Terms to know:



AP English

Terms to know:

Rhetoric- from the Greek word “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Rhetorical devices-use of language that creates a literary effect and, ideally, prompts an emotional response. It is how something is said by an author not what is said that will creates this “literary effect.” If a device is used correctly its effect will leave a lasting impression on the reader. Examples of devices: ethos, logos, pathos.

Rhetorical modes- a way or a method of presenting a subject through writing or speech; the variety, the conventions, and the purpose of the major kinds of writing. Examples of modes: argument, cause/effect, classification, description, compare/contrast, narration, extended definition...

Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, a famous rhetorician and teacher of oratory from Rome divided figures of speech into two kinds:

Tropes- MEANING is altered from the usual or expected

Schemes-WORD ORDER is altered from the usual or expected

TROPES

Ambiguity – the use of words that allow for alternative interpretations.

Analogy- a comparison of two things, alike in certain aspects, a simile is an expressed analogy; a metaphor is an implied one.

Apostrophe- when someone (not usually present) or an abstract quality is addressed directly.

Euphemism- indirectness that replaces directness of statement, usually in an effort to avoid offensive bluntness in some subject involving delicacy or taboo. ex. “Passed away” for “died”

Extended Metaphor- a metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Hyperbole- overstatement, using deliberate exaggeration

Irony/ Ironic- the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant; recognition of a reality different from appearance.

Litotes- A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. “This is no small problem.”

Metaphor- an analogy identifying one object with another without using “like” or “as”

Metonymy – naming an object by substituting a term closely associated with the word in mind (the crown=the king)

Onomatopoeia- words that by their sound suggest their meaning.

Oxymoron-figurative language wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest truth or validity. “Jumbo shrimp”

Paradox- a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer inspection, contains some degree of truth or validity.

Personification- figure that endows animals, ideas, abstractions, and inanimate object with human form.

Pun- play on words based on similarity of sounds between two words with different meanings: “Being in politics is like playing golf, you are trapped in one bad lie after another.”

Rhetorical question- asking a question, not for the purpose of eliciting an answer, but for the purpose of asserting or denying something.

Simile- figurative device that shows similarity between two objects by using like or as. The similarity is directly expressed.

Synecdoche- figurative language used in which a part signifies the whole or whole signifies the part. Calling a sailor a “hand” or the police “the law.”

Symbolism- use of one object to represent or suggest another

Synesthesia- description of one kind of sensation in terms of another. “Tasty new dress, sweet sound, sandpapery voice.”

Understatement deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is, either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact. “The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the downtown area.”

SCHEMES

Balance

Anadiplosis- The repetition of the last word (or phrase) from the previous line, clause, or sentence at the beginning of the next. “He talked about games. Games were not what they had in mind.”

Antithesis – a balancing of one term against another for emphasis; “now high, now low.” Strongly contrasting word, clauses, or ideas balanced against one another. “They promised freedom and provided slavery.” *Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Shakespeare, Julius Caesar

Chiasmus: two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (a-b-a-b) but in inverted order (a-b-b-a); from shape of the Greek letter chi (X). *Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always. MacArthur

Climax: arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often the last emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the next.

*One equal temper of heroic hearts,/Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will/To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. Tennyson, Ulysses

Epanalepsis- repeats the beginning word of a clause or sentence at the end. The beginning and the end are the two positions of strongest emphasis in a sentence, so by having the same word in both places, you call special attention to it: “Common sense is not very common.”

Epistrophe- (also called antistrophe) forms the counterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences: You will find washing beakers helpful in passing this course, using the gas chromatograph desirable for passing this course, and studying hours on end essential to passing this course.

Parallelism- the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity; can involve repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase; acts as an organizational force to attract a reader’s attention, add emphasis or organization, or simply provide musical rhythm.

Omission

Anaphora- one of the language devices of repetition that repeats the same expression (word or words) at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.

Asyndeton- omission of the conjunctions that ordinarily join coordinate words or clauses. “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

Ellipsis – the omission of a word or several words for a complete construction that is still understandable.

