Para 1 - Cengage



CHAPTER 3

Founding the English Mainland Colonies,

1585-1732

Learning Objectives

After you read and analyze this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyze the outcome of the failure of the Roanoke colony and explain the constraints in England that continued to encourage people to migrate to America.

2. Describe the settlement of Maryland and Virginia, the constraints that affected the colonists there, and the causes and outcomes of the internal conflicts that occurred in both.

3. Describe the society that the Puritans hoped to create in New England, the constraints that they faced in doing so, their reaction to those who differed with their views, and the results that ensued because of the activity by dissenters.

4. Analyze the expectations and choices of the people who settled in the middle colonies, with particular emphasis on the Quakers’ plans for Pennsylvania.

5. Evaluate the expectations of the founders of Carolina and Georgia and explain why Carolina differed from these expectations.

Chapter Outline

I. England and Colonization

A. Religious and Political Tensions in Seventeenth-Century England

1. Between 1603 and 1688, the English people lived through intense religious conflict, economic upheavals and dislocations, civil war, and the removal of two kings from their thrones.

2. While Elizabeth I had ignored the Puritans, James I and Charles I harassed them and actively squelched demands for religious reform.

a) Believing in absolutism, the Stuart kings underestimated the determination of Parliamentary leaders to have a commanding voice in matters of finance, religious reform, and foreign policy.

b) In 1642, civil war erupted, pitting Stuart loyalists against political and religious dissenters represented in the House of Commons.

(1) For almost a dozen years, the nation was a commonwealth.

(2) By 1660, the Stuart kings were invited to retake the throne, ushering in the Restoration Era.

(3) The 1688 Glorious Revolution ushered in the Protestant rule of William and Mary.

B. Colonizer and Colonies

1. In the midst of these dramatic events, wealthy men found ways to finance risky colonizing ventures, members of religious sects established communities in America, and impoverished men and women decided to seek their fortunes in the New World.

2. Entrepreneurs provided the critical ingredient for empire-building.

a) Joint-stock companies took the lead in planting English colonies in the New World.

b) Later, the monarch granted great tracts of land to establish proprietary colonies.

c) Finally, the rulers themselves took charge of royal colonies.

3. The colonists in these English settlements thought of themselves as residents of four distinct regions.

a) The Chesapeake

b) New England

c) The Middle Colonies

d) The Lower South

II. Settling the Chesapeake

A. The Planting of Jamestown

1. The Virginia Company established Jamestown, named in honor of the king, in 1607.

a) The colony’s first several years were marked by severe problems.

b) Captain John Smith took control and imposed military order to save Jamestown.

2. Tobacco proved to be the colony’s salvation.

a) The headright system brought more settlers to Virginia.

b) In 1618, the House of Burgesses was created to give the planters an active decision-making role in the colony’s civil government.

3. Expansion led to conflict with Native Americans.

a) King James revoked the Company’s charter and made Virginia a royal colony partly for this reason.

B. Maryland: A Catholic Refuge

1. The Calvert family hoped to create a haven for Catholics in Maryland.

a) They envisioned a colony of large landowners and tenant farmers.

b) The colony drew mostly Protestants of limited means.

2. The colony quickly came to resemble Virginia.

a) A headright system attracted new settlers; tobacco became the economic mainstay.

b) Virginians reacted with hostility, fearing the new colony as a competitor.

C. Troubles on the Chesapeake

1. Civil war broke out in England in the 1640s, and religious warfare also erupted in Maryland.

a) Calvert tried to prevent it by issuing a Toleration Act.

b) Oliver Cromwell repealed Calvert’s Toleration Act and took Maryland away from the Calvert family in 1654.

2. In Maryland, violence ensued after the Glorious Revolution.

a) John Coode led the Protestants in rebellion against Maryland’s proprietor and obtained a royal charter for the colony.

3. Conflict between wealthy planters and newcomers, and between eastern inhabitants and residents of the backcountry, split Virginia.

a) Nathaniel Bacon became the leader of those living in the backcountry.

4. War between backcountry inhabitants and Indians led to rebellion against the government.

a) Governor Berkeley refused to assist the westerners.

b) Bacon and his men, joined by members of the lower classes, marched against the capital (Jamestown).

c) Bacon’s sudden death doomed the rebellion.

