Http://www



History of the World

Ethic of Development in the Global Environment

Winter 2004

Shantelle Brumfield

Erin Thuston

Historically, the presence of religion lies in the hands of the Roman Empire. The Romans had a religion of their own, to the Romans, religion was less a spiritual experience than a contractual relationship between mankind and the forces which were believed to control people's existence and well-being. This may explain their difficulty in taking to the idea of a single, all-seeing, all-powerful god. As a result the Roman’s approach to religion was systematic. Their religious practices were not based on any central belief, but on a mixture of fragmented rituals, taboos, superstitions, and traditions, which collected over the years from a number of sources. Through these influences of tradition the hierarchy of priest and priestesses was created. While, the Roman priests were carefully chosen for the purpose of performing rites on behalf of the state. The highest priests and priestesses of Rome were elected from the Patrician class, and trained carefully for their jobs. Priests served at temples for Roman gods and priestesses served at temples for goddesses. Consequently, the Roman religious practices lead to corrupt influences in the political and militant world that surrounded. However, as an outcome to these events there were private concerns in many families. Where the heads of the homes began to oversaw the domestic rituals and prayers in the manner of public ceremonies. In which circumstance the people's view of the world changed, individuals whose personal religious needs remained unsatisfied turned increasingly during the first century AD to the mysteries, which were of Greek origin, and to the cults of the east. This rise in concern of the Roman Empire opened the western European world to division of religion into Judaism, Christianity and Islamic.

Early History of Judaism

Circa 2000 BCE, the God of the ancient Israelites established a divine covenant with Abraham, making him the patriarch of many nations. The term Abramic Religions is derived from his name. These are the four religions which trace their roots back to Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i World Faith. The book of Genesis describes the events surrounding the lives of the three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Theres is also Joseph, who is recognized, as a fourth patriarch by Christians is not considered one by Jews. Moses was the next leader of the ancient Israelites. He led his people out of captivity in Egypt, and received the Law from God. After decades of wandering through wilderness, Joshua led the tribes into the Promised Land, driving out the Canaanites through a series of military battles. The original tribal organization was converted into a kingdom by Samuel; its first king was Saul. The second king, David, established Jerusalem as the religious and political center. The third king, Solomon built the first temple there.

Division into the Northern Kingdom of Israel and the Southern kingdom of Judah occurred shortly after the death of Solomon in 922 BCE. Israel fell to Assyria in 722 BCE; Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 BCE. The temple was destroyed. Some Jews returned from captivity under the Babylonians and started to restore the temple in 536 BCE. (Orthodox Jews date the Babylonian exile from 422 to 352 BCE). Alexander the Great invaded the area in 332 BCE. From circa 300 to 63 BCE, Greek became the language of commerce, and Greek culture had a major influence on Judaism. In 63 BCE, the Roman Empire took control of Judea and Israel.

Four major, some minor, religious sects had formed by the 1st century CE: the Basusim, Essenes, Pharisees and Sadducees. Many anticipated the arrival of the Messiah who would drive the Roman invaders out and restore independence. Christianity was established initially as a Jewish sect, centered in Jerusalem. Paul broke with this tradition and spread the religion to the Gentiles (non-Jews). Many mini-revolts led to the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 CE. The Jewish Christians were wiped out or scattered at this time. The movement started by Paul flourished and quickly evolved into the religion of Christianity. Jews were scattered throughout the world. Their religion was no longer centered in Jerusalem; Jews were restricted from setting foot there. Judaism became decentralized and stopped seeking converts. The local synagogue became the new center of Jewish life, and authority shifted from the centralized priesthood to local scholars and teachers, giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism.

The period from the destruction of the temple onward gave rise to heavy persecution by Christians throughout Europe and Russia. Many stories were spread, accusing Jews of ritual murder, the desecration of the Catholic host and continuing responsibility for the execution of Jesus. Unsubstantiated rumors continue to be circulated today. In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolph Hitler and the German Nazi party drew on centuries of anti-Semitism. They organized the Holocaust, the attempted extermination of all Jews in Europe. About 6 million were killed in one of the world's greatest examples of religious and racial intolerance.

The Zionist movement was a response within all Jewish traditions to centuries of Christian persecution. Their initial goal was create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The state of Israel was formed on May 18, 1948. There are currently about 18 million Jews throughout the world. They are mainly concentrated in North America (about 7 million) and Israel (about 4.5 million).

The history of Christianity is directly related to that of Judaism. It could be said that they are of one tree with different branches. During the first six decades of the first century CE, Judaism was composed of about two dozen competing groups: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, Zealots, followers of John the Baptist, followers of Yeshua of Nazareth (Iesous in Greek, Iesus in Latin, Jesus in English), and followers of other charismatic leaders. Though, all followed common Jewish practices, such as observing dietary restrictions, worshiping at the Jerusalem temple, sacrificing animals, etc.

Jesus Christ conducted a short ministry (one year, in the Galilee according to the synoptic gospels; three years, mainly in Judea according to the Gospel of John). His teachings closely matched those of Beit Hillel (the House of Hillel). Hillel was a great Jewish rabbi who lived in the second half of the 1st century BCE one or two generations before Jesus birth.

Jesus was charged with what would be called "aggravated assault" under today's law, for his attack on merchants in the Temple. This was apparently considered treason or insurrection by the occupying Roman forces. (Crucifixion, when used on a non-slave such as Jesus, was restricted to these two crimes.) He was executed by a detail of Roman soldiers, during the springtime, sometime in the late 20's or early 30's CE. Most historians date the event in April of either the year 30 or 33. According to the Gospels, his disciples initially returned to their homeland of Galilee immediately following their leader's death.

Four decades later, in 70 CE the Roman Army attacked Jerusalem and destroyed the central focus of Jewish life: the temple. This was an absolutely devastating blow at the time; Jewish life was totally disrupted. Jews were no longer able to worship at the Temple. Out of this disaster, emerged two main movements: rabbinical Judaism centered in local synagogues, and the Christian movement.

There was great diversity within the Christian movement during the first few decades after Jesus' execution. Some of Jesus' followers (and those who never met Jesus but who were inspired by his teachings) settled in Jerusalem. Others spread across the known world, teaching very different messages. "Even in the same geographical area and sometimes in the same cities, different Christian teachers taught quite different gospels and had quite different views of who Jesus was and what he did[1].

