“Participative Leadership Style is always more effective ...
University of technology, sydneyBusiness School of Management21844 Managing Work and People“Democratic/participative leadership style is always more effective than autocratic/directive leadership style”Assignment 1: Individual Research ReportWord Count: 2203Ida Sophie Demetriades Toftdahl 10983106Spring 2011Executive SummaryLeadership styles are contingent upon people and situations, and range on a broad spectrum from people-oriented to task-oriented leadership style. To a backdrop of five overarching leadership perspectives: competencies; behaviour; contingency; transformational; and implicit, this paper examines participative/democratic (people-oriented) and directive/autocratic (task-oriented) leadership styles. The paper outlines the most popular and renowned leadership theories, and discusses situations suitable for different styles. It examines contemporary examples from a small global Australian start up business that has recently employed two new staff which introduced opportunities for testing leadership. Contents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u Executive Summary PAGEREF _Toc303761362 \h 0Part I: Introduction PAGEREF _Toc303761363 \h 2Part II: Critical Literature Review PAGEREF _Toc303761364 \h 3Contingencies in Leadership Styles PAGEREF _Toc303761365 \h 4Models of Contingencies PAGEREF _Toc303761366 \h 5Four Combinations or Continuums of Leadership Style: PAGEREF _Toc303761367 \h 6Leadership and Management: Transformational versus Transactional PAGEREF _Toc303761368 \h 7Part III: Practical Implications PAGEREF _Toc303761369 \h 8Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc303761370 \h 10Reference List PAGEREF _Toc303761371 \h 11Part I: IntroductionHistorically, great man theory argues that “the fate of societies and organisations is in the hands of powerful, idiosyncratic, individuals” and leaders ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Buchanan</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>2279</RecNum><Pages>599</Pages><DisplayText>(Buchanan & Huczynski 2010, p. 599)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2279</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2279</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Buchanan, David A.</author><author>Huczynski, Andrzej</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organizational behaviour</title></titles><pages>xxxix, 819p.</pages><edition>7th</edition><keywords><keyword>Organizational behavior.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>Harlow</pub-location><publisher>Pearson Education</publisher><isbn>9780273728597 (pbk.)
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CITY OPEN RESERVE 2 hr loan 302.35 BUCH (ED.7) c.3 FOR LOAN
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CITY CAMPUS 302.35 BUCH (ED.7) c.5 DUE 14-09-11</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Buchanan & Huczynski 2010, p. 599). There are however divergence around what leadership is in academia and mass media, and midst practitioners and members of the public. A continuously evolving discipline, the concept of leadership has been referred to as an ability to influence, an influencing process or “an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes” PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CdWNoYW5hbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Stogdill in Buchanan & Huczynski 2010, p. 596; Daft & Lane 2005, p. 44; Robbins, Waters-Marsh & Millett 2004); The ongoing discrepancy relates to the effectiveness of leadership theory and leadership styles. There seems to be agreement however that leadership aims at goal achievement and involves human behaviour, direct action, organisations or individuals, and relationships. According to Daft and Lane (2011), leadership is reciprocal and involves a spectrum or circle of life. Included are two familiar terms in academia and business: democratic and autocratic leadership. Democratic, or participative leadership style, is a current popular trend which refers to a person who shares and delegates authority, relies on and encourages subordinates’ participation and knowledge for completing tasks and reaching goals, and therefore depend on “subordinate respect for influence” PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5EYWZ0PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAwNTwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Daft & Lane 2005, p. 44; Daft & Lane 2011; DuBrin 2010; Pride, Hughes & Kapoor 2009; Rounds & Segner 2011). Autocratic, or directive, leadership style tends to centralise leader authority and “derive power from position, control of rewards, and coercion” PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5EYWZ0PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5EYWZ0PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Daft & Lane 2011, p. 45; Hamilton 2010; Lussier & Achua 2010). Although research suggests the former has been known to increase positive employee feelings, a leadership continuum or mix of two or several styles might be more appropriate, depending on circumstances such as skill level or time pressure (Lewin 1939 in Robbins; Chemers 1997). Research also indicates that people with “high authoritarianism and low need for independency prefer autocratic leadership”, especially in critical situations where absolute power outweighs the expense, or where people simply prefer to be directed PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5RdWlubjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTE8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Chemers 1997; McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009; Quinn 2011; Robbins, Waters-Marsh & Millett 2004; Vroom & Yetton 1973). The critical literature review examines appropriate leadership styles within this continuum. Part II: Critical Literature ReviewLeadership Theories refer to different schools of thoughts and leadership types that have been identified by academics and business leaders over time. In order to understand it’s complexity, it is useful to examine a spectrum from broad trait theories which focus on personal qualities and characteristics, and more specific behavioural theories which again establish between people-oriented and task-oriented leadership PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Sb2JiaW5zPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAwNDwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Chemers 1997; Chemers & Ayman 1993; Robbins, Waters-Marsh & Millett 2004). Leadership can be organised into five overarching perspectives including; “competency, behavioural, contingency, transformational and implicit” (McShane 2009, p. 419). Focussing on contingencies, these five perspectives are explained and referred to throughout the report in order to reflect contemporary examples to a framework of leadership theory.Eight key leadership competencies are defined as; personality, self-concept, drive, integrity, leadership motivation, knowledge, cognitive and practical intelligence, and emotional intelligence (McShane et al 2009). These “personal characteristics of superior performance” are increasingly popular; however the perspective excludes complexities and contingencies such as situations, skills set, and quality of relationships (p. 458). To explain, it is common to speak of leadership behaviour as people-oriented or task-oriented. A people-oriented style describes extensive two-way communication within a vertical environment built on comfort, listening, support, favours, personal interests, and equality (McShane et al 2011, p.460). Task-oriented leadership comprises assigning specific tasks, clarifying duties and procedures, and enforcing rules and encouraging efficiency (McShane et al 2011). Decreased people-oriented leadership may cause “absenteeism, grievances, and turnover and job dissatisfaction” (McShane et al 2011, p.460). Decreased task-oriented leadership may reduce job performance (ibid). Leaders have to change theirs and others’ behaviour depending on each individuals competencies and skill set, the situation and the quality of relationships. Leadership styles can be viewed as a foundation and applied in a mix or continuum depending on contingencies. Contingencies in Leadership StylesPioneering yet too narrow, Fiedler’s Contingency Model builds on relationships and power, and suggests that effective leadership is situational depending on the leaders’ natural style (McShane et al 2011, p.467). Within this fixed model, either the leader or the situation needs modification to reach effectiveness ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hurd</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>2999</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hurd, Barcelona & Meldrum 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2999</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2999</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hurd, Amy R.</author><author>Barcelona, Robert J.</author><author>Meldrum, John T.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Leisure services management</title></titles><pages>xi, 386 p.</pages><keywords><keyword>Recreation Management.</keyword><keyword>Public relations.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year></dates><pub-location>Champaign, IL</pub-location><publisher>Human Kinetics</publisher><isbn>9780736069229 (hard cover)
0736069224 (hard cover)</isbn><call-num>KURING-GAI CAMPUS 790.069 HURD FOR LOAN</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hurd, Barcelona & Meldrum 2008). However, diversity in location, culture, race, gender and education makes it a conundrum to understand what motivates individuals to change. High emotional intelligence, flexibility and understanding are widely identified as requirements to exercise efficient leadership PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5EdWxld2ljejwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Dulewicz & Higgs 2005; McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009; Pahl 2008; Quinn 2011; Robbins, Waters-Marsh & Millett 2004). A leaders success depends on their ability to drive emotions in the right direction by determining what motivates people ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pahl</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>2803</RecNum><DisplayText>(Pahl 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2803</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2803</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nadine Pahl</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership</title></titles><dates><year>2008</year></dates><pub-location>Norderstedt, Germany</pub-location><publisher>GRIN Verlag</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Pahl 2008). To clarify, five process theories of motivation assist us in predicting and influencing behaviour; expectancy theory; equity theory, goal setting theory; satisfaction-performance theory and reinforcement theory ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Borkowski</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>2801</RecNum><DisplayText>(Borkowski 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2801</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2801</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Borkowski, Nancy</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organizational behavior in health care</title></titles><pages>xvi, 428 p.