D. Colonial Chesapeake Life

1. The rhythms of life in the Chesapeake region revolved around tobacco.

a) Planters moved frequently and did not create many communal institutions.

b) Until the 1680s, much of the population consisted of indentured male servants working in the tobacco fields.

c) As the English economy improved, planters were forced to turn to the purchase of African slaves.

III. New England: Colonies of Dissenters

A. The Plymouth Colony

1. Unwelcome in England, the Pilgrims and other Separatists boarded the Mayflower to head to the New World.

2. The Mayflower Compact granted political rights to any man willing to remain and abide by the laws.

3. The settlers received crucial assistance from American Indians.

a) Squanto’s assistance was indispensable to the colony’s survival.

4. Plymouth colony grew slowly but steadily.

a) Expansion occurred peacefully through land purchases from the local Indians.

B. Massachusetts Bay and Its Settlers

1. John Winthrop obtained a charter for a Puritan colony.

2. During the 1630s, a Great Migration of Puritans was fueled by religious tensions and economic distress in England.

3. Massachusetts developed into a society of small farming villages and small seaport towns.

4. Puritan ministers reinforced the ideal of a hierarchy within the family.

C. Government in Puritan Massachusetts

1. The colony’s design was based on Puritan views of God’s law.

a) There was no social equality.

b) Political participation was restricted to saints (church members).

c) Personal behavior was strictly regulated.

d) Religious dissent was not tolerated.

2. Quakers who challenged this system could eventually be hanged.

3. Roger Williams preached freedom of religious belief.

a) Banished for his views, he established Rhode Island, where church and state were kept separate.

4. Anne Hutchinson criticized the Massachusetts clergy.

a) Her followers included not only women but also merchants and artisans.

b) She was banished for her unorthodox belief in direct communication with God.

5. Some Puritans left Massachusetts voluntarily.

a) Thomas Hooker and his followers as well as other Puritans established Connecticut.

b) Others moved north to Maine and to the area that became the colony of New Hampshire.

D. Indian Suppression

1. War broke out with the Pequot Indians in 1636.

a) It was part of a struggle between Massachusetts and the Connecticut Valley settlers over who would control Connecticut.

b) The war ended with the destruction of the Pequots.

2. King Philip’s War began in 1675.

a) Its roots lay in Puritan expansion onto Indian lands.

b) American Indian resistance ceased permanently in New England when the Indians lost this war.

E. Change and Reaction in England and New England

1. Declining religious intensity was apparent by the 1660s.

a) Fewer individuals qualified for church membership and therefore for political participation.

b) The introduction of the Half-Way Covenant allowed the Puritans to maintain political control.

2. The English crown attempted to assert greater control.

a) Charles II revoked the colony’s charter.

b) James II established the Dominion of New England, with Sir Edmund Andros as governor.

c) Massachusetts overthrew Andros when news of the Glorious Revolution reached the colony.

3. Massachusetts became a royal colony in 1691.

a) The new charter granted by William and Mary ended Puritan political, religious, and social control.

b) The Salem witchcraft episode occurred in the context of this great change.

IV. The Pluralism of the Middle Colonies

A. From New Amsterdam to New York

1. A very diverse population settled in the colony, which remained small and unprosperous.

2. England seized control of New Netherlands.

a) While the new government was liberal, the crown taxed the colony heavily and maintained political control.

b) By 1685, James, now king of England, had lost interest in the colony.

B. Leisler’s Rebellion

1. Jacob Leisler led a successful rebellion when news of the Glorious Revolution reached New York.

2. Although he surrendered to the new governor appointed by William and Mary, he was executed.

a) Pro- and anti-Leisler forces contended in the political life of New York for many years to come.

C. William Penn’s Holy Experiment

1. William Penn established Pennsylvania as a refuge for Quakers.

a) The crown granted him a charter because of his political loyalty and loans and his father’s service to the king.

2. Penn envisioned a colony built on Quaker values.

a) These included social equality, religious toleration, genuine political participation, and fair treatment for American Indians.

3. Non-Quaker immigrants moved the colony in other directions.

a) They seized lands from the Indians.

b) Quakers, whose religious principles included pacifism, left political life when western farmers demanded military action against the Indians.