During the latter part of the first century CE, there were three main groups within the primitive Christian movement. They include Jewish Christian movement, Pauline Christianity, and Gnostic Christianity.

Jewish Christian movement: Jesus disciples appear to have regrouped later in Jerusalem under the leadership of James, one of Jesus' brothers. The group viewed themselves as a reform movement within Judaism; they viewed Jesus as a prophet and rabbi, but not as a deity. They organized a synagogue, worshiped and brought animals for ritual sacrifice at the Jerusalem Temple. They observed the Jewish holy days, practiced circumcision of their male children, followed kosher dietary laws, and practiced the teachings of Jesus as they interpreted them to be. They are frequently referred to today as the Jewish Christians2. Many were killed, enslaved, or scattered during the Roman attack on Jerusalem in 70 CE.

Pauline Christianity: Saul, a Jew from Tarsus, originally prosecuted the Jewish Christians on behalf of the priests at the Jerusalem Temple. He experienced a powerful religious conversion, after which, he departed for unknown places for three years. Later, having changed his name to Paul, he became the single most active Christian missionary, from about 36 CE until his execution by the Romans in the mid-60's. He created a new Christian movement, containing elements from many forms of Paganism: Greek, Roman, Persian, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, etc. He included the concept of Jesus as "The Word", as a god-man -- the savior of humanity, the product of a virgin birth who was executed, resurrected and ascended into heaven. There are dozens of points of similarity between the life of Jesus and that of Krishna, the god-man and second member of the Hindu trinity. Paul abandoned most of the Laws of Moses and rejected many of the Jewish behavioral rules that Jesus and his disciples had followed during his ministry. Paul taught that God had unilaterally abrogated his covenants with the Jews and transferred them to the Pauline Christian groups.

Paul went on a series of missionary journeys around the eastern Mediterranean and attracted many Gentiles (e.g. non-Jews) to his movement. He was assisted by many co-workers, both male and female. Paul organized churches in many of the areas' urban centers, in competition with Greek Paganism, Mithraism, Mystery Religions, Judaism, competing Christian movements, and other religions. His Epistles record how he and his movement were in continual theological conflict with the Jewish Christian movement centered in Jerusalem, and with Gnostic Christians. Paul ran afoul of the Roman Empire, was arrested, and was transported to Rome where he was held under house arrest. He was executed there about 65 CE. Paul's churches survived his death and flourished. Some of his letters to several of his church groups were later accepted into the canon of the Christian Scriptures (New Testament).

Christian groups typically met in the homes of individual believers, much like home churches do today. Leaders were both men and women. There was no central authority, no standard style of organization at the local level, no dedicated church buildings or cathedrals. The Greek words episkopos (bishop, overseer), presbuteros (elder, presbyter) and poimen (pastor, shepherd) were originally synonymous terms which referred to the leader of a group of believers3.

Gnostic Christianity: Gnosticism is a philosophical and religious movement with roots in pre-Christian times. Gnostics combined elements taken from Asian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek and Syrian pagan religions, from astrology, and from Judaism and Christianity. "Among Gnostic Christians there were communities under the name of John and Thomas and many other lesser and later disciples."6 They claimed to have secret knowledge about God, humanity, and the rest of the universe of which the general population was unaware. They were/are noted for their: Novel interpretations of the Bible, the world and the rest of the universe; Belief that the Jehovah of the Hebrew Scripture (Old Testament) was a defective, inferior Creator-God, also known as the Demiurge. He was viewed as fundamentally evil, jealous, rigid, lacking in compassion and prone to committing genocide; Tolerance of different religious beliefs within and outside of Gnosticism; Lack of discrimination against women. Some Gnostics formed separate congregations. Others joined existing Pauline Christian groups. Still others were solitary practitioners.

In addition to the above three main groups, there were many smaller religious communities, which have been referred to as Matthean Christianity, Johannine Christianity, etc. "Among Jews especially in the East there were Christian communities and literature under the name of Peter and James that stood in opposition to Paul and John."6 Together produced over 80 gospels and hundreds of Epistles (letters). "Many of these other Gospels outside the New Testament had very different views of Jesus, produced in communities that held widely different understandings of Jesus."7

The three groups within the primitive Christian movement survived into the second century. Though one died out and the other two expanded. The two remaining were Pauline Christianity and Gnostic Christianity.

The Jewish Christian movement: The failure of the Bar Kochba revolt (132 - 135 CE) was devastating for the Jewish people, including the Jewish Christians. Any Jews who remained in Palestine in 135 CE were killed, enslaved or permanently driven from the land. The Jewish Christian movement had a brief resurgence during the 2nd century CE, and then disappeared from the pages of history.

Pauline Christianity continued to spread across the known world. It started to develop a formal theology, a set of doctrines, and an unofficial canon of writings, which were later to become the Christian Scriptures (New Testament). From the enormous supply of Christian gospels and epistles (letters) they chose a few that roughly matched the theology of the developing church. Admittance of the Gospel of John into the official canon had to overcome a great deal of resistance; many in the church felt that it had too much Gnostic content. The canon accepted: Four gospels, written by unknown authors, but attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Acts of the Apostles, apparently written by the same author who wrote Luke. Thirteen Pauline Epistles -- letters which claim that they were written by Paul. Religious liberals accept that seven were written by Paul, one may have been written by him, and 5 were by unknown authors -- mostly from the second century many decades after Paul's death.

Gnostic Christianity consisted of many separate groups with no significant central organization. Each group was under the leadership of a Gnostic teacher like Marcion, Valentinus, and Carpocrates. These groups shared some core beliefs, but otherwise differed greatly from each other. The Gnostic movement initially expanded, and at one point was the primary form of Christianity in the eastern Mediterranean. However, due to programs of persecution and execution by Pauline Christians, it later went into a steep decline, and ceased being a significant force by the 6th century.

After the deaths of the Apostles, the Apostolic Fathers were looked upon for guidance. They included a number of teachers and bishops: e.g. Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, and Tertullian. A hierarchical organizational structure called the "monarchial episcopate" then developed in which the individual congregational leaders recognized the authority of their area bishop in matters of doctrine and faith. There was no person or group who could speak for the church as a whole. It was only in 325 CE that bishops from throughout the Christian movement would be able to meet at the Council of Nicea and attempt to resolve differences in Christian beliefs.

