Unit 1—First Civilizations



Prehistory to the First Civilizations

Paleolithic Era to Agricultural Revolution

Homo sapiens emerged in east Africa between 100,000 and 400,000 years ago then migrated from Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas. These early humans were hunters and gatherers whose survival depended on the availability of wild plants and animals causing their lives to be greatly shaped by their environment. Through the development of culture, however, they began the process of overcoming the limits set by the physical environment. The beginning of settled agriculture (including permanent settlements) was a major step in the advance of civilization.

|Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age) |Neolithic Era (New Stone Age) |

|Were nomadic hunter-gatherers (migrated in search of food, water, shelter) |Developed agriculture (domesticated plants) |

|Invented the first tools, including simple weapons |Domesticated animals |

|Learned how to make and use fire |Used advanced tools |

|Lived in clans |Made pottery |

|Developed oral language |Developed weaving skills |

|Created “cave art” | |

Archaeologists study past cultures by locating and analyzing human remains, fossils, and artifacts by applying scientific tests such as carbon dating. Archaeologists continue to find and interpret evidence of early humans and their lives.

Stonehenge is an example of an archaeological site in England that was begun during the Neolithic Age and completed during the Bronze Age. Catalhoyuk in Anatolia is an example of an early Neolithic settlement. Aleppo and Jericho are examples of early cities in the Fertile Crescent.

Ancient River Valley Civilizations

During the New Stone Age, from 3500 to 500 B.C., permanent settlements appeared in river valleys and around the Fertile Crescent. These river valleys provided water, rich soil for agriculture, as well as protection from invasion by nomadic peoples. River valleys were the “Cradles of Civilization.” Early civilizations made major contributions to social, political, and economic progress.

|Egypt—North Africa |

|Nile River Valley and Delta |

|Indus Valley (Harappa)—South Asia |

|Indus River Valley |

|Mesopotamia—Southwest Asia |

|Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys |

|China (Shang Dynasty)—East Asia |

|Huang He Valley |

The Ancient River Valley civilizations were the world’s first states—kingdoms, empires, or city-states. They had centralized governments often based on religious authority. Their hereditary political rulers (dynasties of kings, pharaohs, etc.) were usually the religious leaders as well or even treated like gods on earth. These civilizations developed written law codes such as the Code of Hammurabi (based on the idea of an eye for an eye) created by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia or the Ten Commandments, the law code of the Hebrews.

The early civilizations were able to create an increasing agricultural surplus because of better tools such as the plow made of bronze or iron and by developing irrigation techniques. Those that developed metal weapons found it easier to conquer their neighbors and increase their empire. With the surplus of food, not every person had to farm, and these civilizations developed the world’s first cities where people started doing other jobs, such as artisans, merchants, religious leaders, and government leaders. This is called specialization of labor. A rigid class system where slavery was accepted also developed. The caste system in India is an example of this. Being located along rivers helped these civilizations trade in their region. The Phoenicians created a trading network throughout the Mediterranean Sea and established colonies in Spain and North Africa. They became well known for the purple dye that they traded with other civilizations.

Most of these early civilizations practiced polytheism—the worship of many gods. The Hebrews, however, were the first to practice monotheism—the worship of one god.

The early civilizations developed various forms of language and writing systems. The earliest systems were pictograms where the symbols represented words or ideas. Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics are examples of pictograms. The Phoenicians developed an alphabet in which symbols stood for sounds. The English alphabet has its roots in the Phoenician alphabet.

Some other early civilizations (2000 to 500 B.C.) included:

• Hebrews settled between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River Valley (part of Fertile Crescent in Southwest Asia).

• Phoenicians settled along the Mediterranean coast (part of Fertile Crescent in Southwest Asia).

• Nubia was located on the upper (southern) Nile River (Africa).

Cultures of Persia, India, and China

Persia, built on earlier Central Asian and Mesopotamian civilizations, developed the largest empire in the ancient world. The Persian rulers governed their empire by showing tolerance to conquered peoples. They developed an imperial bureaucracy to help control their large empire and built a massive road system to make communication and transportation across their empire easier. Zoroastrianism was the official religion of the Persian Empire.

Classical Indian civilization began in the Indus River Valley and spread to the Ganges River Valley, then through the Indian subcontinent. It continued with little interruption because of its geographic location. Physical barriers such as the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush, and the Indian Ocean made invasion more difficult. Mountain passes in the Hindu Kush provided invasion routes into the Indian subcontinent.