V. The Colonies of the Lower South

A. The Carolina Colony

1. Eight proprietors received title to Carolina from the crown.

a) They hoped to establish a society there dominated by great landowners, small farmers, and serfs.

b) The headright system of Virginia and Maryland quickly replaced the original plan.

2. The Carolinas produced cash crops for export.

3. The southern part of Carolina became the royal colony of South Carolina in 1719.

4. The northern part of Carolina was settled by small farmers.

a) Their economy centered on tobacco and naval stores.

5. Both Carolinas eventually became royal colonies.

B. Georgia, the Last Colony

1. James Oglethorpe established Georgia as a place for imprisoned debtors to start their lives over.

2. The intention was to create a colony of small farmers; buying and selling land was prohibited, as was slave labor.

a) Settlers challenged both these ideals.

3. Georgia became a royal colony in 1752 when Oglethorpe gave up on his project.

Identifications

Identify the following items and explain the significance of each. While you should include any relevant historical terms, using your own words to write these definitions will help you better remember these items for your next exam.

1. Nathaniel Bacon

2. Church of England

3. Parliament

4. Commonwealth

5. Restoration

6. Glorious Revolution

7. joint-stock company

8. entrepreneur

9. Jamestown

10. House of Burgesses

11. headright system

12. staple crop

13. John Coode

14. charismatic

15. Bacon’s Rebellion

16. indentured servants

17. demographic disaster

18. Separatists

19. Pilgrims

20. William Bradford

21. Mayflower Compact

22. Squanto

23. John Winthrop

24. Great Migration

25. original sin

26. hierarchy

27. femme covert

28. sainthood

29. Quakers

30. heretic

31. Roger Williams

32. Anne Hutchinson

33. Pequot War

34. Metacomet

35. guerrilla tactics

36. Half-Way Covenant

37. Dominion of New England

38. patronage

39. suffrage

40. property requirement

41. Presbyterians

42. Jacob Leisler

43. William Penn

44. egalitarianism

45. pacifism

46. yeoman

47. James Oglethorpe

48. religious toleration

Multiple-Choice Questions

SELECT THE CORRECT ANSWER.

1. Following the disappearance of Roanoke, English efforts to establish colonies relied on

a. investment by merchants in joint-stock companies.

b. massive government programs.

c. cooperative ventures with the Netherlands and other Protestant powers.

d. members of the nobility.

2. The settlement at Jamestown at first ran into severe difficulty in part because

a. some of the settlers were gentlemen who did not know how to work.

b. the Indians immediately attacked them.

c. imports of African slaves bankrupted the settlers.

d. hurricanes destroyed the town.

3. Most colonists in Virginia eventually moved away from Jamestown because

a. it was unsafe because of the local Indians.

b. Captain John Smith’s military form of government was brutal.

c. tobacco became the colony’s economic mainstay.

d. it was too expensive to live there.

4. One of the most effective ways of attracting English settlers to Virginia in the first half of the seventeenth century was by

a. hiring free labor at relatively high wages.

b. offering headrights of free land to those who paid for settlers to come to the colony.

c. promising great wealth from mining gold and silver.

d. assuring religious dissenters they would be protected from persecution.

5. Coode’s Rebellion in Maryland in the 1680s is a good example of colonial conflicts between

a. Indians and colonists.

b. Protestants and Catholics.

c. slaves and masters.

d. England and France.

6. Plymouth’s Mayflower Compact was similar to Virginia’s House of Burgesses in that

a. both required church membership in order to be able to vote.

b. the Crown established them.

c. both gave colonists an opportunity to participate in self-government.

d. both were abolished under the Dominion of New England.

7. Maryland was similar to Virginia because it

a. relied on tobacco as the basis of its economy.

b. was established for religious reasons.

c. sent an expedition to attempt to capture Florida from the Spanish.

d. None of these

8. Charles I and James II were alike in that

a. their religious and political policies led to successful rebellions against them.

b. they relied on the Dominion of New England to carry out their policies.

c. both had little interest in English colonization.

d. they wanted to abolish the Church of England.

9. The Glorious Revolution

a. had no effect whatsoever in North America.

b. led to the creation of new colonies south of Virginia.

c. caused American Indians all along the frontier to attack the colonists.

d. stimulated rebellions in several of the colonies.

10. Bacon’s Rebellion is best described as a(n)

a. unsuccessful attempt to challenge the Church of England.

b. rebellion by frontier interests.

c. boundary dispute between Maryland and Virginia.

d. uprising by American Indians against white settlers.