The Christian religion is built around an itinerant Jewish preacher, Yeshua Ben Joseph or Yeshua Ben Nazareth. Later, Pauline Christians gave him the title Jesus Christ (Jesus is the Greek version of Yeshua; Christ means Messiah, the anointed one - a title often given to the King of Israel). Roman Catholics, Evangelical Christians, and Muslims believe that his mother, Mary, was a virgin when he was conceived; her pregnancy was caused by the Holy Spirit, and did not result from sexual intercourse. He was born in Palestine probably circa 4 to 7 BCE, possibly in the fall. (Some believe that his birth occurred in the springtime, during the time that the lambs were giving birth, when the shepherds were watching their flocks by night; others believe that his birth date was in the fall.) He was raised by his Jewish family of origin in the city of Nazareth in the Galilee. Jesus was the eldest child in the family, having four brothers and at least two sisters. (Some believe that these are either step-siblings or cousins). At the time, Palestine was very unstable politically. It had been under severe Roman oppression for decades. Many Jews expected the imminent arrival in Galilee of a king, the Messiah, (Anointed One) who would lead them to a military victory over the occupation forces and reign as king. This would be followed by the Reign of God on earth. Zealots were actively promoting the overthrow of the Romans.

At the age of about 30, circa 26 CE, he was baptized by John the Baptist, a relative of Jesus, a Jewish prophet, and probably a member of the Essenes. The Essenes were the smallest of the four main Jewish religious/political groups active in Jerusalem at the time; the others being the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Zealots. Jesus became an itinerant preacher whose message found an enthusiastic audience. He collected a group of followers during his ministry of which about 10 are fully described in the Christian Scriptures (New Testament); about half were male, and half female. The Bible says that there were 12 disciples at one time and 70 at another. It has multiple lists of the twelve, but the names differ. Many Christians believe that he had exactly 12 disciples, and that women held a lower status among his followers.

The book of Acts in the Christian Scriptures (New Testament) relates that Jesus' disciples elected Matthias to replace Judas who had died. Various Biblical passages said that he had committed suicide or had died from an accident. Jesus' brother James was the group's leader. Simon Peter was an important contributor to the movement. They continued spreading Jesus' teachings to fellow Jews from their center in Jerusalem. They were called Nazarenes (Nostrim in Greek) by the Jews, and Christians (Christianoi in Greek) by the Gentiles (non-Jews). They were organized in communities that shared wealth and possessions. They regarded themselves as a reform movement within Judaism; they still required their male members to be circumcised and for all to follow the Jewish laws regarding ritual and diet. Some went on missionary journeys to Jewish settlements in cities throughout the Roman Empire.

There were many points of conflict between the Jewish Christians and Pauline Christianity. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the temple and the rest of Jerusalem. Many Jews were killed; others fled Palestine. After an unsuccessful Jewish uprising in the 130's, the Roman Army drove the Jews from Palestine. The Nazoreans were thus dispersed throughout the Roman Empire. This severely weakened the movement. They had a brief resurgence during the 2nd century CE, but then disappeared. Many were probably absorbed by the mainline Pauline Christian movement which grew out of the churches established by Paul and his coworkers.

This interval extended from about 100 to 170 CE, when the Apostolic Fathers had replaced the apostles. They included a number of teachers and bishops: e.g. Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, and Tertullian. Early in this era, the church evolved into a more formal organization, the monarchial episcopate, in which bishops were recognized as having authority over the leaders of the individual congregations. The bishops decided matters of belief and practice within their jurisdiction.

During the Anti-Nicene Era (about 170 to 325 CE) many religious movements were active in the Roman Empire: Christianity, Greek Pagan religion, Judaism, Mithraism, Roman Pagan religion, various secret mystery religions, etc. Religious tolerance was widespread throughout the empire, but it was only enjoyed by those adults who had fulfilled their civic duties. Many points of conflict developed between the Roman authorities and the growing Christian movement. As part of one's civic duty, each adult was expected to sponsor a sacrifice in the Roman temple once per year. Many Christians refused to do this because it would force them to acknowledge the legitimacy of Pagan Gods. Adults were expected to acknowledge Caesar as the Son of God and Savior. Many Christians would not submit to this either. Christians ignored some Roman laws. For example the state refused to recognize marriages between a free person and a slave, Christians allowed such marriages. A small minority of Christians were so keen on hastening the end of the world and the arrival of the Kingdom of God that they set fires to encourage the second coming of Jesus. Some Roman authorities labeled the entire Christian movement as a bunch of arsonists. Incorrect rumors spread that Christians engaged in orgies during their communal means and made human sacrifices of infants. As a result of these conflicts, Christians were intermittently persecuted in various parts of the Empire.

Around 313 CE: The years of Christian persecution came to an end. Emperor Constantine (289-337 CE) issued the Edict of Milan which formally established freedom and toleration for all religions, including Christianity. Contrary to many people's beliefs, Christianity was not made the official religion of the Roman Empire until late in that century5.

The period of time from 325 to about 590 CE is often referred to as the "post-Nicene" era. This interval takes its name from the church Council of Nicea, which was held in 325 CE. There was no single individual who spoke for the entire church; no one person had the authority to decide matters of belief and practice. Such matters could only be determined by councils at which all available bishops would debate and attempt to resolve their differences. The first such meeting was the Council of Nicea in Asia Minor (now Turkey). 318 bishops out of the approximately 1,800 Christian bishops then in existence attended. Most came from the eastern half of the Empire5. Bishops attempted to resolve a major uncertainty facing the early church: the relationship between Jesus and God. The church recognized the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) which described God in strictly monotheistic terms. But there were references in the Gospels (particularly John) which stated that Jesus is Lord. Two conflicting theories about the deity of Jesus were argued at the time: Arius (250 - 336 CE) proposed that Jesus and God were very separate and different entities. Jesus was closer to God than any other human being, but he was born a man, had no prior existence, and was not a god. On the other hand, God has been in existence forever. Arius felt that any attempt to recognize the deity of Christ would blur the lines between Christianity and the Pagan religions. If Christianity recognized two separate gods, the Father and Jesus, it would become a polytheistic religion.

Athanasius (296 - 373 CE) argued that Jesus must be divine, because otherwise, he could not be the Savior. Both Arius and Athanasius had large, evenly matched followings among the bishops. The council, under intense pressure from Emperor Constantine, resolved its deadlock by a close vote in favor of Athanasius. The dissenting bishops were offered two options: to sign the settlement at Nicea or be exiled. The bishops produced the Nicene Creed, which declared that Jesus Christ was "of one substance with the Father." This did not immediately settle the question of the divinity of Christ; many bishops and churches refused to believe in the council's decision for decades.