The Indo-Aryan people invaded the area and asserted their dominance, creating a rigidly structured society (caste system) blended with native beliefs. This caste system was hereditary and influenced all social interactions and choices of occupations. It will be an important part of India’s main religion—Hinduism. India was first politically unified under the Mauryan Empire. Asoka was an important Mauryan ruler who built hospitals, veterinary clinics, and roads. Buddhism is another major religion originating in a part of India that is in present-day Nepal. It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama and became a major faith when Asoka sent missionaries throughout Asia, spreading it from India to China and other parts of Asia.

The Golden Age of classical Indian culture occurred during the Gupta dynasty. During this time, Indian people made significant contributions to world civilization. Some of their contributions included advances in mathematics (concept of zero), medicine (setting bones), new textiles, and literature.

Chinese culture began around 1500 B.C. Classical China was centered on the Huang He (Yellow River), and was geographically isolated. Migratory invaders raided Chinese settlements from the north. Qin Shi Huangdi built the Great Wall of China as a line of defense against invasions. China was governed by a succession of ruling families called dynasties. Chinese rulers were considered divine, but they served under a Mandate of Heaven only as long as their rule was just.

Classical China made numerous contributions to world civilization. They developed a civil service system for hiring government workers. They created fine porcelain, silk, and made the world’s first paper. The Silk Roads facilitated trade and contact between China and other cultures as far away as Rome. China was also the birthplace of religions such as Confucianism and Taoism. Chinese forms of Buddhism will spread throughout Asia.

Japan

Japan is a mountainous archipelago consisting of four main islands. It is separated from the Asian mainland by the Sea of Japan or East Sea. Japanese cultural development was influenced by its proximity to China and Korea. The influence of Chinese culture can be seen in Japanese writing, architecture, and its adoption of Buddhism. Shinto, the ethnic religion unique to Japan, and Buddhism coexisted as religious traditions in the Japanese culture.

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Ancient Greece

Label the following on the map:

• Mediterranean Sea

• Aegean Sea

• Black Sea

• Dardanelles

• Asia Minor

• Europe

• Macedonia

• Balkan Peninsula

• Peloponnesus

• Athens

• Sparta

• Troy

The mountains, seas, islands, harbors, peninsulas, and straits of the Aegean Basin shaped Greek economic, social, and political development and patterns of trade and colonization. The mountainous Greek terrain limited the available arable land for farming. Also because of the mountains, Greece did not unify with one central government. Instead, numerous independent city-states (polis) developed. The mountains offered some protection from invaders, but also hindered transportation and communication across the Greek peninsula. As the population of Greece grew, the search for arable land led to Greek colonization and the spreading of Greek culture across the Mediterranean Sea. The interaction with other cultures helped Greece shift from a barter to money (coin) economy.

The mild Greek climate helped to encourage public outdoor life for the people of the city-states. Taking part in civic and commercial events was seen as a responsibility of all Greek citizens.

Mythology helped the early Greek civilization explain the natural world and the human condition. It was based on polytheistic religion that was integral to the culture, politics, and art in ancient Greece. Greek mythology was used to explain natural phenomena, human qualities, and life events. Many symbols, metaphors, words, and idealized images in Western literature, art, monumental architecture, and politics come from ancient Greek mythology.

Two of Greece’s leading city-states were Athens and Sparta. Athenian government evolved over time from a monarchy, to an aristocracy, to tyranny, to a democracy. Early tyrants like Draco and Solon worked to reform Athenian government and make it more democratic. Athens was a direct democracy where it was the duty of all citizens to take part in public debate and the decision-making process. This was the most democratic system of government the world had ever seen, although not everyone could participate in decision-making. Only certain people could become citizens in the Greek polis. Free adult males had political rights and responsibilities of civic participation in government. Women, foreigners, and slaves had no political rights. It became a foundation of our modern democracies today. Athens emphasized education, culture, and the arts.

Sparta’s government was an oligarchy—rule by a small group. Sparta was a militaristic and aggressive society with a rigid social structure. Most of Sparta’s daily life centered on the military. This included their education, which emphasized physical and military training. Even women were expected to remain physically fit to help defend their homes.

From 499 to 449 B.C., the Persian Wars united Athens and Sparta against the Persian Empire. Athenian victories over the Persians at Marathon and Salamis gave the Greeks control of the Aegean Sea. Following the Persian Wars and with the preservation of its independence, Athens entered its “Golden Age” of cultural innovation.

Athenian culture became one of the foundation stones of Western civilization and the majority of its “Golden Age” between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars happened during the leadership of Pericles. Pericles extended democracy where most adult males had an equal voice in the governing of Athens. Also under Pericles’ leadership, Athens was rebuilt after its destruction in the Persian Wars. The Parthenon is an example of this reconstruction.

Athens and their allies, known as the Delian League, and Sparta and their allies, known as the Peloponnesian League, eventually fought each other in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) The war was caused in part by competition for control of the Greek world. After years of fighting, Sparta and the Peloponnesian League were victorious. The war resulted in the slowing of cultural advance and the weakening of political power and Greek defenses, making it a vulnerable target for invasion.