Polysyndeton- The repetition of conjunction is close succession for rhetorical effect. “Here and there and everywhere.”

Sound

Alliteration- language device that repeats consonant or vowel sounds in successive or closely associated syllables. Ex. Satisfying sensation

Assonance- repetition of the same vowel sound in words close to each other. *Thy kingdom come, thy will be done.

Consonance- words at the ends of verses in which the final consonants in the stressed syllables agree, but the words that precede them differ; sometimes called “half rhyme”

Loose Sentence- A type of sentence: independent clause comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units; a basic sentence with a string of details. “I wanted to drive around with my friends, or walk with them downtown, to stand in front of the department store, comb our ducktails, talk, look at girls.” The effect is usually informal, relaxed, and conversational.

Periodic Sentence- Presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end; details are placed before the basic statement; the effect is to add emphasis, structural variety, or elements of surprise. “Suddenly, for no apparent reason, the loveable cat scratched Sally.”

Types of Repetition

Anaphora – repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses: e.g., “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.”

Anadiplosis – repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause

Epanalepsis – repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause

Epistrophe – repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses

ARGUMENTATION

Appeals

Ethos: An appeal based on the character of the speaker. An ethos-driven document relies on the reputation of the author.

Logos: An appeal based on logic or reason. Documents distributed by companies or corporations are logos-driven. Scholarly documents are also often logos-driven.

Pathos: An appeal based on emotion. Advertisements tend to be pathos-driven.

Logical Fallacies

Ad hominem fallacy – (Latin for “to the man”)- a fallacy of logic in which a person’s character or motive is attacked instead of that person’s argument

Ad populum fallacy – (Latin for “to the crowd”)- a fallacy of logic in which the widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make it true or right. Ex. The Expedition is the most widely sold SUV in the United States, therefore it must be the best.

Appeal to authority- citation of information from people recognized for their special knowledge of a subject for the purpose of strengthening a speaker or writer’s arguments

Begging the question- a fallacy of logical argument that assumes as true the very thing that one is trying to prove Ex. 1. The Bible is the infallible word of God. 2. The Bible says that God exists. Therefore, 3. God exists.

False Dilemma – a fallacy of logical argument which is committed when too few of the available alternatives are considered, and all but one are assessed and deemed impossible or unacceptable

Hasty Generalization – the fallacy that results when a conclusion is reached from too few examples.

Non Sequitur - a statement that does not follow logically from what preceded it.

Post Hoc Fallacy – this fallacy of logic occurs when the writer assumes that an incident that precedes another is the cause of the second incident. The chronological order of events does not establish cause-effect relationship.

OTHER LITERARY TERMS:

Archetype -- The term is applied to an image, a descriptive detail, a plot pattern, or a character type that occurs frequently in literature, myth, religion, or folklore and is, therefore, believed to evoke profound emotion because it touches the unconscious memory and thus calls into play illogical but strong responses.

Allegory- symbolic story that serves as a disguised representation for meanings other than those indicated on the surface. The characters in an allegory often have no individual personality, but are embodiments of moral qualities and other abstractions.

Allusion-literary reference to history or literature.

Characterization-methods through which an author makes imaginary persons seem lifelike

Conflict- struggle that grows out of the interplay of two opposing forces (External- man vs. man, man vs. nature, man vs. society, man vs. fate, man vs God. Internal-man vs. himself.)

Connotation- the non-literal, associative meaning of a word; implied meaning; the emotional implications that words may carry.

Denotation- the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word.

Detail- facts, observations, and incidents used to develop a subject and impart voice.

Diction- writers word choice, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness (connotation and denotation).

Figurative language- not intended to carry literal meaning, usually meant to be imaginative or vivid: apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

Foreshadowing- presentation of material in such a way that later events are prepared for; hints of things to come.

Imagery- use of sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.

Juxtaposition- placing two ideas or characters “side by side” for comparison or contrast

Mood- emotional- the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work that the author creates. The setting, tone, and events of the work have an effect on the mood.