</pages><keywords><keyword>Health facilities Personnel management.</keyword><keyword>Health services administration.</keyword><keyword>Organizational behavior.</keyword><keyword>Psychology, Industrial.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2005</year></dates><pub-location>Sudbury, Mass.</pub-location><publisher>Jones and Bartlett Publishers</publisher><isbn>0763747688 (pbk.)</isbn><call-num>CITY CAMPUS 362.11068 BORK FOR LOAN</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Borkowski 2005). Vrooms expectancy theory suggest that a person’s motivation in terms of performance depends on their desire for an outcome (valance); its relation to other outcomes (instrumentality); and the relationship between effort and performance (expectancy) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pahl</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>2803</RecNum><DisplayText>(Pahl 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2803</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2803</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nadine Pahl</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership</title></titles><dates><year>2008</year></dates><pub-location>Norderstedt, Germany</pub-location><publisher>GRIN Verlag</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Pahl 2008). Grounded in expectancy theory, path-goal leadership theory is a prevalent contingency theory of motivation (McShane et al 2009, p.461). A carrot rather than a stick method, this theory advocates servant leadership which views powerful leadership as coaching, facilitating and supervising PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Cb3Jrb3dza2k8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA1PC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Griffin & Moorhead 2010; McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009). To increase motivation, one must alter, distort, move, compare, or change individual’s inputs and outcomes. Both in team and individual mentoring, one can employ Latham and Locke’s goal setting theory which promotes specific and challenging goals and support elements to obtain commitment PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Mb2NrZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Locke 2000, 2009; Locke & Kirkpatrick 1991; Locke & Latham 1990). Organisations, teams and people alike, need rewards and motivation which is often individually centred. Although not specifically a motivation theory, positive reinforcement theory conditions behaviour and motivates employees ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lussier</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>2992</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lussier & Achua 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2992</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2992</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lussier, Robert N.</author><author>Achua, Christopher F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Leadership : theory, application, skill development</title></titles><pages>xxvi, 525 p.</pages><edition>4th</edition><keywords><keyword>Leadership.</keyword><keyword>Teams in the workplace.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>Australia</pub-location><publisher>SouthWestern/Cengage Learning</publisher><isbn>9780324596557 (pbk.)
0324596553 (pbk.)</isbn><call-num>CITY CAMPUS 658.4092 LUSI (ED.4) DUE 05-09-11
CITY CAMPUS 658.4092 LUSI (ED.4) DUE 09-10-11</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lussier & Achua 2010). Thus, appropriate rewards cause efficiency when employees are motivated to reach goals and desired rewards. The aforementioned motivation theories are useful in describing the four leadership styles explained in the following section: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McShane</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>2959</RecNum><DisplayText>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2959</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2959</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McShane, Steven Lattimore</author><author>Travaglione, A.</author><author>Olekalns, Mara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organisational behaviour on the Pacific rim</title></titles><pages>xxvii, 699 p.</pages><edition>3 rd edition.</edition><keywords><keyword>Organizational behavior Pacific Area.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><pub-location>North Ryde, N.S.W.</pub-location><publisher>McGraw-Hill</publisher><isbn>9780070140271 (pbk.)</isbn><call-num>CITY CLOSED RESERVE 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 15-09-11 +1 RECALLED