Greek culture made numerous contributions to Western civilization.

Following the weakening of the Greek defenses during the Peloponnesian War, Philip II, King of Macedon, conquered most of Greece. His son Alexander the Great adopted Greek culture and established an empire from Greece to Egypt and the boundaries of India. He extended Greek cultural influences which blended with Persian and oriental elements to create Hellenism. Hellenism spread throughout Alexander’s vast empire and across the Mediterranean through trade and colonization.

Ancient Rome 700 B.C. to 500 A.D.

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Rome is centrally located along the Tiber River on the Italian peninsula in the Mediterranean Basin and distant from eastern Mediterranean powers. The Alps help provide protection from invasion while the Mediterranean helps with sea-borne trade and commerce.

Unlike Greece, Rome was able to create a strong centralized government. For the first 500 years of Rome’s existence, it was a republic (representative democracy) where citizens elect representatives to make political decisions for them. Citizens in the Roman Republic were made up of two basic groups of men—patricians and plebeians. The patricians were the powerful nobility who owned the majority of the land. The majority of the citizens were plebeians. Select foreigners were also allowed to be citizens. There were certain rights and responsibilities that came along with citizenship, such as paying taxes to support the Republic and serving in the military. Although women, most aliens (non-Romans living in the Republic), and slaves (Roman slavery was not based on race, but were typically captured in war) were excluded from the governing process, the Roman Republic made major strides in the development of representative democracy, which became a foundation of modern democracy. During the years of the Republic, the patricians elected representatives to the Senate. Plebeians sent representatives to other Assemblies. Two Consuls were chosen to administer the government and control the military. The laws of Rome were codified and known as the Twelve Tables. The principle of “innocent until proven guilty,” comes from the Twelve Tables.

Rome’s main rival was Carthage. They competed for trade and control of the Mediterranean. They fought each other in the Punic Wars from 264 to 146 B.C. During the Second Punic War, Hannibal invaded the Italian Peninsula by crossing the Alps and using elephants but was unable to capture Rome. The Third war resulted in Roman victory, the destruction of Carthage, and expanded trade and wealth for Rome. After its victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars, Rome was able, over the next 100 years, to dominate the Mediterranean basin, leading to the diffusion (spread) of Roman culture. Roman culture will spread around the Mediterranean Basin (Africa, Asia, Europe, including the Hellenistic world of the Eastern Mediterranean) and Western Europe (Gaul, British Isles).

The Roman Republic, in the face of changing social and economic conditions, failed to survive and was replaced by an imperial regime, the Roman Empire.

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In the mid-first century B.C., Julius Caesar was becoming a powerful military leader. He and two other men, Crassus and Pompey, formed the First Triumvirate and planned to rule Rome together. Following a civil war between Caesar and Pompey, Julius Caesar emerged as the sole leader of Rome. On March 15, 44 B.C., a group of Roman Senators led by Brutus and Cassius assassinated Julius Caesar.

A short time later, a Second Triumvirate was formed which included Octavian and Marc Antony. Again, there was a civil war between the Octavian-led Roman legions and Marc Antony and his Egyptian allies under Cleopatra. Octavian won and became Rome’s first Emperor. He took the name Augustus Caesar.

The Roman Emperors used their imperial authority and the military to unify and enlarge the empire. There was no method to provide for the peaceful succession of emperors, which would lead to later problems.

Augustus Caesar unified and enlarged the newly established Roman Empire using his imperial authority and the military. Beginning with and following the rule of Augustus Caesar, the Roman Empire enjoyed 200 years of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana. This was a period of expansion and solidification of the Roman Empire, particularly in the Near East.

|Impact of the Pax Romana |

|Economic Impact |Social Impact |Political Impact |

|Established uniform system of money, which helped to |Returned stability to social classes |Created a civil service |

|expand trade |Increased emphasis on the family |Developed a uniform rule of law |

|Guaranteed safe travel and trade on Roman roads | | |

|Promoted prosperity and stability | | |

Roman mythology was based on the Greek polytheistic religion. Like the Greeks, the Romans used their mythology to explain natural phenomena, human qualities, and life events. Many of Western civilization’s symbols, metaphors, words, and images in literature, art, and architecture come from ancient Roman mythology. The Romans used the Greek gods, but changed the names of most of them. One of the great works of Roman literature is the Aeneid written by Virgil. The Aeneid is a myth which tells the story of the beginnings of the Roman race.