In 330 CE, Emperor Constantine decided to build a "New Rome" on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium (now at Istanbul, Turkey). It was called Constantinople. It became the center of the largely Christian empire5. By this time, the church had evolved from a small, scattering of congregations to a geographically widespread church under the authority of many bishops. By 341 CE, many now believe that Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire through the evangelical efforts of the early church during the fourth century CE. The evidence seems to show that this is not true; "The Greek-Roman world was not...converted to a new religion, but compelled to embrace it." The Emperor Theodosian issued a series of decrees or rescripts in the years 341, 345, 356, 381, 383, 386 and 391 CE. The effect of these orders was to, "suppress all rival religions, order the closing of the temples, and impose fines, confiscation, imprisonment or death upon any who cling to the older (i.e. Pagan) religions.”2 The period of relative religious tolerance in the Roman Empire ended as Pagan temples were seized and converted to Christian use or destroyed. Priests and Priestesses were exiled or killed. Christianity and Judaism became the only permitted religions. In Spain, bishop Priscillian, who taught some Gnostic beliefs, became the first heretic executed by his fellow Christians for religious reasons. The church used the power of the state to begin programs to oppress, exile or exterminate both Pagans and Gnostic Christians. By the end of the century, Pagan temples had been either destroyed or recycled for Christian use. Pagan worship became punishable by death. But government toleration was not without its cost. The Emperor Constantine and later political rulers demanded a major say in the running of the church and in decisions on its beliefs.

Church authority had become concentrated in the five bishops or patriarchs located in Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, Jerusalem and Rome. Although they were officially given equal status, the Bishop of Rome was considered by many to be the first among equals4. In 381 CE, at the Council of Constantinople, the earlier council's decision on the deity of Jesus was confirmed and Arianism was formally declared a heresy. They also voted that Holy Spirit was the third Person of the Trinity. Almost all of the churches abandoned Arianism after this council. Near the end of the century, the Roman Emperor "Theodosius decreed that the doctrine of the Trinity was to be the official state religion and that all his subjects should adhere to it."5 Siricius, who reigned from 384 to 399 CE, became the first bishop of Rome to be called Pope (father).

During the 5th century CE, around 431 CE, The Council of Ephasus was called to debate the precise nature of Jesus. Again, there were two main competing belief systems: From the city of Alexandria, scholars developed the Alexandrian school of thought which: Promoted the allegorical interpretation of the Bible, that it contained hidden meanings; Emphasized the divinity of Christ; Recognized that Jesus had both a human and divine nature, tightly united. Within the city of Antioch, Nestorius and other scholars developed the Aniochene school which: Rejected an allegorical interpretation of the Bible; emphasized the humanity of Jesus; Saw the two natures of Jesus as being loosely connected. The council excommunicated Nestorian and declared his beliefs (Nestorianism) to be heresy. The Virgin Mary's status was elevated from the mother of Jesus to "theotokos", the mother of God.

In 440 CE, Pope Leo I became the Bishop of Rome. A post he held for 21 years. He maintained that the pope was highest ranking of the Christian bishops. Then, 451 CE: Emperor Marcian called the Council of Chalcedon to resolve still another debate about Jesus. The traditional belief that Jesus had both a divine and human nature was being challenged by Monophysitism, an outgrowth of the Alexandrian school. Their followers believed that Christ had only a single divine nature. The council rejected that belief. In their Chalcedonian Definition, they affirmed that Christ had two natures, human and divine. These were without confusion, without change, without division, without separation." This formulation has survived as the traditional belief to the present day among almost all branches of Christendom. The East Syrian (Nestorian) church and the Oriental Orthodox Christian church disagreed with the council's decision, and split off from the rest of Christianity in the first major schism from Pauline Christianity.

During the 5th century CE, various Germanic tribes invaded Rome and destroyed much of the Roman Empire. Meanwhile, the church centered in Rome successfully converted the invaders to Christianity. Authority within the church was coalescing around the Bishop of Rome in the west and the Patriarch of Constantinople in the east. Divisions between the two power centers in the Christian church gradually intensified. Gnostic Christianity's membership went into a steep decline.

In the 6th century, Emperor Justinian called The Second Council of Constantinople. He invited equal numbers of bishops from each of the five patriarchal sees. The Bishop of Rome, Pope Vigilius saw that many more bishops from the east than from the west would be present; he refused to attend. The council concentrated on the writings of three Christian leaders: Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret and Ibas. The council as heretics condemned all three. "We observed that the pupils of Nestorius were trying to bring their heresy into the church of God by means of the heretical Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia and his books as also by the writings of the heretical Theodoret and the disgraceful letter which is alleged to have been sent by Ibas to Mari the Persian.” Our observations prompted us to correct what was happening. We assembled in this imperial city, summoned here by the will of God and the command of the most religious emperor.6”

Gnostic Christianity ceased being a significant force by the 6th century. The only group to have continuously survived into modern times is the Mandaean sect of Iraq and Iran. This group currently numbers fewer than 15,000. Gnostic Christianity has been revitalized in the West and is now growing rapidly. The eastern and western branches of Christianity continued their process of separation. This was caused by a variety of factors: The Slav invasions in the Balkans.

The religious language in the west was Latin, while the Eastern Church used Greek. Bilingual theologians became increasingly rare. "While the intellectual thought of Eastern Christianity was driven by Greek teachers, Western Christianity came to be dominated by the teachings of Augustine of Hippo." (354 - 386 CE).4 "Although the two regions belonged to the same church, they became increasingly remote from each other." 4 A formal split did not occur until 1054 CE when the Roman Catholic church and Eastern Orthodox churches formally separated. Although discussions are currently underway to bring the two churches into some form of unity, little progress is being made. In 1517 CE, Martin Luther attacked certain practices and beliefs of the Church, and the authority of the Pope. He was followed by other reformers, which produced a mass movement, the Protestant Reformation. They were driven largely by two fundamental principles: "Sola Scriptura" (Scripture Alone): The belief that the Holy Bible was the ultimate authority for all matters of religious belief and practice. The Priesthood of all Believers: The belief that no priest or other intermediary is needed between the Christian believer and God.