11. The Puritans of Massachusetts sought to create a society

a. that allowed religious dissent.

b. in which religion would regulate the community.

c. where aristocratic landholders held all political power.

d. dedicated to the principle of equality.

12. New York and Pennsylvania were alike in that

a. the English seized them from the Dutch.

b. both rebelled against the unpopular rule of Sir Edmund Andros.

c. a diverse population took root in each.

d. they arose as havens for religious dissenters.

13. Among the contributions of Africans to the culture of colonial America, particularly in the South, was expertise in

a. cattle raising.

b. tobacco growing.

c. blacksmithing.

d. ship construction.

14. South Carolina resembled Virginia in that

a. the economies in each colony relied on a cash crop.

b. the headright system appeared in each.

c. both eventually became royal colonies.

d. All of these

15. The original plan for the Carolinas developed by John Locke

a. called for a Puritan society like that in Massachusetts.

b. guaranteed equality for all inhabitants.

c. sought to establish a society of great landowners.

d. was based on the Bible.

Essay Questions

1. ALTHOUGH BOTH WERE ESTABLISHED BY PEOPLE FROM THE SAME COUNTRY AT ROUGHLY THE SAME TIME, DID VIRGINIA AND PLYMOUTH HAVE MUCH ELSE IN COMMON? COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE TWO PLACES, ENGLAND’S FIRST SUCCESSFUL COLONIES IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE.

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: In comparing the two colonies, you must be certain to describe their similarities. These include their fragile condition when they were first founded; both could easily have failed. They also shared similar experiences in dealing with the local Indians. By asking for contrasts, the question also asks you to describe differences between Jamestown and Plymouth. Begin with the very different reasons they were established. Second, their economic bases differed. The way in which participation in local government emerged in each provides a third important example of contrasts.

2. Religious controversy in the seventeenth century was a powerful force in the internal evolution of a number of the English colonies. Discuss how conflicts centering on religion shaped the colonies of Maryland, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: Maryland and Massachusetts both arose because their founders opposed the Church of England. Within Maryland, Protestant opposition to the Catholic proprietor led to open conflict on several occasions, while the Toleration Act was an attempt to prevent it. Puritans in Massachusetts created a society guided by religious requirements and sought to stamp out religious dissent. Suppression of colonists like Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson led to the creation of Rhode Island, a colony that, in contrast to Massachusetts, permitted freedom of religion.

3. Many of the English colonies began as private undertakings, whether organized by a joint-stock company or by proprietors. Most, however, eventually became royal colonies. Trace this transition from private venture to direct control by the government in two of the following: Virginia, Massachusetts, and South Carolina.

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: Virginia began under the direction of a joint-stock company but in less than two decades became a royal colony. Be sure to explain what problems within Virginia prompted the English government to step in and take control.

Massachusetts was also organized as a private venture, but it kept going on its own for sixty years until the Crown moved in. Efforts by the English government to assert greater control actually occurred earlier: explain how Charles II and James II tried to do so. Finally, however, a new king—William—imposed a royal charter and a royal governor. Be certain to sketch the complex political background of his decision to do so.

In South Carolina’s case, a group of eight proprietors, favored by the king with a huge land grant, thought they could create a society dominated by great landowners. That proved not to be the case, though a social system dominated by a planter elite did arise. Eventually, they seized control of their section of the original Carolina grant from the proprietors, and South Carolina soon ended up as a royal colony instead of a proprietary one.

4. The North American colonies gave their founders the opportunity to design new societies from the ground up—but the results usually did not conform to the original plans. Select any three colonies and describe how and why the societies that developed in them did not match their original designs.

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: Choosing Maryland, Carolina, and New York for discussion will require that you describe how their founders envisioned societies of large landowners and even (in South Carolina’s case) serfs. Explain why such efforts did not attract settlers and what developed in their place.

Choosing Pennsylvania and Massachusetts will involve discussion of how religious principles desired by the founders failed to take permanent root. In Pennsylvania’s case, the influx of non-Quaker settlers undermined William Penn’s plans for good relations with the Indians. In Massachusetts, the plan to establish a political system built around church membership began to falter when the second and third generations proved less interested in joining the church than their parents. To maintain political control, the Puritans were forced to adopt the compromise called the Half-Way Covenant. In the end, in any case, church membership ceased to count for political purposes when the Crown took control of the colony.