Christianity spread around the Mediterranean basin during the Roman Empire. Its success was due in large part to the Apostles, including Paul, who spread it throughout the Roman Empire, the popularity of its message, and although persecution by Roman authorities slowed its progress, early martyrs continued to inspire others. Christianity was eventually adopted and legalized by Emperor Constantine and later became the official state religion. As the Roman Empire declined in the West, the Church in Rome grew in importance, membership, and influence. The Church became an example of moral authority and loyalty to the church became more important than loyalty to the Emperor. The Church became the main unifying force of Western Europe.

Conquests and trade spread Roman cultural and technological achievements throughout the Empire. Western civilization was influenced by the cultural achievements of Rome.

Roman architecture built upon the techniques of the Greeks. The Romans, however, developed the arch and the dome. They built the Colosseum for entertainment, aqueducts to transport fresh water to the city, and roads to facilitate trade.

Latin was the official language of the Roman Empire. Even though Latin is considered a “dead language” today, it formed the basis of numerous other Romance languages including Spanish, French, and Italian. The Romans also made advances in the areas of science and medicine with the achievements of Ptolemy and an emphasis on public health with public baths, public water systems, and medical schools.

Over a 300- year period, the western part of the Roman Empire steadily declined because of internal and external problems.

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The geographic size also led to difficulties in defending and administering the government in the Roman Empire. As it weakened, Constantine moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 A.D. when it ceased to have a Roman Emperor rule from Rome. The Eastern Roman Empire will survive for another thousand years as the Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine Empire and Russia

The capital of the Eastern Roman Empire was changed to Constantinople to provide political, economic, and military advantages.

The importance of the location of Constantinople and its role as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire:

• Protection of the eastern frontier

• Distance from Germanic invasions in the western empire

• Crossroads of trade

• Easily fortified site on a peninsula bordering natural harbor

• Seat of the Byzantine Empire until the Ottoman conquest

• Preserved classical Greco-Roman culture

Under Emperor Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565 A.D., the Byzantine Empire reached its height in culture and prosperity. Justinian codified Roman law, which provided the basis for law codes in Western Europe, reconquered former Roman territories in Africa, Italy, and Spain, and expanded trade in the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine culture was heavily influenced by Greek and Roman traditions and knowledge that were preserved in Byzantine libraries. Greek was the language primarily spoken in the East as contrasted with Latin in the West.

Despite the success of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian, the cultural and political differences between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires weakened the unity of the Christian Church and eventually led to its division.

Great Schism (Division of the Christian Church) – 1054 AD

|Western Church |Eastern Church |

|Roman Catholicism |Eastern (Greek) Orthodox |

|Centered in Rome |Centered in Constantinople |

|Farther from seat of power after Constantinople became capital |Close to seat of power after Constantinople became capital |

|Use of Latin in the liturgy |Use of Greek in the liturgy |

|Pope is head of the church |Emperor is head of the church |

|Authority of the Pope as the leading bishop eventually accepted in the |Authority of the Patriarch accepted in the East |

|West | |

|Practices such as celibacy eventually accepted in the West |Priests may marry |

The Byzantine Empire developed a unique style of art and architecture with inspiration provided by Greek Orthodox Christianity and imperial patronage. The use of icons (religious images) and mosaics in public and religious structures was common, but the disagreement over the use of icons was a contributing factor to the split in the Eastern and Western Churches. The Hagia Sophia, a Byzantine-domed church, is an example of this unique style in architecture.

Byzantine civilization influenced Russian and Eastern European cultures through its religion, culture, and trade. Trade routes between the Black Sea and Baltic Sea led to increased contact between the Byzantines and Slavic peoples living in Russia. The Slavs did not have a written language and adopted a version of the Greek alphabet called the Cyrillic alphabet. This alphabet, developed by St. Cyril so he could continue his missionary work of converting the Slavs to Orthodox Christianity, is still used today by many Slavic languages including Russian.

World Religions

Judaism: The monotheism of Abraham became the foundation of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Hebrews were the first to become monotheists. With the Diaspora, the Jewish people were exiled from their homeland of Jerusalem and Judea and spread throughout the region.

|Judaism—Religion of the Hebrews |

|Founders |Sacred Location(s) |Sacred Book |

|Abraham made the covenant with God |Jerusalem |Torah—contains written records and beliefs of the |

|Moses received the Ten Commandments from God | |Hebrews |

|Beliefs and Practices |

|Belief in one God (monotheism)—first monotheistic religion |

|Ten Commandments are a guide for moral and religious conduct |

|God made a covenant with the Hebrews that if they obeyed God’s laws, then they would be his chosen people |

While Abraham and his family were originally from the city-state of Ur in Mesopotamia, God told him to leave his home and go to the land where He (God) would make a great nation out of Abraham and his descendants. This became the ancient homeland of the Hebrews, an area of land on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean called Canaan, later Palestine. This area was also home to the Phoenicians.