About Islam

It is Estimated of the total number of Muslims range from 0.7 to 1.2 billion worldwide and 1.1 to 7 million in the U.S.2 About 21% of all people on earth follow Islam. The religion is currently in a period of rapid growth.

Christianity is currently the largest religion in the world. It is followed by about 33% of all people, a percentage that has remained stable for decades. If current trends continue, Islam will become the most popular world religion sometime in the mid-21st century.

Origin of Islam

The name of this religion, Islam, is derived from the word "Salam," which is often interpreted as meaning "peace." However "submission" would be a better translation. A Muslim is a follower of Islam. "Muslim" is an Arabic word that refers to a person who submits themselves to the will of God. Most religious historians view Islam as having been founded in 622 CE by Muhammad the Prophet. He lived from about 570 to 632 CE. The religion started in Mecca, when the angel Jibreel (Gabriel) read the first revelation to Muhammad. Islam is the youngest of the world's very large religions (e.g. those with over 300 million members) which include Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. However, many if not most of the followers of Islam believe that: Islam existed before Muhammad was born, The origins of Islam date back to the creation of the world, and Muhammad was the last of a series of Prophets.

Followers of Islam are called Muslims. "Allah" is an Arabic word, which means "the One True God." Some Western writers in the past have referred to Islam as "Mohammedism"; this is deeply offensive to many Muslims, as its usage can lead some to the concept that Muhammad the Prophet was in some way divine.

While still young, he was sent into the desert to be raised by a foster family. This was a common practice at the time. He was orphaned at the age of 6 and brought up by his uncle. As a child, he worked as a shepherd. He was taken on a caravan to Syria by his uncle at the age of 9, but possibly 12. Later, as a youth, he was employed as a camel driver on the trade routes between Syria and Arabia. Muhammad later managed caravans on behalf of merchants. He met people of different religious beliefs on his travels, and was able to observe and learn about Judaism, Christianity and the indigenous Pagan religions.

After marriage, he was able to spend more time in meditation. At the age of 40, (610 CE), he was visited in Mecca by the angel Gabriel. He developed the conviction that he had been ordained a Prophet and given the task of converting his countrymen from their pagan, polytheistic beliefs and what he regarded as moral decadence, idolatry, hedonism and materialism. He met considerable opposition to his teachings. In 622 CE he moved north to Medina due to increasing persecution. The trek is known as the hegira. Here he was disappointed by the rejection of his message by the Jews. Through religious discussion, persuasion, military activity and political negotiation, Muhammad became the most powerful leader in Arabia, and Islam was firmly established throughout the area.

About Islam:

By 750 CE, Islam had expanded to China, India, along the Southern shore of the Mediterranean and into Spain. By 1550 they had reached Vienna. Wars resulted, expelling Muslims from Spain and Europe. Since their trading routes were mostly over land, they did not develop extensive sea trade (as for example the English and Spaniards). As a result, the Old World occupation of North America was left to Christians. Believers are currently concentrated from the West Coast of Africa to the Philippines. Particularly in Africa, they are increasing in numbers, largely at the expense of Christianity. Many do not look upon Islam as a new religion. They feel that it is in reality the faith taught by the ancient Prophets, Abraham, David, Moses and Jesus (Peace be upon them). Mohammed’s role as the last of the Prophets was to formalize and clarify the faith and to purify it by removing foreign ideas that had been added in error.

There are two main texts consulted by Muslims

The Qur'an (Recitation) are the words of God. Muslims believe that it was revealed to Muhammad by the archangel Jibril (Gabriel). This was originally in oral and written form. They were later assembled together into a single book, the Qur'an. Its name is often spelled "Koran" in English. This is not recommended, as some Muslims find it offensive.

The Hadith, which are collections of the sayings of Muhammad. They are regarded as the Sunnah (lived example) of Muhammad. The Quran gives legitimacy to the Hadith. It states: "Nor does he say aught of his own desire. It is no less than inspiration sent down to him" (53:3-4). However, the writings are not regarded as having the same status as the Holy Qur'an; the latter is considered to be God's word. The great Islamic scholar Yahya bin Sharaf Ul-Deen An-Nawawi compiled a collection of 43 sayings of Prophet Muhammad. It is now known as "Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadiths"5

The Judaism Today

There are five main forms of Judaism in the world today. However, the most conservative traditions do not necessarily recognize the most liberal as being part of Judaism. This is a common problem among many of the world's great religions. The five form of Judaism includes Conservative Judaism, Humanistic Judaism, Orthodox Judaism, Reconstructionist Judaism, and Reform Judaism.

Conservative Judaism began in the mid-nineteenth century as a reaction against the Reform movement. It is a main line movement midway between Reform and Orthodox. Conservatives have 23 percent.

Humanistic Judaism is a very small group, mainly composed of atheists and agnostics, who regard mankind as the measure of all things.

Orthodox Judaism is the oldest, most conservative, and most diverse form of Judaism. Modern Orthodox, Chasidim and Ultra Orthodox share a basic belief in the derivation of Jewish law, even as they hold very different outlooks on life. They attempt to follow the original form of Judaism as they view it to be. They look upon every word in their sacred texts as being divinely inspired. Fewer that 10% of American Jews are estimated to be Orthodox. However, Orthodox synagogues represent 40% of all U.S. synagogues.

Reconstructionist Judaism is a new, small, liberal movement started by Mordecai Kaplan as an attempt to unify and revitalize the religion. They reject the concept that Jews are a uniquely favored and chosen people. They have no connection at all with Christian Reconstructionism, which is an ultra-conservative form of Christianity.

Reform Judaism is a liberal group, followed by many North American Jews. The movement started in the 1790's in Germany. They follow the ethical laws of Judaism, but leave up to the individual the decision whether to follow or ignore the dietary and other traditional laws. They use modern forms of worship. There are many female rabbis in reform congregations. Reform Judaism has 26 percent of all synagogues.

Jewish Texts

The Tanakh corresponds to the Jewish Scriptures, (often referred to as the Old Testament by Christians). It is composed of three groups of books: Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. The Torah (Pentateuch) consists of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Nevi’im consists Joshua, Judges, Samuel (2), Kings (2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zachariah, Malachi, Isaiah, and Amos. The Ketuvim are the "Writings" including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Ruth, Esther, Lamentations, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles (2).

