they may turn to their partner and see if their answers match, discussing the correct answer. Then we would come back together as a group and talk about the groups consensus and decide which is the correct answer and why.Source:Kagan, S. (1992).?Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.Summarizing and Note TakingTeacher-Prepared NotesBasics:Time Needed: VariesRoom Arrangement: Lecture arrangementMaterials: Teacher prepared notes handoutProcess Directions:For this note taking strategy, the teacher prepares a basic outline of what he or she feels is important in his/her instructional time before the lesson. The teacher presents this handout to the students during the lesson, and they follow along with the notes as the teacher talks. They are also encouraged to write on them, marking up the notes and adding thoughts and ideas. The students don’t take any part in writing the actual notes; they simply have a visual to refer to and keep for studying. This type of note taking also gives students an example of how effective notes are taken. In the future, students will be scaffolded in their learning and be able to write effective notes on their own.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in a lesson that involves a lot of note taking and also as a precursor toward showing students how to take effective notes. For example, I may use this strategy in a lesson about different phases of matter so that students have a good handout and solid example of note taking when learning this material. They would have to mark up the notes I give them, so that I can be sure they are paying attention and learning the content. Middle School: I would use this strategy in a language arts classroom to introduce a book such as Dobeycoe, giving students background information about the characters, story, and genre of the book. We would talk about it as a class at the beginning, and then students would revisit the same handout after reading the book to see if there is anything they would add or change to the original handout.Source:Beecher, J. (1988). Note-taking: What do we know about the benefits: ERIC Digest #37. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communications. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EDO CS 88 12). Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd. “Rule-Based” Summary Basics:Time Needed: Approximately 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: An appropriate grade-level text; copies for each studentProcess Directions:This strategy is used during a lesson for which summarizing is required. The first step is for the teacher to choose a text for the students to summarize. Students must each have a copy of this text. Then, students summarize a section of text by using 4 simple rules:“Delete trivial material that is unnecessary to understanding.”“Delete redundant material.”“Substitute subordinate terms for lists (e.g. “flowers” for “daises, tulips, and roses”).”Select a topic sentence, or invent one if it is missing.The teacher explains each of these rules to the student verbally, or, if desired, he or she may pass out a handout that has an age-level appropriate version of these instructions on it for students to use while summarizing. The rules can be broken into three main steps: deleting, substituting, and keeping. The teacher can teach students these main steps through a fun acronym or word play. Students need to be scaffolded in their summarizing learning, so the teacher must model this strategy as a whole first before it can be used successfully. After using this strategy, students will be able to use their marked-up text to write a sufficient summary of the material they read. This strategy can be done as a whole group, small group, or individual. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this in a social studies lesson about Michigan’s history. I would print off copies of an article about a particular facet of Michigan’s history, such as the its tribal settlements, and I would make a copy for every student. Then the students would use this strategy to cross off irrelevant information and then create a topic sentence summing up what the article is saying. They would then use these marked-up papers to write a summary of the article.Middle School: I would use this strategy in a middle school math class to help students take notes on a particular chapter of the textbook. For example, if they were reading a chapter about the Pythagorean Theorem, I would have them use this summarizing strategy on the chapter to aid in their comprehension and studying of the chapter. They would then use the summary they create afterward as their notes to study for the test.Sources:Brown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Day, J. (1981). Learning to learn: On training students to learn from texts. Educational Researcher, 10, 14-24.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Reciprocal Teaching Basics: Time Needed: At least 20 minutesRoom Arrangement: Cooperative learning groupsMaterials: Age-level appropriate textsProcess Directions:This strategy is used during a lesson in which the class is reading a text that the teacher wants them to interact with in a personal way. In this format, discussion time in student small groups constitutes of four sections: predicting, questioning, summarizing, and clarifying. In predicting, students predict what will happen in a text by looking at the title, prior knowledge, and pictures (if available). They are predicting what they can learn from the text. Then, the text is split into sections. The group reads one section and reconvenes. The next step is questioning where one student, the “leader,” asks relevant questions about the portion of the text the group read, and then group members respond to these and perhaps ask more questions. At this point, the discussion leader summarizes the entire text, and the other students have a chance to modify or elaborate on this summary. The last part, clarifying, is when students raise points of the text that were a little unclear, and the group as a whole works to clarify these potential misunderstandings. Parts of the text may be reread at this time to achieve maximum understanding. The different portions of the discussion may be assigned to different students [i.e. the summarizer, the predictor, etc.] and the roles switched after every portion of text. After this strategy is implemented, the class comes back together again and discusses the text as a whole. The teacher clarifies any misconceptions and answers any questions left unanswered.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in any elementary lesson in which students can learn through reading, discussing, and dissecting a text. I would separate them into multiple groups and have each group read the text, with each student assigned a specific role. For example, if they were learning about butterflies through reading a book about butterflies, I would have them, in their small groups, work through the reciprocal teaching steps and then come back together as a class to discuss.Middle School: This strategy is conducive to a middle school language arts classroom because of the sheer amount of reading that students do. However, it could also work in a math classroom with a chapter of a math book. In fact, it would be a very effective strategy for reading and comprehending a math text. For example, I would use it to introduce the next chapter of the book, and this would jumpstart our learning about that topic.Sources:Borich, G. (1992).?Effective teaching methods. (2nd ed., pp. 295-298). New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.Palincsar, A. (1987). Discourse for learning about comprehending text. Paper presented at the National Reading Conference, St. Petersburg Beach, FL. Palincsar, A., & Brown, A. (1989). Classroom dialogues to promote self-regulated comprehension. In J. Brophy (Ed.), Advances in research on teaching (Vol. 1, pp. 35-71). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, Inc. Palinscar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and comprehension monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117-175.Summary Frames Basics: Time Needed: At least 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: Summary Frame questions; grade-level appropriate texts from which to compose a summaryProcess Directions:This strategy employs a set of questions directed to get students thinking deeper about the specific reading material they are working with. Before this strategy can be used, the teacher must first decide on a text to summarize and which Summary Frame set of questions to use. Then he or she must either post the Summary Frame questions on the board or create a worksheet for the students to fill out to answer them. Then the teacher can lead the questioning or the students can answer the questions on their own or in small groups. These Summary Frames are made to “highlight the critical elements for specific types of information” (Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock, 2001, p. 35). Once the students answer the questions in the summary frames, they can successfully use that information to compose a summary of the material they read. This summary will contain only the essential information, as decided upon by the summary frame. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use the Narrative Frame in a lesson dealing with a particular story that students have read, for example The Mouse and the Motorcycle. I would lead students in a discussion of these questions (or have them answer them in small groups) in preparation to write a summary of the entire book. Middle School: I would use the Definition Frame to help students understand a new math definition, such as the distributive property. I would, again, either lead the class in a discussion about these different questions or have them answer them in small groups. They would then compose a summary based on their questions. This summary will be put with their math notes, and they can study using it.Sources:Armbruster, B. B., Anderson, T.H., & Ostertag, J. (1987). Does text structure/summarization instructional facilitate learning from expository text. Reading Research Quarterly, 22(3), 331-346.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Raphael, T. E., & Kirschner, B. M. (April, 1985). The effects of instruction in compare/contrast text structure on sixth grade students’ reading comprehension and writing production. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago.-4099569906268605099695-8382001073162343150149860Informal Outline Notes Basics:Time Needed: VariesRoom Arrangement: Lecture style arrangementMaterials: Notebook paper for every studentProcess Directions:This is a learner-based strategy for students to use when taking notes in class. They write basically an outline of the information, indenting information that is not as important. The indents help visually arrange the notes to show which information is most important and which is least important. After they take notes, they will have a basic outline of what the lecture was about.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: On the rare occasion that I lecture in an elementary lesson, I will use this strategy (after teaching how to use it) in possibly a lesson about the different types and characteristics of insects, where students would follow along by taking their own personal informal outline notes.Middle School: I will use this strategy in a middle school lesson that is partially lecture-based (such as a lesson on the different genres of literature). I would teach students this note taking technique first, and then allow them to use it to follow along with a PowerPoint or Prezi. Source:Beecher, J. (1988). Note-taking: What do we know about the benefits: ERIC Digest #37. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communications. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EDO CS 88 12). Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: bination NotesBasics:Time Needed: VariesRoom Arrangement: Lecture styleMaterials: Notebook paper or combination notes worksheets for every studentProcess Directions:This strategy combines the strategy of webbing and informal outline notes. This is to be used in a lesson that requires note taking with a visual component to it. In it, students divide every page into three parts with a vertical line down the middle of the page and a horizontal line near the bottom. The left side is the side students use to record notes in the informal outline style. The right side is for students to record notes in the webbing/visual style (across from the related informal outline information). Students can use the space at the bottom of the page to write a short summary of the information listed on the page. This strategy gets students to look at and think about information three different times—to fill in the three different spaces. They can then use these notes as a reference when studying.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Here is a student example from Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001):Elementary: I would use this strategy in a science lesson about food chains because such information would benefit students in a visual format as well. I would have students take individual notes using a formatted combination notes worksheet. I would be sure to draw the models out on the board for them to see and draw.Middle School: I would use this strategy in a math lesson about how to find the volume/surface area of different geometric figures. The students would write notes on one side and draw diagrams on the other side of the paper, completing their notes with a summary sentence at the bottom. They would then use these notes to study for the test.Source:Beecher, J. (1988). Note-taking: What do we know about the benefits: ERIC Digest #37. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communications. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EDO CS 88 12).Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.10% SummaryBasics: Time Needed: At least 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: Individual work set-upMaterials: Age-level appropriate texts to summarizeProcess Directions:This strategy is for use when students need to work by themselves to create a summary of information fairly quickly. For this strategy, students are taught to summarize a text in a paper that is approximately 10% of the size of the original text. These summaries must open with a sentence that tells the reader the title of the work, the source, the author, and a summary of the topic that the text presented. From there, the summary should go on to tell the reader the main ideas of the text in the order that they are written in the text. There should be no personal opinion involved. For the most part, they must be written in the student’s own words with minimal quotes from the source. This strategy allows the teacher to see if students are really comprehending what they read. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy to introduce students to the concept of taking notes. For example, if they had to read a chapter in their social studies book, I would lead them in writing a 10% summary as a class so that they could work on picking out the ideas that were the most important. Middle School: Ten percent summaries would work well when students have to read informational materials in either a math or a language arts class. I would expand the strategy a little to where the students work on summaries together and then compare theirs with another group’s to see similar ideas. We would then talk about them as a class to make sure that students understood the main points of the text.Source:Collins, J. (2012). Summarize to get the gist. Educational Leadership, 69 (June).Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2010). Writing to read: Evidence for how writing can improve reading. New York: Alliance for Excellent Education.Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools. New York: Alliance for Excellent Education.Marzano, R., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. (2001). Classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.Guided NotesBasics: Time Needed: The length of the lectureRoom Arrangement: Lecture set-upMaterials: Guided Notes worksheet for all studentsProcess Directions:Before the lesson, the teacher prepares a handout for all of the students that contains all of the content he or she will talk about in the lecture. At key places, however, there is a blank where a word should be (or a list of choices of which students can circle one correct one). As the teacher is lecturing, students fill in their notes. After the lesson, students will have a complete set of notes to refer to when studying.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: See “What’s in that Box?” lesson later in this profileMiddle School: I could use this strategy for virtually any lecture that I give. For example, in a math class, the blanks could be terms that match definitions or the work for a particular math problem. The students would fill the blanks in as I talk, that way they are not being handed the answer. They can then use these notes to study. Sources:Heward, W. L. (1996). Three low-tech strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner III, D.M. Sainato, J.O. Cooper, T.E. Heron, W.L. Heward, J.W. Eshleman, & T.A. Grossi (Eds.) Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 283-320). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.Heward, W. L. (2001). Guided notes: Improving the effectiveness of your lectures. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Partnership Grant for Improving the Quality of Education for Students with Disabilities. Retrieved from , M., Joseph, L. M., & Eveleigh, E. (2009). A meta-analytic review of guided notes. Education and Treatment of Children, 32, 421-444.Lazarus, B. D. (1996, Spring). Flexible skeletons: Guided notes for adolescents with mild disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 28(3), 36-40.Generalization/Principle Patterns Basics: Time Needed: At least 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: White board (if desired), paper for studentsProcess Directions:This strategy is used in a lesson that contains a general idea that students must come up with examples for. In it, students create a graphic organizer that puts information into a sort of a list. They start by drawing a top box containing a generalization principle (for example, a rule in mathematics). Then, they connect the top box to several smaller boxes underneath containing examples of the generalization carried out. After they are done, they will have a visual map compilation of different examples to an overachieving principle.Here is the visual:Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in a science lesson about herbivores. I would put the statement “herbivores get their energy from eating plants” in the top box, and together as a class, we would come up with examples of different herbivores (for example cows, goats, rabbits, etc). Students would copy this information down in their science journals to use for future reference.Middle School: I would use this strategy in a math classroom to state a generalized math rule (such as the commutative property). Then, the example boxes would contain different math statements that show the commutative property. Students would come up with the examples in partners and then share with the class. This way I would be able to tell how students understand the material. Everyone would write down their own examples in their notes so that they can use them to study with.Source:Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Nonlinguistic Representations Silent TeachingBasics:Time Needed: VariesRoom Arrangement: Lecture styleMaterials: WhiteboardProcess Directions:This strategy is used at a point in the lesson when a broad category/relationship is going to be presented. For this strategy, the teacher delivers a lecture…silently. The teacher does not say a word but instead uses examples to involve children. He or she starts drawing on the board (or holding up actual items), and the students have to figure out the pattern. The teacher draws examples as well as non-examples in order to help the students figure out the parameter of the relationship between all the drawings. Once a student thinks he/she knows the pattern, the teacher will nod. The student then comes up to the board and draws the next picture in the pattern. The teacher tells the student if he/she is right or wrong by simply nodding or shaking her head. After the teacher has decided that all students understand the pattern (and given a few a chance to participate), the voices are turned back on in the classroom, and the students tell the answer aloud. Students will have learned how to pay close attention and how to use deductive reasoning to find the pattern.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in a math lesson. I would start by drawing a bunch of different looking triangles, for example. For example:One of the non-examples would be:I would then silently lead students to guess what all of these shapes have in common, and invite them to come up to the board and draw new ones. Middle School: I would also use this strategy in a math lesson. I would start by drawing a bunch of different graphs (line, parabola, etc.) along with some non-examples, and silently lead the students to start guessing the broad category of “function.” Source: Goldenberg, P. & Mason, J. (2008). Spreading Light on and with Example Spaces.?Educational Studies in Mathematics.?69?(2) p. 183-194. “The Scene of the Crime”Basics: Time Needed: At least 30 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: Relevant classroom decorationsProcess Directions:This strategy takes place at the beginning of a lesson. In advance, the teacher must organize the room so that it is a reflection of what the students will be learning about, decorations and all. Then, when the students come in, the teacher engages them in taking the part of what they are learning about, with the room reflecting the overall feelings of the class. Afterward, students will have a visual setting in their mind (the classroom), and this will help them remember the emotions they experienced in their role-play and the various components of what they had to learn. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy to decorate my room as a rainforest during a unit about rainforests. Then, to get students engaged in the first lesson, I would have them look around the room and describe things they see, and we would list these different characteristics of rainforests, jumpstarting our learning. Having the room set up like a rainforest makes the learning more meaningful for students, and it gives them an image to use to remember different aspects of rainforests.Middle School: I would use this strategy to decorate my classroom as the setting of a book we were about to start reading. I would even have a corner or bulletin board for each character, where a picture and description of each will go (once students create them). Students will get to experience “living” in the pages of their book, and it will help them remember the key components of the book.Source:Sprenger, M. (1999).?Learning and memory. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Triggering Episodic MemoryBasics:Time Needed: VariesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: Relevant accessories and other visually-stimulating objectsProcess Directions:Before this strategy, the teacher needs to think of ways to visually connect what students are learning to images and what lesson content would be most conducive to this. During the strategy, the teacher uses various images, objects, and other things to illustrate and accompany learning information so that students create a visual in their heads of what they are learning about. This can be accomplished through bright bulletin boards, different color paper handouts, wearing a costume, moving to a new location, and changing the arrangement of desks in the room. After this strategy, students will have a certain image linked in their mind with a concept, and it will help them recall information easier.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: In an elementary lesson about farms, I would dress up as a farmer. I would also bring in farm items like straw, toy tractors, and pictures of farms and farm life. This way, students can link an actual image of a farmer or other thing in their mind with the idea of farms, and it will help them remember what a farm is.Middle School: I would dress up as a character from a book we are reading for a language arts class. For a math class, I would talk from different corners of the room for different math concepts. Another example would be to wear giant tennis shoes when talking about the commutative property (because the numbers can move around and still be the same). This would link the commutative property in students’ heads with movement, and they would be less likely to forget because they would have an image of my giant tennis shoes.Source:Sprenger, M. (1999).?Learning and memory. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Mapping Basics: Time Needed: At least 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: PaperProcess Directions:Before the lesson, the teacher needs to decide what he or she is going to be teaching in the next unit or chapter. During the strategy, the students (or teacher) create a visual representation of the major ideas and concepts in a particular curriculum section or reading piece. A map starts with a “hub,” or a starting spot in the story, and then the students draw major ideas or themes in logical order to map out the curriculum they are learning about in a visual way. This way, they have a visual map of where they are going with their learning, and they can refer back to it when they have questions.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in an elementary social studies lesson that introduces different places around the world. I would give students a map of the world so that they can circle places, draw arrows, and draw pictures of what they will be learning in the unit and the order in which they will do that. I would have them take out the maps at the end of the unit before the final summative assessment and ask them if we traveled to every place and if there were any remaining questions.Middle School: I would use this strategy in a middle school language arts lesson. I would have the students, working in pairs, create a map of the key events in a story they had read. They wouldn’t be allowed to use words, and they would be charged with making the map understandable to someone who hasn’t read the story. A few of the pair teams would present their maps to the class.Sources:Barton, T., & Zehm S. (1983). “Beyond bay area: a description of the Washington state university writing project.” English Education, 15, 36-44.Gray, J., & Meyers, M. (1978). “The bay area writing project.” Phi Delta Kappa, 59, 410-413. Orlich, D., Harder, R., Callahan, R., Kauchak, D., & Gibson, H. (1994).?Teaching strategies: a guide to better instruction. (4th ed., p. 193). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company. Descriptive Pattern OrganizerBasics:Time Needed: At least 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: whiteboard (if desired), paper for all students (if desired)Process Directions:This strategy is used during a lesson when students are asked to explore a topic (person, place, thing, or event) and various facts about it. To use this strategy, they draw out the information in a type of webbing format, but it has no particular order. The topic simply goes in the middle (in a circle), and the facts—which can be pictures or words—surround it in their respective circles, attached to the topic by thin lines. Having the right connections between ideas is crucial in this strategy, and by the end, students will have created a visual definition of the topic.Here is the format:Examples of this Strategy Implemented: Elementary: I could use this strategy in virtually any lesson that deals with a specific topic that has facts connected to it. For example, I could use it in a lesson about mammals. The word “mammal” could go in the middle, and the fact circles could be filled with pictures that show how mammals are unique. Middle School: I would use this strategy in a middle school math lesson about rational numbers. We would put the term “rational numbers” in the center circle, and together find visual ways to represent various facts about this type of number around the circle.Sources:Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd. Generating Mental Pictures Basics:Time Needed: 1-5 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: NoneProcess Directions:This strategy can be used in virtually any lesson, and there is no preparation for the teacher other than possibly thinking up a topic to visually “show” students within their imaginations. For this strategy, the teacher leads the students to use their imaginations to visualize something they are learning about. He or she can have them visualize a symbolic picture of an abstract concept (like a math formula) or can have them visualize a concrete concept (like visiting a place they are learning about in geography). In either situation, the teacher has the students close their eyes and guides them toward gaining a complete mental picture by describing what each of the senses would be feeling in that particular situation. After this strategy, students would have a clear and lasting picture of the topic the teacher was describing, and they will hopefully find it easier to recall the information. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this in a social studies lesson to take students on an imaginary field trip to a historic event, such as landing on American soil for the first time with the pilgrims. I would describe the setting and experience in a detailed way so as to arouse emotions about the topic to lead the class into a discussion about it.Middle School: I would use this in a language arts lesson when introducing a new book. Perhaps the setting is in an unfamiliar place (like a foreign country) so doing this visualization exercise would help them connect to the story more. I would even have students lead the imagining process as well.Sources:Hayes, J. R. (1981). The complete problem solver. Philadelphia, PA: The Franklin Institute.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Muehlherr, A., & Siermann, M. (1996). Which train might pass the tunnel first? Testing a learning context suitable for children. Psychological Reports, 79(2), 627-633.Willoughby, T., Desmarias, S., Wood, E., Sims, S., & Kalra, M. (1997). Mechanisms that facilitate the effectiveness of elaboration strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4), 682-685. Engaging in Kinesthetic Activity Basics:Time Needed: At least 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: The room must be set up in a way that is conducive to movementMaterials: NoneProcess Directions:This strategy does not take any preparation and can be used in almost any lesson that requires students to memorize information. For this strategy, the teacher or students come up with ways to visually represent the concepts they are learning using body movements. Each section of the concept is represented by its own body movement, and the students learn the sequence, cementing it into their heads. Afterward, adding these physical movements would have helped the students better remember the concepts they were being taught.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: See “Nature Movements” lesson plan later in this profileMiddle School: I would have students, in pairs, come up with three different body movements to remember the commutative, associative, and distributive properties of addition and multiplication in a middle school math lesson. Then the pairs would present their movements, and the class would vote on a whole for three movements that best represent these properties. We would practice these movements at least 5 times to ensure that students remember them. At the end, I would make sure that students could articulate just what the commutative, associative, and distributive properties do.Sources:Aubusson, P., Foswill, S., Barr, R., & Perkovic, L. (1997). What happens when students do simulation-role-play in science. Research in Science Education, 27(4), 565-579.Druyan, S. (1997). Effects of the kinesthetic conflict on promoting scientific reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(10), 1083-1099. Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers Vee Map Basics: Time Needed: At least 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: Vee Map worksheets or plain paper for every student; a white board if it is a class activityProcess Directions:A Vee Map is a type of conceptual map that has two major parts: knowing and doing. These two parts are always interacting with each other throughout the students’ inquiry into the particular curriculum they are studying. It works quite well for showing how knowledge and process overlap. Before using the strategy, the teacher must select an investigation that will be beneficial to use with a Vee Map. Also, the teacher should either make copies of the Vee Map template or display it on the projector. Then, the students simply fill out the Vee Map on their own. This encourages metacognition and can also be a great review tool as well. After the strategy, students will have an extensive graphic of their investigation from which to study and to analyze their thinking processes.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: This strategy lends itself to any inquiry-based science lesson where students are investigating some sort of research question (such as “What type of lighting do plants grow better in?”). I would use it with that lesson, and guide students through creating small group Vee Maps, having the small groups compare maps at the end to witness different thought processes.Middle School: This strategy would also be useful in a middle school math lesson. For example, if students are working in groups to investigate some sort of mathematical problem, in an inquiry-style way, they could fill out a Vee Map as a group to help them sort out their ideas. For example, it could be used if they were trying to discover the answer to the question, “Can math be used to solve ______?” Afterward, I would have them compare Vee Maps and discuss similarities and differences between theirs and others’. Sources:Novak, J., & Gowin, D. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Orlich, D., Harder, R., Callahan, R., Kauchak, D., & Gibson, H. (1994).?Teaching strategies: a guide to better instruction. (4th ed., p. 193). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.Roth, W., & Verechaka, G. (1993). “Plotting a course with vee maps.” Science and Children, 30, no. 4, 24. Expository/Narrative Advance Organizers Basics:Time Needed: VariesRoom Arrangement: Lecture style (or discussion based)Materials: Advanced materials about the topic they are studyingProcess Directions:For this strategy, the teacher prepares a short written or verbal statement (in advance) to deliver to the students prior to learning a new concept. The students will then have the background knowledge needed to explore a new concept. This is especially useful when the background knowledge needed is not part of the grade level expectations. For the narrative advance organizer, the teacher presents students advance information on what they need to know through using a story format. The story is usually relevant to the students and captures their attention, while presenting necessary background information on the topic they will be learning about. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: Expository: Prior to a career day in our class, I would prepare short descriptions of each career and pass them out to my students to prepare them for when the parents come in to talk. Narrative: I could read a book about a child learning to tell time in preparation for a math lesson about telling time.Middle School: Expository: If we are reading a story (such as Number The Stars by Lois Lowry) that deals with a historical topic like the Holocaust, I will prepare handouts that talk about the Holocaust a little bit so students have background information before they read. Narrative: Going back to the Holocaust book in a language arts classroom, another variation of that lesson would be to use a narrative advance organizer and tell a quick story about someone who experienced the Holocaust and how it impacted them (as a precursor to Number the Stars).Sources:Martorella, P. H. (1991). Knowledge and concept development in social studies. In J. P. Shaver (Ed.), Handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning (pp. 370-399). New York: McMillan.