Christianity: Christianity had its roots in Judaism (belief in monotheism and the Ten Commandments) and was led by Jesus of Nazareth who was proclaimed the Messiah. The followers of Jesus spread Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, bringing it into conflict with Roman polytheism and eventually changing Western civilization. Early church councils established the Christian doctrine (beliefs and practices).

|Christianity |

|Founders |Sacred Location(s) |Sacred Book |

|Jesus Christ who is seen by Christians to be |Jerusalem |Bible—includes the Jewish Old Testament and the Christian New |

|the son of God | |Testament about Jesus’ life and teachings |

|Beliefs and Practices |

|Monotheism |

|Jesus is both the son and the incarnation of God |

|Life after death in Heaven or Hell |

|Forgiveness and the Golden Rule—“do unto others as you would have them do unto you” |

Islam: The revelations of Muhammad form the basis of the Islamic religion, a monotheistic faith. Followers of Islam are called “Muslims,” which means “one who submits.” Islam will spread throughout Arabia, North Africa, and Spain. It also spread east into Asia, particularly India and other parts of Southeast Asia. Islamic traditions and customs developed over centuries and created a distinct Muslim culture.

|Islam—“submission to the will of Allah” |

|Founders |Sacred Location(s) |Sacred Book |

|Muhammad, the Prophet |Mecca and Medina were early Muslim cities; the Dome |Quran (Koran) is the word of God |

| |of the Rock in Jerusalem is also sacred. | |

|Beliefs and Practices |

|Monotheism: Allah (Arabic word for “God”) |

|Acceptance of Judeo-Christian prophets, including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus |

|Five Pillars of Islam: |

|declaration of faith—“there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet |

|pray five times each day facing Mecca |

|give alms (charity) to the poor |

|fast during holy month of Ramadan |

|pilgrimage to Mecca |

Hinduism: Hinduism developed in the Indus Valley and is based on the religion of the Aryan invaders. Hinduism was an important contribution of classical India. It influenced Indian society and culture and is still practiced in India today. Hinduism spread along major trade routes but not much beyond the subcontinent of India. The religion of Buddhism is a split from Hinduism.

|Hinduism |

|Founders |Sacred Location |Sacred Book |

|Hinduism developed from the belief system of the Aryans |Ganges River |The Vedas and the Upanishads |

|Beliefs and Practices |

|Belief in many forms of one major deity, Brahma |

|Reincarnation: Cycles of rebirth based upon karma |

|Karma: All thoughts and deeds result in future consequences (future reincarnation based on present behavior) |

|Caste system in religious law based on heredity and occupations |

Buddhism: Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama in a part of India that is in present-day Nepal. It became a major faith when Asoka sent missionaries throughout Asia who spread Buddhism from India to China and other parts of Asia.

|Buddhism |

|Founders |Sacred Location |Sacred Book |

|Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) |N/A |There are various important Buddhist texts, but no one major book for|

| | |you to know |

|Beliefs and Practices |

|Four Noble Truths—all of life is pain and suffering; pain and suffering is caused by human desires; to end pain and suffering, eliminate human |

|desires; to eliminate human desires, follow the Eightfold Path |

|Eightfold Path is a process to control one’s thoughts and actions to achieve Enlightenment |

Confucianism and Taoism: Both of these belief systems developed in China. They are considered religions by some, but are primarily just guides for one’s behavior. Both will blend to help form China’s social order, culture, and values. The Yin and the Yang represent the harmony of opposites for Confucianism and Taoism.

|Confucianism |Taoism |

|Belief that humans are good, not bad |Humility |

|Respect for elders |Simple life and inner peace |

|Code of politeness, still used in Chinese society today |Harmony with nature |

|Emphasis on education | |

|Ancestor worship | |

Shinto: Shinto is the ethnic religion unique to Japan. It coexists with Buddhism as the major religious traditions of Japanese culture. Shinto stresses the importance of natural features, the forces of nature, and of one’s ancestors. It would become the state religion of Japan and lead to worship of the emperor as a god.

The Middle Ages 500 to 1500 A.D.

Early Medieval Period

Early medieval society blended the classical heritage of Rome, Christian beliefs, and the customs of Germanic tribes. The Roman Catholic Church had a very large influence on Medieval Europe.

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Frankish kings used military power to expand their territory. The most important Frankish ruler during the early Middle Ages was Charlemagne. Charlemagne greatly expanded his empire through military conquest. Eventually, he made an alliance with the Catholic Church. In 800 A.D., the Pope crowned Charlemagne the Holy Roman Emperor. This signified the Pope’s authority over the Emperor and gave the church some political control and power in Europe. The alliance between Frankish kings and the Church also helped reestablish Roman culture (Christianity) in Western Europe.