Selecting Georgia requires examination of James Oglethorpe’s plans for the colony. Discussion of the settlers’ rejection of his paternalistic approach and their insistence on owning slaves will allow explanation of why his design for the colony was unrealistic.

Map Exercises

1. Examine Maps 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 in your textbook to determine where English military fortifications were most prevalent in colonial North America. What accounts for the fact that they predominated in two of the four regions?

2. Test your knowledge of colonial America by indicating the locations of the following on Chapter 3’s opening map:

a. The colony in which Bacon’s Rebellion took place

b. The colony where imprisoned debtors could get a new start in life

c. The region granted to eight proprietors

d. The Dutch colonial presence in North America

e. The colony that fought the Pequots

f. The colony established by a dissident Puritan woman

g. The colony whose founders believed in pacifism

Individual Choices

Nathaniel Bacon

To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Choices section at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Examine the picture of Nathaniel Bacon on p. 58. What is your initial impression of him? What do you think he was like? Does the picture give you any clues about his economic and/or social background?

2. Describe the economy at the time of Bacon’s Rebellion. What influence would it have about how people felt about their government and its officials?

3. Why did Bacon migrate to the American colonies?

4. When Bacon asked that the Indian population be cleared from this area, what two things was he hoping for?

5. Why did the governor refuse Bacon’s request? Do you agree with this choice?

6. What does it tell you about Bacon’s leadership abilities when you discover what happened to the revolt after he suddenly died?

7. Evaluate Bacon’s Rebellion in terms of what it demonstrates about colonial unrest a century before the American Revolution.

Individual Voices

Examining a Primary Source: Nathaniel Bacon: Concerning the Troubles in Virginia, 1676

To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Voices section at the end of the chapter.

1. What was Bacon’s primary objective when he began his defiance of the colonial government?

2. Do Bacon’s attacks on these peaceful Indian communities suggest a larger issue of racism in the colonies? Give examples to support your answer.

3. Bacon argues that the governor and his friends have done nothing to earn the public’s trust or admiration, and have failed to provide basic protection for the citizens of the colony. Do you think Bacon’s claims are accurate?

4. Evaluate Bacon’s success in obtaining his chief objective.

5. If you had been living during this time period, would you have joined Bacon’s Rebellion? Why or why not?

RUBRIC: Look through this chapter for examples of conflict between various groups in the colonies. Pick three of the most significant conflicts to analyze in this rubric and write them in the top sections. As you complete this rubric, think about how these conflicts often entered the political arena.

|COLONIAL CONFLICT |  |  |  |

|Important Leaders |  |  |  |

|Points of Contention |  |  |  |

|Resolution/ |  |  |  |

|Nonresolution of Disputes | | | |

Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions

1. A. THE CROWN DECIDED TO RELY ON THE WEALTH OF PRIVATE ENTREPRENEURS, WHO WERE ABLE TO MINIMIZE THEIR RISKS THROUGH THE DEVICE OF THE JOINT-STOCK COMPANY. SEE PAGE 63.

b. England’s government did not provide financial backing for colonies in the New World. See page 62.

c. If anything, England and the Netherlands became rivals in the New World. See pages 78-79.

d. Noblemen were not willing to invest the necessarily large funds. See page 62.

2. a. Many were gentlemen adventurers who relied on their servants. See pages 64-66.

b. Hostilities with the Indians did not occur for two years. See pages 64-66.

c. The early colonists did not acquire African slaves; they experienced prosperity by cultivating tobacco. See pages 64-66.

d. No such problem arose in early Jamestown. The major environmental problem, instead, was disease, caused at least in part by the water supply. See pages 64-66.

3. c. Tobacco required extensive tracts of land, causing the colonists to expand over a large region. See pages 64-66.

a. Relations with the Indians became deadly after the colonists expanded beyond Jamestown. See pages 64-66.

b. Smith’s martial law regime did not have this effect. See pages 64-66.

d. For the conditions at Jamestown, see pages 64-66.

4. b. The Company awarded 50 acres for every person who was transported at private expense from England to Virginia. See pages 65-66.

a. The incentives offered by the Company, such as the headright system and the House of Burgesses, did not include this. See pages 65-66.

c. There were no precious metals in Virginia. The road to wealth was in raising tobacco. See pages 65-66.

d. For the incentives the Company offered to prospective settlers, see pages 65-66.