Motif-recurrent patterns in a work... images, words, objects, phrases or actions that tend to unify the work (ex. -patterns of day and night, summer and winter).

Overstatement – to say considerably more about a particular point than a condition warrants usually for ironic contrast.

Parable – a story designed to suggest a principle, illustrate a moral, or answer a question, allegorical stories.

Plot- pattern of events in a story, usually consisting of exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution (denoument).

Point of View- vantage point from which the author presents the story (first, second, third, limited, omniscient)

Sarcasm- caustic and bitter expression of strong disapproval

Satire- a work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule; often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.

Setting- background against which the action takes place

Style- an evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices

Syntax- the way an author chooses to join words. Examples of syntactical devices: alliteration, anaphora, antithesis, parallelism, polysyndeton, asyndeton, repetition, epistrophe, anadiplosis, epanalepsis...

Theme- a central idea; the abstract concept that is made concrete through the representation in person, action and image

Tone- describes the author’s attitude toward his or her material, the audience, or both

Analytical Strategies used:

I. D I D L S

DIDLS is what will help you get at an author’s tone. (See your tone list for help)

Diction: denotation and connotation of words (in terms of pattern)

What effect does the choice of specific words have on your reaction to the

piece?

Imagery: now look at the connotation and denotation of key images; sensory images

Detail: What effect do those images have on your reaction to the piece?

Language: Does the author use dialect? Jargon? Colloquialism? Slang? Does the

language evoke trust and honesty of depiction? Is it inviting? Or does it

sound like the author hates you?

Vocabulary that describes language:

1. informal: plain, literal, ordinary, exact, concrete, colloquial, slang, idiomatic, picturesque, provincial, homespun

2. formal: scholarly, pretentious, precise, artificial, detached, learned, moralistic, cultured, obscure

3. jargon: vulgar, insipid, euphemistic, sensuous, symbolic, figurative, grotesque, poetic, trite, emotional

Syntax/Sentence Structure:

Parallel syntax (similarly styled phrases and sentences) creates interconnected emotions, feelings and ideas.

Short sentences are punchy and intense.

Long sentences are distancing, reflective and more abstract.

II. SOAPStone

SOAPStone will help you in analyzing nonfiction.

Speaker: Who is he/she? Credentials? Ethos? Values/ Beliefs?

Occasion: What prompted the writing of the essay, personally, professionally, and historically?

Audience: Where was it published originally? Consider age, background knowledge, socioeconomic status, political motivations, values/beliefs or target audience

Purpose: Determine based on dominant rhetorical mode. To argue, to persuade, to describe, to define, to compare/contrast, to explain causes or effects, to narrate

Subject: What is this about? Does it seem to be about something different at first than it really is?

Tone: Attitude of the writer. Attitude of subject matter, audience, and self.

Tone Vocabulary

Like the tone of a speaker’s voice, the tone of a work of literature expresses the writer’s feelings. To determine the tone of a passage, ask yourself the following questions:

1. What is the subject of the passage? Who is its intended audience?

2. What are the most important words in the passage? What connotations do these words have?

3. What feelings are generated by the images of the passage?

4. Are there any hints that the speaker or narrator does not really mean everything he or she says? If any jokes are made, are they lighthearted or bitter?