Invasions by Angles, Saxons, Magyars, Muslims, and Vikings disrupted the social, economic, and political order of Europe.

• The Angles and Saxons migrated from continental Europe to England.

• The Magyars came to Hungary from Central Asia.

• The Vikings, or Norsemen, invaded all areas of Europe including Spain, France, England, the Holy Roman Empire and Russia from Scandinavia. The Vikings were great explorers and traders as well as conquerors.

• The Muslims invaded Europe from North Africa, controlling Spain for much of the Middle Ages.

Because of these invasions:

• Manors with castles provided protection from invaders, reinforcing the feudal system.

• Invasions disrupted trade, towns declined, and the feudal system was strengthened.

High Medieval Period

The decline of Roman influence in Western Europe left people with little protection against invasion, so they entered into feudal agreements with landholding lords who promised them protection. This system is called feudalism. It is based on possession of land, loyalty, mutual obligations, and defense of the realm. There was a rigid social structure of nobles and peasants that accompanied feudalism. Even though the feudal system was based on the labor of the peasants, they had no power. It was the nobles who had all of the political, military, and economic power.

A brief description of each of the following parts of the feudal system:

• King and Nobles (Lords)—

• Vassals—

• Serfs—

• Fief—

• Manor—

For feudalism to work, each member had obligations to fulfill. The nobles not only provide land to their vassals, but they also promise to protect them. The vassals promise to fight for their lord and provide him with a portion of what has been produced on their land. The serfs receive land to farm and protection from their lord in exchange for working on the lord’s land or giving him a portion of what they produced. Slavery did not exist in feudalism, but serfs could not leave the land without their lord’s permission.

European monarchies consolidated their power and began forming nation-states in the high-to-late medieval period.

|England |

|William the Conqueror, leader of the Norman Conquest, united most of England. |

|Common law had its beginnings during the reign of Henry II. |

|King John signed the Magna Carta, limiting the King’s power. |

|The Hundred Years’ War between England and France helped define England as a nation. |

|Evolution of Parliament. |

|France |

|Hugh Capet established French throne in Paris; his dynasty expanded their control over most of France. |

|The Hundred Years’ War between England and France helped define France as a nation. |

|Joan of Arc was a unifying factor. |

|Spain |

|Ferdinand and Isabella unified the country and expelled the Jews and Muslim Moors. |

|Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere expanded under Charles V. |

|Russia |

|Ivan the Great threw off the rule of the Mongols, centralized power in Moscow, and expanded the Russian nation. |

|Power was centralized in the hands of the tsar (czar—“King” or Russian for Caesar). |

|The Orthodox Church influenced unification. |

The Crusades were carried out by Christian political and religious leaders to take control of the Holy Land from the Muslims. They were started by Pope Urban’s speech in 1095 calling for the recapture of Jerusalem from the Muslims. The First Crusade left in 1096 and was successful in retaking Jerusalem in 1099. The Crusaders set up Crusader states, which were similar to their own small feudal kingdoms. However, the Muslims led by Saladin recaptured Jerusalem. Later Crusades were unable to take the city back. Instead, western Crusaders sacked Constantinople.

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Effects of the Crusades:

• Weakened the Pope and nobles; strengthened monarchs

• Left a legacy of bitterness among Christians, Jews, and Muslims

• Weakened the Byzantine Empire

Economic effects of the Crusades:

• Stimulated trade throughout the Mediterranean area and the Middle East

• Increased demand for Middle Eastern products

• Stimulated production of goods to trade in Middle Eastern markets

• Encouraged the use of credit and banking

Late Medieval Period

Towards the end of the Middle Ages, Europe faced new groups of invaders. The Mongols invaded Russia, China, and Muslim states in Southwest Asia, destroying cities and the countryside, and created an empire. Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire. The city remained the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

In the fourteenth century, the Black Death (bubonic plague) decimated the population of much of Asia and then the population of much of Europe. The Black Death caused a drastic decline in population, killing at least one third of Europe’s population. This led to a scarcity of labor and the freeing of towns from their feudal obligations. Trade was once again disrupted. For the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire, there was a decline in the power and influence of the Roman Catholic Church.

Education during the Middle Ages was largely confined to the clergy. The masses were uneducated, while the nobility was concerned with feudal obligations. Church scholars preserved ancient literature in monasteries by translating Greek and Arabic works into Latin. They were among the very few who could read and write. They made new knowledge in philosophy, medicine, and science available which laid the foundations for the rise of universities in Europe.

Islamic Civilization 600 to 1000 A.D.