The Talmud contains stories, laws, medical knowledge, debates about moral choices, etc. It is composed of material that comes mainly from two sources, the Mishnah and Gemara. The Mishnah, six "orders" containing hundreds of chapters, including series of laws from the Hebrew Scriptures. It was compiled about 200 CE. The Gemara (one Babylonian and one Palestinian) is encyclopedic in scope. It includes comments from hundreds of Rabbis from 200 - 500 CE, explaining the Mishnah with additional historical, religious, legal, sociological, etc. material. It often records many different opinions on a topic without giving a definitive answer.

Jewish Practices

• Observation of the Sabbath as a day of rest, starting at sundown on Friday evening.

• Strict discipline, according to the Law, which governs all areas of life

• Regular attendance by Jewish males at Synagogue

• Celebration of the annual festivals including: Passover, or Pesach is held each Spring to recall the Jews' deliverance out of slavery in Egypt circa 1300 BCE. A ritual Seder meal is eaten in each observing Jewish home at this time. Six different foods are placed on the seder plate in the order in which they area eaten: Karpas (vegetables dipped in salt water) recalls the bitter tears shed during slavery; Maror (bitter herbs) to symbolize the bitterness of slavery; Chazeret (bitter vegetables) also to symbolize the bitterness of slavery; Choroset (apple, nuts & spices with wine) represents the mortar used by Hebrew slaves. Also placed on the seder plate, but uneaten during the Seder meal: Zeroa (lamb shankbone) to recall the Passover sacrifice in the ancient temple. Beitzah (roasted egg) symbolizes mourning, sacrifice, spring, and renewal. Not placed on the Seder plate, but often eaten, is a boiled egg. Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year, and is the anniversary of the completion of creation, about 5760 years ago. It is held in the fall. The 10 days from Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, are days of fasting and penitence. Sukkoth or the Feast of Booths is an 8-day harvest festival; a time of thanksgiving. Hanukkah or the Feast of Lights is an 8-day Feast of Dedication. It recalls the war fought by the Maccabees in the cause of religious freedom. It is typically observed in December. Originally a minor Jewish holy day, it has become more important in recent years. Purim, the Feast of Lots recalls the defeat by Queen Esther of the plan to slaughter all of the Persian Jews, circa 400 BCE. Shavout, the Feast of Weeks recalls God's revelation of the Torah to the Jewish people. It is held in late May or early June.

Basic Jewish Beliefs:

There is a story in wide circulation about a question asked of Rabbi Hillel, a notable rabbi from the 1st century BCE. A non-Jew asked the rabbi to teach him everything about the Torah while standing on one foot. Rabbi Hillel responded: "What is hateful to you, don't do unto your neighbor. The rest is commentary. Now, go and study." Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, (a.k.a. Maimonides) is generally accepted as one of the most important Jewish scholars from medieval times. He wrote a list of thirteen principles of faith. This list has been generally accepted by Jews for centuries as a brief summary of the Jewish faith. However, the liberal wings of Judaism dispute some of the 13 today.

1. God exists.

2. God is one and unique.

3. God is incorporeal.

4. God is eternal.

5. Prayer is to be directed to God alone and to no other.

6. The words of the prophets are true.

7. Moses was the greatest of the prophets, and his prophecies are true.

8. The Written Torah (first 5 books of the Bible) and Oral Torah (teachings now contained in the Talmud and other writings) were given to Moses.

9. There will be no other Torah.

10. God knows the thoughts and deeds of men.

11. God will reward the good and punish the wicked.

12. The Messiah will come.

The dead will be resurrected. 9

Some additional beliefs found commonly among Jews are:

Some Jews view Jesus as a great moral teacher. Others see him as a false prophet or as an idol of Christianity. Some sects of Judaism will not even say his name due to the prohibition against saying an idol's name. The Jews are often referred to as God's chosen people. This does not mean that they are in any way to be considered superior to other groups. Biblical verses such as Exodus 19:5 simply imply that God has selected Israel to receive and study the Torah, to worship God only, to rest on the Sabbath, and to celebrate the festivals. Jews were not chosen to be better that others; they were simply selected to receive more difficult responsibilities, and more onerous punishment if they fail. The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books regulate all aspects of Jewish life. The Ten commandments, as delineated in Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21, form a brief synopsis of the Law. The Messiah (the anointed one of God) will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel. There will be a general resurrection of the dead at that time. The Jerusalem Temple, destroyed in 70 CE, will be rebuilt. A fetus gains full personhood when it is half-emerged from its mother's body. Boys reach the status of Bar Mitzvah on their 13th birthday; girls reach Bat Mitzvah on their 12th birthday. This means that they are recognized as adults and are personally responsible to follow the Jewish commandments and laws. Males are allowed to lead a religious service; they are counted in a "minyan" (a quota of men necessary to perform certain parts of religious services). Following their Bar Mitzvah or Bat Mitzvah they can sign contracts; they can testify in religious courts; theoretically, they can marry, although the Talmud recommends 18 to 24 as the proper age for marriage. The more liberal movements within Judaism differ from some of the stated beliefs concerning the source of the Torah, the concept of direct reward, and punishment according to one's behavior, etc.

Christianity Today

Christianity is fractured into many Protestant movement successively divided into over 1,000 individual denominations, as individuals and groups interpreted the Bible in their own unique ways, and continually formed new sects that they felt were closer to Jesus' intentions for the church. Today, Christian Denominations can be placed into 15 groups:

• Adventist Family- Adventist groups, Jehovah's Witnesses, and British Israelism

• Baptist Family- Southern Baptists, American Baptists, etc.

• Christian Science-Metaphysical Family Christian Science, New Thought

• Communal Family- The Jesus People, Twin Oaks, etc.

• Eastern Orthodox Family- Various Orthodox churches from Russia, Greece, Serbia, etc.

• European Free-Church Family Amish, Brethren, Mennonites, Quakers, others

• Holiness Family- Christian and Missionary Alliance, Church of the Nazarene, etc.

• Independent Fundamentalist Family- Plymouth Brethren, Fundamentalists, etc.

• Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The community of Christ

• Lutheran Family- Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Lutheran church - Missouri Synod, etc. Messianic Judaism Jews For Jesus, and other similar groups

• Pentecostal Family- Assemblies of God, Church of God (Cleveland, TN)

• Pietist-Methodist Family- Scandinavian Pietism, United Methodist Church, other Methodists

• Reformed-Presbyterian Family Reformed, various Presbyterian churches, Congregational, United Church of Christ

• Western Liturgical Family Roman Catholicism, including the Latin Rite and the Eastern Rite Churches: (Armenian 5 Catholic Church, Chaldean C.C., Coptic C.C., Marionite C.C., Melkite C.C., Syrian C.C.); Old Catholicism; Anglican Communion

Islam Today

Islamic considers six fundamental beliefs to be the foundation of their faith: A single, indivisible God. (God, the creator, is just, omnipotent and merciful. "Allah" is often used to refer to God. It is the Arabic word for God.); The angels; The divine scriptures, which include the Torah, the Psalms, the rest of the Bible, (as they were originally revealed) and the Qur'an (which is composed of God's words, dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Muhammad); The Messengers of God, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and Muhammad, the last prophet; Muhammad's message is considered the final, universal message for all of humanity; The Day of Judgment when people will be judged on the basis of their deeds while on earth, and will either attain reward of Heaven or punishment in Hell. They do not believe that Jesus or any other individual can atone for another person's sin. Hell is where unbelievers and sinners spend eternity. One translation of the Qur'an, 98:1-8, states: "The unbelievers among the People of the Book and the pagans shall burn for ever in the fire of Hell. They are the vilest of all creatures." ("People of the Book" refers to Christians, Jews and Muslims). Paradise is a place of physical and spiritual pleasure where the sinless go after death; The supremacy of God's will.

Other beliefs include God did not have a son; Jesus is a prophet, born of the Virgin Mary. They regard the Christian concept of the deity of Jesus to be blasphemous. It is seen as a form of polytheism; Jesus was not executed on the cross. He escaped crucifixion and was taken up into Paradise; The existence of Satan who drives people to sin; Muslims who sincerely repent and submit to God return to a state of sinlessness; All people are considered children of Adam; Islam officially rejects racism; All children are born on Al-Fitra (a pure, natural state of submission to Islam). His parents sometimes make him Christian, Jewish, etc; When a child reaches puberty an account of their deeds is opened in Paradise; When the person dies, their eventual destination (Paradise or Hell) depends on the balance of their good deeds (helping others, testifying to the truth of God, leading a virtuous life) and their bad deeds; Alcohol, other drugs, eating of pork, etc. should be avoided; Gambling should be avoided.

Practices

A Muslim's duties as described in the Five Pillars of Islam are 1) to recite at least once during their lifetime the shahadah (the creed: "There is no God but God and Muhammad is his Prophet"). Most Muslims repeat it at least daily. 2) To perform the salat (prayer) 5 times a day, if possible. This is recited while orienting one's body with qibia (the shorter of the two great circle routes towards the Kaaba at Mecca). This is generally North East in the U.S. 4 The five prayers are: Fajr (Morning Prayer) which is performed some time between the break of dawn and just before sunrise. Zuhr (Noon Prayer) offered from just after midday to afternoon. 'Asr (Afternoon Prayer) offered from late afternoon until just before sunset. Maghrib (Sunset Prayer) offered between sunset and darkness. Isha (Night Prayer) offered at nighttime, often just before sleeping. 1 3) To donate regularly to charity through zakat. This is a 2.5% charity tax on the income and property of middle and upper class Muslims. Believers are urged to make additional donations to the needy as they feel moved. 4) To fast during the lunar month of Ramadan. This is believed to be the month that Muhammad (pbuh) received the first revelation of the Qur'an from God.

5) If economically and physically able, to make at least one hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.

Islamic Holy Days

Al-Hijra/Muharram is the Muslim New Year, the beginning of the first lunar month.

• 'Ashura recalls an event circa October 20, 680 CE in Iraq when an army of the Umayyad regime martyred a group of 70 individuals whom refused to submit to the Caliph. One of the martyrs was Imam Husain, the youngest grandson of Prophet Muhammad.

• Mawlid al-Nabi is a celebration of the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam in 570 CE. "The Mawlid al-Nabi was first observed around the thirteenth century and was preceded by a month of celebration. The actual day of Muhammad's birthday included a sermon, recitation of litanies, honoring of religious dignitaries, gift giving, and a feast. The festival spread throughout the Muslim world and is celebrated in many countries today. However, some conservative sects (e.g., the Wahhabiyah) consider the celebration to be idolatrous."

• Ramadan is the holiest period in the Islamic year; it is held during the entire 9th lunar month of the year. This was the month in which the Quran was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The first day of Ramadan is listed above. It is a time at which almost all Muslims over the age of 12 are expected to fast from sunup to sundown. Id al-Fitr (a.k.a. "'Id") is the first day of the 10th month -- i.e. the day after the end of Ramadan. It is a time of rejoicing. Houses are decorated; Muslims buy gifts for relatives.

• Id al-Adha (a.k.a. the Feast of Sacrifice or Day of Sacrifice) occurs during the 12th month of the Islamic year. This is the season of the Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca). It recalls the day when Abraham intended to follow the instructions of God, and sacrifice his son Ishmael. (This is not a typo; Muslims believe that Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his elder son Ishmael; Judeo-Christians believe that Isaac was involved in the near sacrifice).

Schools within Islam

Sunni Muslims: These are followers of the Hanifa, Shari, Hanibal and Malik schools. They constitute a 90% majority of the believers, and are considered to be main stream traditionalists. Because they are comfortable pursuing their faith within secular societies, they have been able to adapt to a variety of national cultures, while following their three sources of law: the Qur'an, Hadith and consensus of Muslims.

Shiite Muslims: These are followers of the Jafri school who constitute a small minority of Islam. They split from the Sunnis over a dispute about the successor to Muhammad (pbuh). Their leaders promote a strict interpretation of the Qur'an and close adherence to its teachings. They believe in 12 heavenly Imams (perfect teachers) who led the Shiites in succession. Shiites believe that the 12th Imam, the Mahdi (guided one), never died but went into hiding waiting for the optimum time to reappear and guide humans towards justice and peace.

Sufism: This is a mystic tradition in which followers seek inner knowledge directly from God through meditation and ritual and dancing. They developed late in the 10th century CE as an severe reaction to the formalism and laws of the Qur'an. There are Sufis from both the Sunni and Shiite groups. However, some Sunni followers to not consider Sufiism as a valid Islamic practice. They incorporated ideas from Neoplatonism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They emphasize personal union with the divine. In the Middle East, some Sufi traditions are considered to be a separate school of Islam. In North and sub-Saharan Africa, Sufism is more a style and an approach rather than a separate school.