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Mayer, R. E. (1979). Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning? Review of Educational Research, 49, 371-383.White, R. T., & Tisher, R. P. (1986). Research on natural sciences. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 847-905). New York: McMillan. SkimmingBasics:Time Needed: At least 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: Age-appropriate textsProcess Directions:Before this strategy, the teacher needs to find age-appropriate texts that contain pictures and headings, allowing students to perform an informative walk-through of them. During the strategy, the students look at material they will be learning about in more depth. They are only glancing through the material (or skimming). This introduces them to the different ideas that will be learned later and gives them an idea of what is coming. (Note: you could use this strategy to look at a brochure or map before a field trip so the students know what to expect). This strategy gives students a holistic picture of where they are going when reading a text and sets a purpose for reading.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: This is a great strategy for almost every lesson in which we read texts. I would use this strategy to introduce a reading in our social studies book (for example, a reading about cities). I would have students skim through the chapter, looking at the pictures and the headings. Then we would discuss what they expect to learn through reading. This way, we will have a purpose for reading, and the reading will be more meaningful.Middle School: When introducing a new book that we will be reading in a language arts class, I will have students look at the cover, flip through some pages, look at pictures (if there are any), and have a discussion about what the book might be about. We may write their predictions on the board, and after reading, check and see if our predictions were correct.Sources:Martorella, P. H. (1991). Knowledge and concept development in social studies. In J. P. Shaver (Ed.), Handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning (pp. 370-399). New York: McMillan.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Mayer, R. E. (1979). Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning? Review of Educational Research, 49, 371-383.White, R. T., & Tisher, R. P. (1986). Research on natural sciences. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 847-905). New York: McMillan. Wait-TimeBasics: Time Needed: At least 2 secondsRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: NoneProcess Directions:To prepare, the teacher needs to think of a question for students to answer. This strategy calls for teachers to pause (for at least 2 seconds) after asking a question. This pause gives students a chance to think of an answer before the teacher moves on to the next student. The amount of wait-time varies per type of question (higher-level thinking questions need a longer wait-time than lower-level ones) and per student (if a student draws a blank, wait-time will just embarrass him/her and cause him/her to panic). Either way, students need a chance to come up with an answer in their head to the teacher’s question before the teacher moves on. After this strategy is implemented, the teacher may call on a student or students to answer the question. At this time, the teacher may clarify any misconceptions that arise.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary and Middle School: Every time I ask any kind of question, I will pause to let students think about the answer. For example, if I ask, “How could I start solving this math problem?” I will wait at least 5 seconds before I either call on someone to answer or give the answer myself.Sources:Jacobsen, D. A., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2002).?Methods for teaching. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.Jegede, O., & Olajide, J. (1995). Wait-time, classroom discourse, and the influence of sociocultural factors in science teaching. Science Education, 79(3), 233-249. Lee, J., O’Shea, L., & Dykes, M. (1987). Teacher wait-time: Performance of developmentally delayed and non-delayed young children. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 22, 176-184.Rowe, M. (1986, January/February). Wait-time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up. Journal of Teacher Education, 43-50. ProbingBasics:Time Needed: Around 2 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: NoneProcess Directions:For this strategy, the teacher “attempts to get students to justify or further explain their responses [to questions], thereby increasing the depth of the discussion” (p. 162). This strategy seeks to get students to think deeper. Before the strategy, the teacher must think of a relevant thinking question. When the teacher asks a student the question and the student’s answer is not complete, the teacher must lead the student toward a higher-level thinking answer by probing. In probing, the teacher asks questions like “why” and “what do you mean by that?” to encourage the student to elaborate. After this strategy is used, the student will have reached a higher level of thinking and understanding.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: If a student answers a question about a bar graph, telling me how many bars it needs or something, I will have him/her explain the answer and justify it with the “why” behind his/her thinking.Middle School: If I am working with students on how to edit papers, and they tell me place a comma, for example, in a certain place. I will say, “Why?” and they will have to explain their thinking or state the comma rule so that I know why they chose the answer they did. It allows me to see if they actually knew the answer or just guessed.Sources:Brown, J. (2008). Student-centered instruction: Involving students in their own education. Music Educators Journal, 94(5), 30-35.Cummings, A. (1991).?Thinking-skills strategy.?Learning, 19, 53.Jacobsen, D. A., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2002).?Methods for teaching. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.Jonassen, D. (1999). Designing constructivist learning environments. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (Vol. 2, pp. 215-239). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Jonassen, D. H., & Land, S. M. (Eds.) (2000). Theoretical foundations of learning environments. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Shepherd, N. G. (1998). The Probe Method: A problem-based learning model's affect on critical thinking skills of fourth and fifth grade social studies students (Doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59, 779A. KWL ChartBasics:Time Needed: At least 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: Lecture (if done as a whole class or individual); cooperative learning groups (if done in small groups)Materials: KWL worksheets for all students (if desired), white board (if desired)Process Directions:Before this strategy, the teacher draws a 3 column chart on the board and labels each column “Know,” “Want to Know,” and “Learned.” During this strategy, the teacher leads the students through creating a chart of information before and after learning about a specific topic. The first two portions of the chart are filled out before the lesson is taught: K (know) and W (want to know). In the K section, the teacher has the students brainstorm everything they know about the topic they will be learning about. From that information, the students can begin to brainstorm different things they want to know about the topic, and that goes in the W section next. The last section, the L (learned) is filled in with everything the students learned after the lesson or unit. The students all fill this out collectively, and the teacher writes it all on the chart in the front of the room. Then students can see that they actually learned something new, and that this unit was relevant. They can also find out any of the questions they didn’t get answered in the unit.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy to start a unit on farm animals. I would have students list everything they know about farm animals and what they want to learn before the unit started. After the unit, we would revisit the chart and fill in the “learned” column with information we learned. We would also go over any questions that are still lingering.Middle School: I would use this strategy to introduce a new genre of writing in a language arts class. For example, if we were moving into a unit on historical fiction, I would have students fill out a KWL chart (as described in the process directions) for the genre historical fiction, revisiting it at the end to complete the “I learned” column.Sources:Ogle, D. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text.?The Reading Teacher,?39, 564-570.Tileston, D. (2000).?10 best teaching practices. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.Think-Pair-ShareBasics:Time Needed: Approximately 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: Any arrangement conducive to working with partnersMaterials: NoneProcess Directions:The only preparatory work involved in this strategy is coming up with good thinking questions. For this strategy, the teacher asks students a question as a whole. Students then have a specified amount of time to think about their individual answer to the question. After the set amount of time, the students then pair up and share their answers with their partner. After a brief discussion time, the partner teams are asked to share their response. (Note: You can have the first partner share the second partner’s response and vice versa). After this strategy, students will have gained a better idea of the answer to the question the teacher asked because they will have had to answer it themselves and with others. This can lead to great discussion time, especially if there are any misconceptions.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would ask students a thinking question—one that drives instruction—for this strategy. For example, I could have them decide whether or not a certain character is the main character in a story and why, then share with a partner, and then we would discuss it as a whole class and come to a consensus about it (in a lesson about finding main characters in a story). I could also ask students to ask their partners a question about the story and have their partner answer it and vice versa. This would get them thinking on an even deeper level. See “Which is Better? A Goat or a Cow?” lesson later in this profile for another example.Middle School: For a math lesson, I would have students mentally decide on an answer to a math problem I posed and why they think that that’s the answer. Then they would share with their partner, comparing answers. At the end, we would talk about different groups’ answers and discuss which one was correct and why. Another way to use this strategy would be to have students come up with another math example question and ask it to their partner and vice versa.Sources:Kagan, S. (1992).?Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.Lyman, F. (1981). The responsive classroom discussion: The inclusion of all students. In A. Anderson (Ed.),?Mainstreaming digest?(pp 109-113). College Park: University of Maryland Press.Lyman, F., & McTighe, J. (2001). Cueing thinking in the classroom: The promise of theory- embedded tools. In A. L. Costa (Ed.),?Developing minds: A resources book for teaching thinking(3rd ed. , Chapter 61). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.? Time Sequence Pattern Organizer Basics: Time Needed: At least 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: White board (if desired); paper for all students (if desired)Process Directions:This strategy is used in a lesson where students are learning material that can be organized in chronological order. There is no advanced preparation work that needs to be done rather than maybe for the teacher to generate a pre-thought-out sequence of events. In this strategy, the students list the events vertically and in order of when they occur (left to right). They separate each event with a bar, and the whole organizer looks almost like a comb with its bristles pointing upward. In between each bristle is an event. After completing this strategy, the students will have a visual timeline of events in a story. Here is the visual:Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: This strategy easily lends itself to a social studies lesson about the history of, well, anything. For example, students could put the historic events leading up to the end of slavery in a time sequence organizer or map out the historical timeline of Michigan’s history. They could use these throughout the unit to see how everything fits together.Middle School: I would use this in a language arts lesson to have students map out the sequence of events in a story we have read as a class. This shows students the timeline of major occurrences and boils the plot of a story down so that it is easily visible. This helps them understand the story better.Sources:Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd. Process/Cause-Effect Pattern OrganizerBasics:Time Needed: At least 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: White board (if desired), student paper or worksheets (if desired)Process Directions:This strategy is for use in a lesson that teaches a process or a cause and effect sequence and is a visual way for students to see this. There is no preparation work to be done. In this strategy, students write different causes (or pieces of a process) in circles, all pointing to an eventual effect of the process pieces/causes. Once the process bubbles reach the effect/outcome, the graphic ends with the effect stated in a box. Bubbles can branch off of other bubbles, but all bubbles essentially lead to the outcome box. This strategy shows students relationships between the causes and effect or between the parts of the process and the final outcome. They can use this to further their understanding of how everything is linked together.Here is the visual:Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in a lesson about the Civil War. I would help students map out the various causes that contributed to the start of this particular war using this organizer. I would be sure to discuss how everything is connected. Middle School: I would use this strategy in a language arts class. Students would use this organizer to map out different events in a story that led to a particular outcome. For example, if we read Holes, students would decide on causes (and map them) that led to why Stanley was able to find the treasure box. This helps them see that everything the author placed in the story was for a reason.Sources:Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd. Concept Pattern OrganizerBasics:Time Needed: At least 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: White board (if desired), paper for studentsProcess Directions:This strategy works well in a lesson dealing with any broad concept with various characteristics. The teacher does not have to do any prep work. The students visually assemble information around a central concept which is in a circle. Branching off the concept are characteristics of that specific concept (in squares). Branching off of the characteristics are examples of each one in even smaller squares. After this strategy, students will have a visual map of the concept they were trying to define. Characteristics and examples will all be laid out for them to easily see and learn.Here is the visual:Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in an elementary science lesson about different landforms. I would have them write a particular landform in the “concept” bubble, and then different characteristics of that landform. They would then decide on examples of that particular landform that exemplify those particular characteristics to fill in the example bubbles. I would also have them draw pictures of each landform in the example bubbles as well. Middle School: I would use this strategy in a math lesson surrounding a particular math concept. For example, I could use the concept “congruent triangles” and have them decide upon the different characteristics of them. Then, examples would stem off of each characteristic.Sources:Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001).Classroom instruction that works, research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Ascd.Other Instructional Strategies Paraphrase PassportBasics: Time Needed: 10-15 minutes (varies depending on length of discussion)Room Arrangement: Class discussion set-up or cooperative learning groupsMaterials: Paraphrase Chips (can be made out of anything)Process Directions:When students are interacting in groups or having any kind of small group or whole group discussion, the Paraphrase Passport strategy is a great addition to this activity. For this strategy, students receive a number of Paraphrase Chips before the discussion. During the discussion, before one student speaks, he or she must paraphrase what the person before him/her said before contributing to the conversation. If the student forgets or incorrectly paraphrases, one chip is taken away. The goal is for the student to still have all of his/her chips at the end of the discussion. The strategy teaches paraphrasing and the importance of effective listening in a fun way.