In the first three centuries after Muhammad’s death, Muslim rule expanded rapidly, overcoming geographic barriers and facilitated by the weakened Byzantine and Persian empires. Islam spread along trade routes from Mecca and Medina and continued to expand beyond Arabia despite great distances, desert environments, and mountain barriers. It spread into the Fertile Crescent, particularly the cities of Jerusalem and Damascus, Persia (Iran), Central Asia, North Africa, and Spain.

Political unity and the Arabic language facilitated trade and stimulated intellectual activity as it spread with Islam, although the first Muslim empire was short-lived. Major historical turning points also affected the spread and influence of the Islamic civilization. Upon Muhammad’s death in 632 AD, the Muslim community elected Abu Bakr as his successor, or caliph. Abu Bakr and the next three caliphs—Umar, Uthman, and Ali—were known as the “rightly guided” caliphs because they followed the Qur’an and Muhammad’s example to guide their leadership.

After Ali’s assassination, the elective system of choosing caliphs collapsed. A family known as the Umayyads came to power and established a hereditary system of succession. The leadership issue caused internal conflict in the Islamic faith and led to the division of Sunni and Shi’a Muslims. Sunni Muslims generally accepted Umayyad rule and believe that the leader of the Muslim community can be any devout Muslim that follows the Qur’an and Muhammad’s example of proper behavior. Shi’a Muslims were followers of Ali and believe that the caliph should be a direct descendant of Muhammad (Ali was Muhammad’s son-in-law). The majority of Muslims today are Sunni Muslims.

Several other historic turning points affected the spread and influence of Islamic civilization. The capital of the Islamic Empire was moved to the newly created city of Baghdad in southern Iraq, by the Abbasid caliphate in 762. Located on key trade routes, the city of Baghdad will fall to the Mongols in 1258. Muslims in Spain invaded Western Europe but were defeated by a Christian army under Charles Martel in France at the Battle of Tours in 732.

Early Islamic civilization was characterized by achievements in science and the arts that transformed the Islamic world and contributed to world civilization by preserving and extending ancient Greek, Persian, and Indian learning.

Cultural contributions:

• Architecture (Dome of the Rock)

• Mosaics

• Arabic alphabet

• Universities

• Translation of ancient texts into Arabic

Scientific contributions:

• Arabic numerals (adapted from India, including zero)

• Algebra

• Medicine

• Expansion of geographic knowledge

Trade and Cultural Diffusion

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During the Medieval Period, several major trading routes developed in the Eastern Hemisphere. Regional trade networks and long-distance trade routes in the Eastern Hemisphere aided the diffusion and exchange of technology and culture between Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Major trade routes in the Eastern Hemisphere from 1000 to 1500 A.D.:

• Silk Roads across Asia to the Mediterranean basin

• Maritime routes across the Indian Ocean

• Trans-Saharan routes across North Africa

• Northern European links with the Black Sea

• Western European sea and river trade

• South China Sea and lands of Southeast Asia

Trade facilitated the diffusion of goods and ideas among different cultures:

• Goods

o Gold from West Africa

o Spices from lands around the Indian Ocean

o Textiles from India, China, the Middle East, and later Europe

o Porcelain from China and Persia

• Technology

o Paper from China through the Muslim world to Byzantium and Western Europe

o New crops from India (e.g., for making sugar)

o Waterwheels and windmills

o Navigation—Compass from China, lateen sail from Indian Ocean region

o Printing and paper money from China

• Religion

o Buddhism from China to Korea and Japan

o Hinduism and Buddhism from India to Southeast Asia

o Islam into West Africa, Central and Southeast Asia

Africa

African civilizations developed in sub-Saharan west and east Africa. States and empires flourished in Africa during the medieval period, including Ghana, Mali, and Songhai in West Africa, Axum in east Africa, and Zimbabwe in southern Africa. Trade brought important economic, cultural, and religious influences to African civilizations from other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.

Axum

• Location relative to the Ethiopian Highlands and the Nile River

• Christian Kingdom

Zimbabwe

• Location relative to Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and the Indian Ocean coast

• City of “Great Zimbabwe” as capital of a prosperous empire

West African Kingdoms

• Location of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires relative to Niger River and the Sahara Desert

• Importance of gold and salt to trans-Saharan trade

• City of Timbuktu as center of trade and learning

• Role of animism and Islam

Mayan, Aztec, and Incan Civilizations

The Mayan, Aztec, and Incan civilizations emerged in South America, Central America, and Mexico.