Deviations from Islam

There are 70 other groups, which originated within Islam and broke away from the Sunni or Shiite faith communities.

Baha'i World Faith: This religion attempts to integrate all of the world religions. It was originally a breakaway sect from Islam but has since grown to become a separate religion.

Ahmadis: Followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement believe that God sent Ahmad as a Messiah, "a messenger of His in this age who has claimed to have come in the spirit and power of Jesus Christ. He has come to call all people around one Faith, i.e. Islam..." The movement's founder was Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908). He was born in Qadian, India. He felt that he had a mandate from God to correct a serious error within Christianity. Most Christians believe that Jesus (pbuh) is a member of the Godhead. "...Because Jesus, whom God sent as a Messiah to the Israelites was taken for a God, Divine jealousy ordained that another man [Ahmad] should be sent as Messiah so that the world may know that the first Messiah was nothing more than a weak mortal."

After his death, the community elected a series of Khalifas (successors). The current and "Fourth Successor (Khalifatul Masih IV), to the Promised Messiah was chosen in the person of Hazrat Mirza Tahir Ahmad" on June 10. 1982.The Ahmadiyya Community currently has more than 10 million members worldwide. They prefer to call themselves "Muslims of the Amadiyya sect." They are very heavily persecuted in Pakistan. They regard themselves as a reform movement within Islam. 3

Black Muslim Movement (BMM): This is largely a black urban movement in the US. One driving force was a rejection of Christianity as the religion of the historically oppressing white race. It was started by Wallace Fard who built the first temple in Detroit. Elijah Muhammad (born Elijah Poole) established a second temple in Chicago and later supervised the creation of temples in most large cities with significant black populations. They taught that blacks were racially superior to whites and that a racial war is inevitable. The charismatic Malcolm X was perhaps their most famous spokesperson; he played an important role in reversing the BMM's anti-white beliefs. In its earlier years, the movement deviated significantly from traditional Islamic beliefs (particularly over matters of racial tolerance the status of the BMM leaders as prophets). This deviation is being reversed.

Commonalties

Traditional Christians and Muslims have certain beliefs in common concerning Jesus. They both accept that his birth was miraculous. He was the Messiah. He cured people of illness. He restored dead people to life.

As this paper has illustrated, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are not separate religions. They each have common etiologies. There each was a form of protest. They can not be separated from the other. They should be respected for the differences and for the histories.

Work Cited

References

1. An index of class notes for a University of Alberta course called "Judaism in the Modern Age" is at:

2. Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places, things, language, scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See:

3. The official FAQ of the Soc.Culture.Jewish newsgroup is at: This extensive list of questions and answers was developed by a committee of Jews from all denominations.

4. Kaiser, Robert. Frequently Asked Questions about Judaism at:

Topics covered are: Jewish principles of faith, The Jewish denominations, and revelation and Torah

5. bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a wide-ranging Jewish web site with a broad list of topics. See:

6. Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation. It invites Jews in during the 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See

7. "Press Release: American Jewish Committee Publishes Synagogue Census," 2002-AUG-7, at:

8. This is the popular, short version of the Thirteen Principles. The original, more complete, version appears in the book: Rambam's Commentary on the Mishnah Christianity

9. Messianic Judaism, a new religious movement, is sometimes referred to as Jewish Christianity. Their theological beliefs match those of Evangelical Christianity, and bear little resemblance to the Jewish Christianity of the 1st century CE

Bibliography

Barnstone, W. “The Other Bible.” New York: Harper & Row, 1984.

Crossan, J. D. “The birth of Christianity: Discovering what happened in the years immediately after the execution of Jesus.” San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1999.

Levinson, David. “Religion: A cross cultural dictionary” Eastern Orthodoxy & Roman Catholicism. Oxford University Press, 1996.

Maccoby, H. “The Mythmaker, Paul and the Invention of Christianity.” San Francisco: Barnes & Noble/Harper San Francisco, 1986.

Mather, G.A. & Nichols, L.A. "Dictionary of Cults, Sects, Religions and the Occult." Zondervan, 1993.

Mays, J.L. “Harper's Bible Commentary.” New York: Harper & Row, 1988.

Pagels, E. “The Gnostic Gospels.” London, 1980.

Riley, Gregory J. “The River of God.” San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 2001.

Riley, Gregory J. “One Jesus, many Christs.” San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1997.

Robinson, J.M. “The Nag Hammadi Library in English.” San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.

Schonfield, H. “Those incredible Christians.” Element, 1991.

Shorto, R. “Gospel Truth: The new image of Jesus emerging from science and history and why it matters.” New York: Berkley/Penguin Putnam, 1997.

Smith, J.Z. “Harper Collins Dictionary of Religion.” New York: Harper Collins, 1995.

Smitha, Frank E. “Constantine, the first Christian emperor.” Antiquity Online, 1998.

Welburn, A. “The Beginnings of Christianity.” Anthroposophic Press, 1995.

-----------------------

[1] A page of links to Jewish web sites is at:

2 An index of class notes for a University of Alberta course called "Judaism in the Modern Age" is at:

3 Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places, things, language, scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See:

6 Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation. It invites Jews in during the 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See

6 Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation. It invites Jews in during the 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See

7 "Press Release: American Jewish Committee Publishes Synagogue Census," 2002-AUG-7, at:

5 bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a wide-ranging Jewish web site with a broad list of topics. See:

5 bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a wide-ranging Jewish web site with a broad list of topics. See:

2 Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places, things, language, scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See:

4 Robert Kaiser, Frequently Asked Questions about Judaism at:

Topics covered are: Jewish principles of faith, The Jewish denominations, and revelation and Torah

6 Click on Judaism is a project of the Reform Movement Commission on Synagogue Affiliation. It invites Jews in their 20s and 30s to explore liberal Judaism. See

4 Robert Kaiser, Frequently Asked Questions about Judaism at:

Topics covered are: Jewish principles of faith, The Jewish denominations, and revelation and Torah

2 Judaism 101 is an "online encyclopedia of Judaism, covering Jewish beliefs, people, places, things, language, scripture, holidays, practices and customs." See:

5 bill themselves as "The Jewish MEGA-Site" with considerable justification. It is a wide-ranging Jewish web site with a broad list of topics. See:

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download