5. b. Led by John Coode, Maryland’s Protestants rebelled in the 1680s against the colony’s Catholic proprietor. See page 67-68.

a. The social tensions in Maryland that led to Coode’s Rebellion were between Catholic and Protestant settlers. See page 67-68.

c. Tensions between slaves and their owners did not contribute to Coode’s Rebellion. See page 67-68.

d. See 5b. (France played no part in the settlement of Maryland.)

6. c. The House of Burgesses was a legislative body, and the Mayflower Compact guaranteed political participation to all adult males. See pages 65 and 69.

a. All adult males, even non-Puritans, could have political rights under Plymouth’s Mayflower Compact. See pages 65 and 69.

b. The Virginia Company established the House of Burgesses, and William Bradford, leader of Plymouth’s settlers, negotiated the Mayflower Compact. See pages 65 and 69.

d. The Dominion of New England did not include Virginia. See page 76.

7. a. See pages 67-68.

b. While Maryland was (a haven for Catholics), Virginia was not. See pages 67-68.

c. Neither colony undertook such a scheme. See pages 81-83.

d. The correct answer is “a.”

8. a. Charles I provoked the Puritans to rebel successfully against him by persecuting them for their religious beliefs. James II was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 partly because of his political interference. See pages 62 and 76-79.

b. The Dominion of New England was established by James II during the 1680s, well after the reign of Charles I. See pages 63 and 76.

c. Charles I supported the establishment of Massachusetts, while James II (as the Duke of York) organized England’s seizure of New Netherland (New York). James II also established the Dominion of New England in order to assert greater control over New England, New York, and New Jersey. See pages 63 and 76-78.

d. Charles I supported the status quo and opposed religious dissenters like the Puritans. See pages 63 and 76-78.

9. d. For the rebellion in New York and in Massachusetts, see pages 67-68 and 78-79.

a. It provoked rebellion in Massachusetts and New York. See pages 62-63.

b. The Carolinas date to the 1660s, and Georgia was established in 1732. (The Glorious Revolution occurred in 1688.) See pages 76-78.

c. Conflict between Native Americans and English settlers broke out in 1675 and 1676 in Virginia and Massachusetts. (The Glorious Revolution occurred in 1688.) See pages 67-68 and 78-79.

10. b. Planters on the frontier objected to unequal taxation imposed on frontier settlers and to a lack of government military support when conflict with the Indians erupted in 1676. See page 68.

a. The tensions that gave rise to Bacon’s Rebellion did not include religious issues. See page 68 for its causes.

c. No such issue contributed to the conflict. See page 68.

d. Although warfare with the Indians precipitated Bacon’s Rebellion, the latter was an uprising of backcountry white settlers against Virginia’s eastern elite. See page 68.

11. b. The colony enforced biblical laws, required church attendance, and enlisted the church to regulate all aspects of life. See pages 70-72.

a. The Puritans opposed religious toleration and religious dissent. See pages 70-72.

c. Church membership was the requirement for political participation. See pages 70-72.

d. Only church members had political power. See pages 70-72.

12. c. Both colonies had very diverse populations. Hence, they are described as multicultural societies. See pages 78-81.

a. This applies only to New York, formerly the Dutch colony of New Netherland. See pages 78-81.

b. Pennsylvania was not part of the Dominion of New England. In these two colonies, therefore, rebellion broke out only in New York. See pages 78-81.

d. Of these two colonies, only Pennsylvania owed its origins to the desire to create a refuge for religious dissenters, specifically the Quakers. See pages 78-81.

13. a. White settlers in the Carolinas acquired their knowledge of cattle raising from African slaves. See page 82.

b. See 13a. See page 82.

c. See 13a. See page 82.

d. See 13a. See page 82.

14. d. See pages 64-65 and 81-82.

a. This statement is true (see pages 64-65 and 81-82) but is not the correct choice.

b. This statement is true (see pages 64-65 and 81-82) but is not the correct choice.

c. This statement is true (see pages 64-65 and 81-82) but is not the correct choice.

15. c. See pages 81-82.

a. See pages 81-82.

b. See pages 81-82.

d. See pages 81-82.

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