Mayan civilization

• Located in Central American rain forests

• Represented by Chichen Itza

• Groups of city-states ruled by kings

• Economy based on agriculture and trade

• Polytheistic religion: Pyramids

Aztec civilization

• Located in arid valley in central Mexico

• Represented by Tenochtitlan

• Ruled by an emperor

• Economy based on agriculture and tribute from conquered peoples

• Polytheistic religion: Pyramids, rituals

Incan civilization

• Located in Andes Mountains of South America

• Represented by Machu Picchu

• Ruled by an emperor

• Economy based on high-altitude agriculture

• Polytheistic religion

• Road system

Achievements of Mayan, Aztec, and Incan civilizations:

• Calendars

• Mathematics

• Writing and other record-keeping systems

The Renaissance—a “rebirth” in art and learning

The economic effects of the Crusades provided the foundation for the Italian Renaissance. It stimulated trade and promoted frequent contacts with the Byzantine and Muslim Empires by introducing Europeans to many desirable products. New economic institutions developed such as banking and the use of credit. The church rule against usury (providing loans at high interest) and the banks’ practice of charging interest helped to secularize (separate religion from worldly matters) northern Italy. Letters of credit served to expand the supply of money and expedite trade. New accounting and bookkeeping practices and the use of Arabic numerals were introduced.

Wealth accumulated from European trade with the Middle East led to the rise of Italian city-states such as Florence, Venice, and Genoa. These Italian cities were initially independent republics that had access to trade routes connecting Europe with Middle Eastern markets and served as trading centers for the distribution of goods to northern Europe.

Wealthy merchants became active civic leaders. Niccolo Machiavelli observed city-state rulers of his day and produced guidelines for the acquisition and maintenance of power by absolute rule. Machiavelli’s book, The Prince, was an early modern treatise (written work) on government.

Three principles Machiavelli advocated in The Prince:

1) Supports the absolute power of the ruler

2) The end justifies the means

3) The ruler should do good if possible, but do evil when necessary

The Renaissance produced new ideas that were reflected in the arts, philosophy, and literature. Patrons, wealthy from newly expanded trade, sponsored works that glorified city-states in northern Italy. Medieval art and literature focused on the Church and salvation, while Renaissance art and literature focused on individuals and worldly matters, along with Christianity.

Artistic and literary creativity:

• Leonardo da Vinci—Mona Lisa and The Last Supper

• Michelangelo—Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and the David

• Petrarch—Sonnets, humanist scholarship

Education became increasingly secular. Classical knowledge fostered humanism in the Italian Renaissance.

Humanism:

• Celebrated the individual

• Stimulated the study of classical Greek and Roman literature and culture

• Was supported by wealthy patrons

With the rise of trade, travel, and literacy, the Italian Renaissance spread to northern Europe. The art and literature of the Italian Renaissance changed as people of different cultures adopted Renaissance ideas.

Northern Renaissance:

• Growing wealth in Northern Europe supported Renaissance ideas

• Northern Renaissance thinkers merged humanist ideas with Christianity

• The movable type printing press and the production and sale of books helped disseminate ideas

Northern Renaissance writers:

• Erasmus: The Praise of Folly (1511)

• Sir Thomas More: Utopia (1516)

Northern Renaissance artists portrayed religious and secular objects.

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Cuneiform

Phoenician Alphabet

Hieroglyphics

Zeus

Supreme ruler of the Greek gods of Mount Olympus

Hera

Wife of Zeus and goddess of marriage

Apollo

God of music, archery, healing, and light

Artemis

Goddess of the hunt and the moon

Athena

Goddess of intelligence/wisdom

Aphrodite

Goddess of love, beauty, and fertility

Poetry

The Greeks wrote epic poems about their mythology, life, etc.

Homer was their greatest poet. He wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey.

History

The Greeks started to study the causes and effects of events rather than blaming the gods.

Herodotus and Thucydides were two of their greatest historians.

Drama

The Greeks wrote the first dramas, which included comedies and tragedies

Aeschylus and Sophocles were two great playwrights.

Science

The Greeks made numerous scientific advances.

Hippocrates made many medical discoveries and Archimedes created many simple machines.

Mathematics

The Greeks developed the majority of the geometry that we use today.

Pythagoras and Euclid were two of their greatest mathematicians.

Sculpture

The Greeks created perfectly formed sculptures that emphasized the Greek values of order, balance, and proportion to capture the grace of the idealized human body.

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Phidias was among their greatest sculptors.

Architecture

The Greeks used various types of columns in their architecture. Their most famous building, the Parthenon, has Doric style columns.

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Philosophy

The Greeks were “Lovers of wisdom” who sought the truth in all areas believing that the universe works according to unchanging laws and that man can understand these laws through logic and reason.

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were among their greatest philosophers.

|Greek Name |Roman Name |

|Zeus |Jupiter |

|Hera |Juno |

|Apollo |Apollo |

|Athena |Diana |

|Artemis |Minerva |

|Aphrodite |Venus |

Colosseum

Forum

Aqueduct

Pantheon

The Buddha

A traditional Japanese torii—typically seen at an entrance to a Shinto shrine

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