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy during any whole-group discussion on virtually any topic. It encourages active listening, and it helps students with paraphrasing what others have said. For example, if we were having a whole-class discussion about the different benefits of recycling, each student would have 3 Paraphrase Chips for the discussion. I would make it into more of a game, so that it is not demeaning to take away a student’s chips. Middle School: This strategy fits really well into a language arts class. Students need to know how to paraphrase, share ideas, and listen well, and this is what this strategy does. I would use it in a whole-group discussion (and even small group discussions) about virtually any language arts topic. Students would have their set amount of chips, and again, I would make it into a game.Source:Kagan, S. (1992).?Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning. Jigsaw Basics: Time Needed: Varies (usually at least a half an hour)Room Arrangement: Cooperative learning groupsMaterials: Relevant texts or other research materials for student use (enough copies for at least all of the “experts”)Process Directions:Before using this strategy, the teacher must have materials for five groups of students to read and learn. During this strategy, the teacher separates the classroom into five groups (of five students each) and assigns each group a section of a new part of the curriculum. Each student in a certain group is assigned to one of the major curriculum sections. That person is responsible for becoming an “expert” in that topic area; he or she must meet with the other experts from his or her area to learn and go more in depth with the material they are all expected to know. In these expert groups, the experts talk about and come up with ways to present the information about their specific topic to their individual groups. When everyone has had a chance to learn, the students return to their original groups and teach their teammates what they learned about their assigned topic. The experts are responsible for teaching the content to their teammates. After this strategy, the teacher should check to make sure that everyone understands all of the content before moving on. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Lower Elementary: I would use this strategy for a science lesson involving the four seasons. I would separate the students into four groups: summer, spring, fall, and winter. Each group would be responsible for researching its particular season and teaching the rest of the class the information using the Jigsaw strategy.For another example of this, see the “Which is Better? A Goat or a Cow?” lesson later in this profile.Middle School: In a middle school math class, I would use this strategy to teach students about different math concepts. For example, one group could examine adding rational numbers, another subtracting, a third dividing, and a fourth multiplying. Then, they would come together and teach their groups the intricacies involved in each of these operations and the different situations in which they would be used.Sources:Aronson, E., Blaney, N., Stephan, C., Sikes, J., & Snapp, M. (1978). The jigsaw classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Eppler, R., & Huber, G. L. (1990). Wissenswert im Team: Empirische Untersuchung von Effekten des Gruppen-Puzzles [Acquisition of knowledge in teams: An empirical study of effects of the jigsaw techniques]. Psychologie in Erziehung and Unterricht, 37, 172-178.Glasgow, N., & Hicks, C. (2003).?What successful teachers do: 91 research-based classroom strategies for new and veteran teachers. (pp. 3-5). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1975). Learning together and alone: Cooperation, competition, and individualization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Role-playingBasics:Room Arrangement: Cooperative learning groups with large clear areas to rehearseTime Needed: At least 15 minutesMaterials: An appropriate text or other scenario to role-playProcess Directions:This strategy can work with whole group or small groups. Teachers need to, in advance, decide on different roles student could act out in the lesson they are planning to use this strategy for. During this strategy, the teacher assigns groups of students roles to play. (The students may also pick their roles). They will receive the roles or scenario, have a set amount of time to prepare, and then they act out their scenario as their specific characters for the whole class. Role-playing activities should always be followed with a whole group discussion debrief time. Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this in a social studies lesson to act out significant historical events (e.g. the signing of the Declaration of Independence). This way, students are participating in the story, and it makes it much more meaningful for them. Middle School: This strategy would work great in a middle school language arts classroom. Students could act out pivotal points of the stories they are reading to get a better understanding of what exactly was happening in the story. I would probably have them decide on a part of the story to act out given a prompt (for example, act out the part of the story that you believe in the most important and be prepared to explain why). Sources:Orlich, D., Harder, R., Callahan, R., Kauchak, D., & Gibson, H. (1994).?Teaching strategies: a guide to better instruction. (4th ed., p. 239-240). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.Van Ments, Morry. (1983). The effective use of role-play: a handbook for teachers and trainers. London: Kogan Page Ltd. C.A.R. StrategyBasics: Time Needed: At least 10 minutesRoom Arrangement: One-on-one instruction or whole class discussion set-upMaterials: Age-level appropriate textProcess Directions:Though this strategy is sometimes directed at parents desiring to read aloud with their children at home, it can be applied in a classroom too. This strategy is a read-aloud reading comprehension strategy. It is used during a lesson in which students are reading any type of age-appropriate material. It has three steps:“Comment and wait.” For this, the adult states a comment about the particular book they are reading aloud. This comment directs the student’s attention to the section of the book and sparks his/her interest. Then the adult must wait to give the child think time.“Ask questions and wait.” During this, the adult can ask both closed and open-ended questions to spark the child’s thinking deeper about the story. Then the child is given think-time to ponder and respond. “Respond by adding a little more.” For this, the adult repeats and summarizes what the child said and then add a comment or two of his/her own. This “reinforces a child’s talking and provides new information.” These steps occur after pieces of the text, i.e. every chapter, every few pages, etc. After this strategy, students will have learned to be more involved in their reading and will have learned to comprehend the given text better.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy when reading through virtually any book. Most likely, I would use this strategy when working one-on-one with a particular child who may struggle with reading. We would work through the story book together in this format. I would ask questions like, “How do you think Jane is feeling in this part of the story?” and “What do you think will happen to Peter?”Middle School: I would also use this strategy as remediation for an individual student. For example, if he or she does not understand a math concept, I will work one-on-one with him or her, reading the math textbook in this way so as to break the information down for the student, making it clearer.Sources:Cole, K.N., Maddox, M.E., Notari-Syverson, A. (Writers/Producers), & Ross, A. (Director). (1998). Talking and books [Motion picture]. (Available from Washington Learning Systems, 2212 Queen Ann Ave North, #726, Seattle, WA 98109, USA)Lane, H. B., & Wright, T. L. (2007). Maximizing the effectiveness of reading aloud.?The Reading Teacher,60(7), 668-675. Group InvestigationBasics:Time Needed: Multiple daysRoom Arrangement: Cooperative learning groupsMaterials: Research materials available for each group, presentation software, research worksheets (if desired)Process Directions:First, the teacher chooses a problem or topic for students to investigate. Then, the teacher presents students this problem. In heterogeneous groups, the students research the topic, think of solutions, and present their findings to the class. There are six basic steps to this strategy that students must follow:Students select a topic to study in depth.Students, with the help of the teacher, plan how to gather the information they will need to solve the problem or answer the topic.Students implement the plan they came up with, using different data sources and strategies.The groups organize and prepare the information so that they can present it to the other groups.Students present their findings. Students compare all of the groups’ findings and discuss how they are similar and different. After students have completed all of the steps, the whole class then comes together to discuss what they learned through this investigation and the teacher answers questions.Examples of this Strategy Implemented: Elementary: This strategy is basically a group research project. Therefore, I would use it to guide my students toward researching a topic such as gravity or force and motion. I would guide them through the research steps, and on the last day, all of the groups would present while the non-presenters take notes. Then we would have a discussion about how everyone’s presentations were similar or different.Middle School: I would use this strategy in both math and language arts for any type of research project. They could research different mathematicians or math concepts like the Pythagorean theorem in math or different genres or authors in language arts. Sources: Cohen, E., (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Review of Educational Research, 64, 1-35.Jacobsen, D. A., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2002).?Methods for teaching. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.Sharon, S., Kussel, P., Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., Bejarano, Y., Raviv, S., & Sharan, Y. (1984). Cooperative learning in the classroom: Research in desegregated schools. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Roundtable Basics: Time Needed: 5 minutesRoom Arrangement: Cooperative learning groups or a whole group circleMaterials: PaperProcess Directions:Before this strategy, the teacher must think of an instructional question with multiple answers. Then, students sit in a circle in either small or whole groups. The teacher poses the question, and students work together to answer it by each writing down one possible answer and passing the paper to the student on his/her left. Thus, the paper goes all the way around the table. This strategy can also be used as an oral strategy as well. It is most often used at the beginning of a lesson to connect the content being learned to team building. At the end, the teacher leads the class in a short discussion of why or why not the student responses actually answered the question.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would ask students something like, “Name different types of insects.” After students have answered, we would put the list away until the end. At the end of the lesson about classifying insects into groups, we would pull the list back out and work together to group the different insects we came up with into different groups.Middle School: Before a math lesson, I would put a math problem on the board that can be solved in multiple ways and have students answer the question, “How can I solve this problem?” They would have to each come up with a different way to solve it. At the end, we would talk about which strategies might be better or worse for solving that particular problem. This would be good standardized test practice.Source:Kagan, S. (1992).?Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning. Word Pocket Basics: Time Needed: 5-10 minutesRoom Arrangement: Whole group discussion or lecture set-upMaterials: Word Pockets for every child, letter card sets for every childProcess Directions:Before this strategy, the teacher must prepare every child’s Word Pockets and print out, make, or buy letter card sets for every student. During this strategy, the teacher gives every student a Word Pocket (a long folded up piece of paper with a pocket). The student also gets letter cards with letters and letter-sound combinations to use in the pocket. The student then practices spelling words by building them in the pocket. Once he/she has a letter, he/she slides it down to the left, saying its sound out loud. He/she does this for all of the next letters, and then at the end, he/she says the word aloud. (Note: to make a Word Pocket, use a 12x9 inch sheet of tag board, and fold the board up one inch from the bottom to make a pocket. Then staple the ends.) After this strategy, students will have learned how to spell some words and can use this new knowledge to spell other words that are similar.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Early Elementary: I would use this strategy to teach students how to first spell with phonemic awareness. We would either do this as a whole group or with me leading a small group center activity. Either way, we would do work through the words all together.Upper Elementary: If students are really struggling with reading and spelling in the upper elementary grades, I would use this strategy one-on-one as a remediation technique. Source:Beck, I. L. (2006).?Making sense of phonics, the hows and whys. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Text TalkBasics:Time Needed: 20-30 minutesRoom Arrangement: Lecture set-up or group reading set-upMaterials: Age-level appropriate text with relevant vocabulary words embeddedProcess Directions:teacher must pick out a few key words from the text he/she is reading aloud to the class beforehand and develop mini-lessons on those. During the lesson, she/he begins reading and then proceeds to turn the read-aloud session into a lesson revolving around those words, diving deeper into them so the students learn and understand the meanings. There are 7 basic steps for the completion of this strategy. The teacher reads the story to the children, asking leading questions to help students understand the story better.The teacher chooses a few “target words” from the story and introduces them one at a time. (It is recommended that these are 3-5 Tier 2 words). The teacher asks his/her students to repeat the target words back to him/her to help them have a clear phonological awareness of the words. The teacher defines the words, using a “child-friendly definition.” The teacher illustrates for the students other places where these words may be used—different from the way they were used in the read-aloud story. The teacher leads the children through activities in which they are exposed to and use the new words they have learned. The teacher has the children repeat the words again, to make certain every student has a clear phonological awareness of the words. Every student must have had multiple opportunities for saying the words. These steps are repeated for every “target word.” After this strategy, students will have a better understanding of the key words in the text. The teacher may want to post the words up on the classroom Word Wall so students can frequently refer to them when needed.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy to possibly introduce new Word Wall words if I find they are used frequently in a certain text. For example, if we were reading a book about trees, I might pick out the words “conifer” and “deciduous” to add to the Word Wall and present mini-lessons on each.Middle School: Though it seems like a lower level strategy, this strategy is still useful in middle school when reading any kind of informative text. For example, if we read through a chapter of the math book together, I would pick out important words from the text to go more in depth about to increase student understanding of the overall content. I would have them write the words and their definitions down in their notes so they could use them for future reference.Sources: Beck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (2001). Text talk: Capturing the benefits of read-aloud experiences for young children. The Reading Teacher, 55, 10-20. Beck I.L, McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford. Lane, H. B., & Wright, T. L. (2007). Maximizing the effectiveness of reading aloud.?The Reading Teacher,60(7), 668-675. ClusteringBasics:Time Needed: VariesRoom Arrangement: AnyMaterials: white board (if desired); paper for all studentsProcess Directions:Clustering is a type of concept map where students create a central bubble containing the main topic they are learning about. Then, the main bubble branches into different smaller topic bubbles. Each of these topic bubbles can break either into specific information that fits under each of these topics or into new topic bubbles and so on and so forth. This is a great visual way for students to connect related information. The key is to keep related information connected through the lines between the bubbles. This strategy can be done individually, in small groups, or as a class. Afterward, students will have a visual, clearly-organized graphic of the main topic and the ideas surrounding it.Examples of this Strategy Implemented:Elementary: I would use this strategy in an elementary science lesson about space. I would lead students through discovering how the different space concepts are related. For example:CometsStarsVenusSpaceAsteroidsMarsMercuryPlanetsMiddle School: I would use this strategy to help students brainstorm before they write a paper in a middle school language arts class. This strategy would help them narrow down their topic choices and find new points to include in their paper.Sources:Orlich, D., Harder, R., Callahan, R., Kauchak, D., & Gibson, H. (1994).?Teaching strategies: a guide to better instruction. (4th ed., p. 193). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.Rico, G. (1983). Writing the natural way: using right-brain techniques to release your expressive powers. Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher. ................
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