5. If the narrator were speaking aloud, what would the tone of his or her voice be?

Positive Tone/Attitude Words

|Amiable |Consoling |Friendly |Playful |

|Amused |Content |Happy |Pleasant |

|Appreciative |Dreamy |Hopeful |Proud |

|Authoritative |Ecstatic |Impassioned |Relaxed |

|Benevolent |Elated |Jovial |Reverent |

|Brave |Elevated |Joyful |Romantic |

|Calm |Encouraging |Jubilant |Soothing |

|Cheerful |Energetic |Lighthearted |Surprised |

|Cheery |Enthusiastic |Loving |Sweet |

|Compassionate |Excited |Optimistic |Sympathetic |

|Complimentary |Exuberant |Passionate |Vibrant |

|Confident |Fanciful |Peaceful |Whimsical |

Negative Tone/Attitude Words

|Accusing |Choleric |Furious |Quarrelsome |

|Aggravated |Coarse |Harsh |Shameful |

|Agitated |Cold |Haughty |Smooth |

|Angry |Condemnatory |Hateful |Snooty |

|Apathetic |Condescending |Hurtful |Superficial |

|Arrogant |Contradictory |Indignant |Surly |

|Artificial |Critical |Inflammatory |Testy |

|Audacious |Desperate |Insulting |Threatening |

|Belligerent |Disappointed |Irritated |Tired |

|Bitter |Disgruntled |Manipulative |Uninterested |

|Boring |Disgusted |Obnoxious |Wrathful |

|Brash |Disinterested |Outraged | |

|Childish |Facetious |Passive | |

Humor-Irony-Sarcasm Tone/Attitude Words

|Amused |Droll |Mock-heroic |Sardonic |

|Bantering |Facetious |Mocking |Satiric |

|Bitter |Flippant |Mock-serious |Scornful |

|Caustic |Giddy |Patronizing |Sharp |

|Comical |Humorous |Pompous |Silly |

|Condescending |Insolent |Quizzical |Taunting |

|Contemptuous |Ironic |Ribald |Teasing |

|Critical |Irreverent |Ridiculing |Whimsical |

|Cynical |Joking |Sad |Wry |

|Disdainful |Malicious |Sarcastic | |

Sorrow-Fear-Worry Tone/Attitude Words

|Aggravated |Embarrassed |Morose |Resigned |

|Agitated |Fearful |Mournful |Sad |

|Anxious |Foreboding |Nervous |Serious |

|Apologetic |Gloomy |Numb |Sober |

|Apprehensive |Grave |Ominous |Solemn |

|Concerned |Hollow |Paranoid |Somber |

|Confused |Hopeless |Pessimistic |Staid |

|Dejected |Horrific |Pitiful |Upset |

|Depressed |Horror |Poignant | |

|Despairing |Melancholy |Regretful | |

|Disturbed |Miserable |Remorseful | |

Neutral Tone/Attitude Words

|Admonitory |Dramatic |Intimae |Questioning |

|Allusive |Earnest |Judgmental |Reflective |

|Apathetic |Expectant |Learned |Reminiscent |

|Authoritative |Factual |Loud |Resigned |

|Baffled |Fervent |Lyrical |Restrained |

|Callous |Formal |Matter-of-fact |Seductive |

|Candid |Forthright |Meditative |Sentimental |

|Ceremonial |Frivolous |Nostalgic |Serious |

|Clinical |Haughty |Objective |Shocking |

|Consoling |Histrionic |Obsequious |Sincere |

|Contemplative |Humble |Patriotic |Unemotional |

|Conventional |Incredulous |Persuasive |Urgent |

|Detached |Informative |Pleading |Vexed |

|Didactic |Inquisitive |Pretentious |Wistful |

|Disbelieving |Instructive |Provocative |Zealous |

Language Words-Used to describe the force or quality of the entire piece

Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone. Consider language to be the entire body of words used in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction, imagery, or detail. For example, an invitation to a graduation might use formal language, whereas a biology text would use scientific and clinical language.

Different from tone, these words describe the force or quality of the diction, images, and details AS A WHOLE. These words qualify how the work is written.

|Artificial |Exact |Literal |Pretentious |

|Bombastic |Figurative |Moralistic |Provincial |

|Colloquial |Formal |Obscure |Scholarly |

|Concrete |Grotesque |Obtuse |Sensuous |

|Connotative |Homespun |Ordinary |Simple |

|Cultured |Idiomatic |Pedantic |Slang |

|Detached |Informal |Picturesque |Symbolic |

|Emotional |Insipid |Plain |Trite |

|Esoteric |Jargon |Poetic |Vulgar |

|Euphemistic |Learned |Precise | |

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download