CITY OPEN RESERVE 2 hr loan 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 20-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 19-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 18-09-11</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009).Models of Contingencies Leadership is sometimes limited or unnecessary. Leadership substitute theory for example identifies contingencies where leaders could be substituted with co-workers, or a leader may not be necessary if the employee displays self-leadership, self-direction and self-motivation ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McShane</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>2959</RecNum><DisplayText>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2959</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2959</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McShane, Steven Lattimore</author><author>Travaglione, A.</author><author>Olekalns, Mara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organisational behaviour on the Pacific rim</title></titles><pages>xxvii, 699 p.</pages><edition>3 rd edition.</edition><keywords><keyword>Organizational behavior Pacific Area.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><pub-location>North Ryde, N.S.W.</pub-location><publisher>McGraw-Hill</publisher><isbn>9780070140271 (pbk.)</isbn><call-num>CITY CLOSED RESERVE 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 15-09-11 +1 RECALLED
CITY OPEN RESERVE 2 hr loan 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 20-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 19-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 18-09-11</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009). Where leadership is needed however, the four leadership styles may apply. They are described in the table below following four useful combinations or continuums. #StyleDescription1Directive/ AutocraticDirective/autocratic leadership is task-oriented and includes setting performance goals and reviews, facilitation, discipline and rewards. 2SupportiveSupportive leadership is people-oriented and describes a friendly and approachable leader who creates a pleasant work environment based on mutual respect, no hierarchy, and employee satisfaction. 3Participative/DemocraticParticipative leadership involves employees in decision making and encourages employee suggestions and involvement. 4Achievement-orientedAchievement-oriented leadership involves employee performance reviews, including goals, efficiency, improvement, responsibility and accomplishment. In this model, the relationship between style and effectiveness, relates to employee characteristics and the employees work environment. Four Combinations or Continuums of Leadership Style: Different combinations of leadership styles are appropriate depending on factors such as skill and experience, locus of control, task structure and team dynamics explained below ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McShane</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>2959</RecNum><DisplayText>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2959</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2959</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McShane, Steven Lattimore</author><author>Travaglione, A.</author><author>Olekalns, Mara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organisational behaviour on the Pacific rim</title></titles><pages>xxvii, 699 p.</pages><edition>3 rd edition.</edition><keywords><keyword>Organizational behavior Pacific Area.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><pub-location>North Ryde, N.S.W.</pub-location><publisher>McGraw-Hill</publisher><isbn>9780070140271 (pbk.)</isbn><call-num>CITY CLOSED RESERVE 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 15-09-11 +1 RECALLED
CITY OPEN RESERVE 2 hr loan 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 20-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 19-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 18-09-11</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009).-285751377950Leadership Style depends on skill and experience:360997535941000Moving from directive towards supportive is appropriate when employees are inexperienced and unskilled.42735501498600-285752273300Leadership Style depends on locus of control:A combination of participative and achievement-oriented is contingent upon employee preferences between internal and external control and discipline.352425041275004257675-12700044462701390650-285751606550Leadership Style depends on task structure: 299085028003500A mix of directive, supportive and participative is appropriate when the situation depends on task difficulty, frequency, and routine.-285752184400Leadership depends on team dynamics:350520042989500It is appropriate to vary from supportive to directive depending on team cohesion; low cohesion requires a more directive style. 440499510795Leadership and Management: Transformational versus Transactional As we can see from the previous models, leadership styles depend on certain contingencies. Additionally, leadership can be examined from a transformational or transactional perspective. Leadership styles that appeal to employee’s values and aspiration are transformational, whilst transactional leadership describe managerial leaders who find ways to achieve organisational objectives more efficiently by for example linking performance and resource management with rewards (McShane 2009). It has been suggested that behavioural and contingency theories better describes management rather than leadership PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Hb2xkPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMDwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Alvesson & Sveningsson 2003; Gold, Thorpe & Mumford 2010a, 2010b; McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009). This is because it focuses on behaviour that improves employee performance and well-being rather than on behaviours that moves the organisation and work unit to a new direction. Importantly, organisations require leaders who do both, however workload often prevent leaders from distancing themselves from management (McShane 2009, p.469). Differentiation between the two is necessary to avoid organisational stagnation. To clarify and divide, management can be defined as coping with complexity and leadership defined as coping with change ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Robbins</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>2275</RecNum><Prefix>Kotter in </Prefix><DisplayText>(Kotter in Robbins, Waters-Marsh & Millett 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2275</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2275</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Robbins, Stephen P.</author><author>Waters-Marsh, Terry</author><author>Millett, Bruce</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organisational behaviour</title></titles><pages>xxiii, 669 p.</pages><edition>4th</edition><keywords><keyword>Organizational behavior Australia.</keyword><keyword>Leadership Australia.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year></dates><pub-location>Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.</pub-location><publisher>Pearson Education</publisher><isbn>1741030129
0130454494 (CD-ROM)</isbn><call-num>CITY CAMPUS 302.35 ROBB (2004.ED) DUE 14-09-11
CITY CAMPUS 302.35 ROBB (2004.ED) FOR LOAN
KURING-GAI CAMPUS 302.35 ROBB (2004.ED) FOR LOAN</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kotter in Robbins, Waters-Marsh & Millett 2004). However, fifty years of research has found that people interpret messages differently due to prior experiences and events ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dervin</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>708</RecNum><DisplayText>(Dervin 1992; Macnamara 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>708</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">708</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dervin, B.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Glazier, Jack D.</author><author>Powell, Ronald R.</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>From the mind's eye of the user: the sense-making qualitative-quantitative methodology</title><secondary-title>Qualitative research in information management</secondary-title></titles><pages>xiv, 238 p.</pages><keywords><keyword>Library science Research Methodology.</keyword><keyword>Information science Research Methodology.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1992</year></dates><pub-location>Englewood, Colo</pub-location><publisher>Libraries Unlimited</publisher><isbn>0872878066</isbn><call-num>CITY CAMPUS 020.723 GLAZ FOR LOAN
CITY CAMPUS 020.723 GLAZ c.2 FOR LOAN
KURING-GAI CAMPUS 020.723 GLAZ FOR LOAN</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Macnamara</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>536</RecNum><record><rec-number>536</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">536</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Macnamara, Jim R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Jim Macnamara's public relations handbook</title></titles><pages>xvi, 356 p.</pages><edition>5th</edition><keywords><keyword>Public relations Australia.</keyword><keyword>Public relations Handbooks, manuals, etc.</keyword><keyword>Business communication.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2005</year></dates><pub-location>Broadway, N.S.W.</pub-location><publisher>Archipelago Press</publisher><isbn>0958753741</isbn><call-num>CITY OPEN RESERVE 2 hr loan 659.2 MACN (ED.5) FOR LOAN</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Dervin 1992; Macnamara 2005). Thus, one style or theory cannot be entirely all-embracing. Similarly, people have leadership prototypes. What works with some people and in some situations may not as easily be applied or even be suitable in another. Experience depends on a person’s actions, behaviour, thoughts, decisions, skills, knowledge, identity, environment, beliefs and values ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dervin</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>600</RecNum><DisplayText>(Dervin, Foreman-Wernet & Lauterbach 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>600</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">600</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dervin, Brenda</author><author>Foreman-Wernet, Lois</author><author>Lauterbach, Eric</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Sense-making methodology reader : selected writings of Brenda Dervin</title></titles><keywords><keyword>Communication Philosophy.</keyword><keyword>Communication Methodology.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2003</year></dates><pub-location>Cresskill, NJ</pub-location><publisher>Hampton Press</publisher><isbn>1572735090</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Dervin, Foreman-Wernet & Lauterbach 2003). The latter two in particular stands out in a globalised world with increasing awareness of and sensitivity to, different beliefs and values across cultures. Values are hard to change because they are long-lasting beliefs built on moral and ethics about what is important in a variety of situations. Values and beliefs thus play an important role in influencing individual behaviour.Implicit leadership theory explains how leadership effectiveness is often viewed based on preconceived beliefs about leadership features and behaviours (leadership prototypes) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McShane</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>2959</RecNum><Pages>473</Pages><DisplayText>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009, p. 473)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2959</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="p9pedwd9a0x5esedw29pf0sbwtw5wdtfxted">2959</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McShane, Steven Lattimore</author><author>Travaglione, A.</author><author>Olekalns, Mara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Organisational behaviour on the Pacific rim</title></titles><pages>xxvii, 699 p.</pages><edition>3 rd edition.</edition><keywords><keyword>Organizational behavior Pacific Area.</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><pub-location>North Ryde, N.S.W.</pub-location><publisher>McGraw-Hill</publisher><isbn>9780070140271 (pbk.)</isbn><call-num>CITY CLOSED RESERVE 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 15-09-11 +1 RECALLED
CITY OPEN RESERVE 2 hr loan 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) FOR LOAN
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 20-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 19-09-11
CITY 7 DAY LOAN 302.35 MCSH (ED.3) DUE 18-09-11</call-num><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McShane, Travaglione & Olekalns 2009, p. 473). Thus, leaders influence on organisational success is often inflated (p. 473). Most employees look for confirming evidence of differentiating leadership because the belief makes them feel better. Explaining organisational failure or success on a leader’s ability is a micro-economic belief that says people generate life events rather than “uncontrollable natural forces” (p. 474). To meet follower expectations, leaders must act in accordance with prototypes in order to bring about organisational change, and to succeed. What sets a true leader apart may therefore be their ability to separate themselves from the burden of leadership and accredit organisational success to its stakeholders, meaning to employ the right leadership style at the right time.Part III: Practical ImplicationsIn light of concepts described in the literature review, the following implications are analysed in terms of the challenges facing the organisation in this case study. DIA is a four year old global recruitment consultancy with four staff located around the world. They have recently employed new and young staff to connect with and reflect external stakeholders. The leadership styles chosen to meet each challenge are numbered and sectioned into paragraphs outlining theoretical and practical examples. In particular, the organisation faced challenges of knowledge transfer between established experienced staff and new young staff, who worked in different locations and countries. Directive Leadership with new and inexperienced staff:DIA has recently employed two young and inexperienced staff, one of which came from a military background. Experienced staff needed to transfer knowledge efficiently, teach organisational practices and systems, and keep a dynamic growth. Directive leadership was employed in terms of setting SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Timely) and strict deadlines. Goal setting theory, including coaching, facilitating and supervising, inspired specific and challenging goals that created a vision, drive and commitment. The organisation provided directed guidance and resources to ensure new staff had everything they needed to complete tasks. Tasks were listed in goal sheets and 90 day plans. The plans included daily, monthly, quarterly and yearly goals. This enabled staff to see how their work related to the organisations mission and understand the value of their work. We are here moving from directive towards supportive leadership. Supportive Leadership StyleIn the new DIA team, a supportive leader was important. All staff were well educated, confident and capable. A friendly and pleasant work environment resulted in mutual respect and increased team cohesion. This meant staff enjoyed their work which also increased productivity. Participative Leadership to empower staff and promote a comfortable environmentParticipative leadership was employed particularly at team meetings where staffs were welcome to suggest and present creative ideas that were often used. In conjunction with goal setting theory, team members were able to set their own success goals, timelines and rewards. This resulted in greater team cohesion and motivation. Together and in ‘one on one meetings’ with their supervisor, team members provided each other with positive reinforcement working towards more desirable rewards employing regular feedback. Achievement-oriented leadership and equity theory describes how the team decided upon different bonuses for different people dependant on their performance review with their manager, their personal wants and needs, and the individual in comparison to others. A combination of participative and achievement-oriented leadership increased efficiency, improved individual and team responsibility and accomplishment.As we can see, a mix of directive, supportive and participative is appropriate depending on the situation. Routine tasks needed supportive leadership, monitoring and sufficient resources. Participative leadership was needed depending on the frequency of tasks. Members contributed in an open environment and set their own rewards, and servant leadership was more efficient. Difficult tasks needed directive leadership which gave team members a sense of value and regularity. ConclusionTo answer the opening statement, it is incorrect to say that “democratic/participative leadership style is always more effective than autocratic/directive leadership style” because it is depends upon the situation, the people involved, and the tasks at hand. The case study example outlined how participative, supportive and directive leadership was employed in different situations and with different people to increase efficiency. Although it was time consuming and challenging to train new staff and provide supervisory meetings, the team benefited from a mix of leadership styles and team awareness of the leadership styles employed in which situation. It is useful to employ management tools to ensure efficiency including; daily contact, weekly meetings with agenda and goal sheets, quarterly performance reviews and 90 day plans, yearly business plans and clear task and job descriptions. In our knowledge worker age, it is also important that all individuals and organisations are aware of the tools at hand, the leadership styles employed and individual and organisational goals, to achieve organisational team cohesion.Reference List ADDIN EN.REFLIST Alvesson, M. & Sveningsson, S. 2003, 'Managers doing leadership: The extra-ordinarization of the mundane', Human Relations vol. 56, no. 12, pp. 1435-1459.Borkowski, N. 2005, Organizational behavior in health care, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, Mass.Buchanan, D.A. & Huczynski, A. 2010, Organizational behaviour, 7th edn, Pearson Education, Harlow.Chemers, M.M. 1997, An integrative theory of leadership, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.Chemers, M.M. & Ayman, R. 1993, Leadership theory and research : perspectives and directions, Academic Press, San Diego.Daft, R.L. & Lane, P. 2005, The leadership experience, 3rd edn, Thomson/South-Western, Mason, Ohio ; [Great Britain].Daft, R.L. & Lane, P.G. 2011, The Leadership experience, 5e [ed.] edn, South-Western Cengage Learning, Australia ; Mason, OH.Dervin, B. 1992, 'From the mind's eye of the user: the sense-making qualitative-quantitative methodology', in J.D. Glazier & R.R. Powell (eds), Qualitative research in information management, Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, Colo, pp. xiv, 238 p.Dervin, B., Foreman-Wernet, L. & Lauterbach, E. 2003, Sense-making methodology reader : selected writings of Brenda Dervin, Hampton Press, Cresskill, NJ.DuBrin, A.J. 2010, Leadership : research findings, practice, and skills, 6th edn, South-Western/Cengage, Mason, OH.Dulewicz, V. & Higgs, M. 2005, 'Assessing leadership styles and organisational context', Journal of Managerial Psychology, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 105 - 123.Gold, J., Thorpe, R. & Mumford, A. 2010a, Gower handbook of leadership and management development, Gower, Burlington, VT.Gold, J., Thorpe, R. & Mumford, A. 2010b, Leadership and management development, 5th edn, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, London.Griffin, R.W. & Moorhead, G. 2010, Organizational behavior : managing people and organizations, 9th edn, South-Western/Cengage Learning, Australia.Hamilton, C. 2010, Communicating for results : a guide for business and the professions, 9th edn, Thomson/Wadsworth, Belmont, Calif.Hurd, A.R., Barcelona, R.J. & Meldrum, J.T. 2008, Leisure services management, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.Locke, E.A. 2000, The Blackwell handbook of principles of organizational behavior, Blackwell Business, Oxford ; Malden, MA.Locke, E.A. 2009, Handbook of principles of organizational behavior : indispensable knowledge for evidence-based management, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, Sussex ; [Hoboken].Locke, E.A. & Kirkpatrick, S. 1991, The essence of leadership : the four keys to leading successfully, Lexington Books, New York.Locke, E.A. & Latham, G.P. 1990, A theory of goal setting & task performance, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.Lussier, R.N. & Achua, C.F. 2010, Leadership : theory, application, skill development, 4th edn, SouthWestern/Cengage Learning, Australia.Macnamara, J.R. 2005, Jim Macnamara's public relations handbook, 5th edn, Archipelago Press, Broadway, N.S.W.McShane, S.L., Travaglione, A. & Olekalns, M. 2009, Organisational behaviour on the Pacific rim, 3 rd edition. edn, McGraw-Hill, North Ryde, N.S.W.Pahl, N. 2008, 'The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership'.Pride, W.M., Hughes, R.J. & Kapoor, J.R. 2009, Foundations of business, 2nd edn, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Pub., Boston.Quinn, R.E. 2011, Becoming a master manager : a competing values approach, 5 edn, Hoboken, NJ : Wiley.Robbins, S.P., Waters-Marsh, T. & Millett, B. 2004, Organisational behaviour, 4th edn, Pearson Education, Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.Rounds, J.L. & Segner, R.O. 2011, Construction supervision, Wiley, Hoboken, N.J.Vroom, V.H. & Yetton, P.W. 1973, Leadership and decision-making, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh. ................
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