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Crime statistics are biased and unreliable, Discuss (40)Introduction - There are three main ways that crime is measured that produce statistics. These statistics have a bearing on how we perceive the problem of crime and victimisation as they are often reported in the media.AO1/2 OCR collected by Police, official stats, crime is mostly working-class, male and disprop BME.AO3 Functionalist argue true picture but Interactionists say they are a social construction. Marxists say they benefit the powerful and target certain groups and ignore white collar crime etc , suggests they are both biased and unreliableAO1/2 BCS victim surveys, Home Office 40,000 homes. AO3 This suggests 50% ‘dark figure of unreported/unrecorded crime, many victims are not included, not very valid source, local victim surveys are better e.g Islington Victim survey. BCS may still be unreliable.AO1/2 Many reasons why crimes are underreported – enbarassment, inconvenience, incriminating, fear of reprisal, feelings that police will not act or it is too trivial. This supports a left –realist view that crime is often the result of marginalisation, particularly by the police. However left-realists also argue that statistics can be used to acknowledge that there is a problem with working-class crime.AO3 Reporting of some crimes has increased e.g domestic violence, child abuse, fraud.AO1/2 many reasons why crime is underrecorded by the police. Too trivial, cannot be solved, pressure to meet targets, plea bargaining (coughing) and discarding cases (cuffing), lack of evidence.AO3 This supports the interactionist view that crime statistics are socially constructed by the many processes and people involved in their production. However police practices are under closer scrutiny since complaints such as Stephen Lawrence case,that was reopened.AO1/2 Another way is self report studies – e.g Farrington et al. 1973AO3 problems with validity as may not tell the truth, only trivial crimes reported, too focussed on particular groupse.g students. Still suggests that statistics are unreliable.AO1/2 Many victims of crime are under-represented in crime statistics e.g females, BME.AO3 Feminists argue that female victims have been particularly ignorede.g domestic violence and rape are often not reported and even not recorded by police. This suggests they are unreliable source for knowing the true level of victimisation, however more female and BME officers means things are improving and feminists have made changes to policy e.g domestic violence.Functionalists and Right and Left realists are very uncritical of statistics suggesting they are a true picture. However this essay suggests that there are many reasons why they do not show an accurate picture. The ‘dark figure’ of crime suggests that there are more crimes taking place than in the statistics which may explain why people continue to fear victimisation despite crime figures going down every year.Crime is mainly a masculine phenomenon, discuss (40)Introduction -It appears as though crime is mainly carried out by males because statistics tell us that 87% of offences are committed by males. However Feminists argue that females have traditionally been ignored in studies of crime and furthermore it can be argued that crime statistics are biased and unreliable.AO1/2 Feminist Carol Smart argues criminology is ‘malestream’ and that females have been ignored as both offenders and victims.AO3 However feminism has resulted in better treatment of women by the CJS and in the law itself, sometimes favouring women over men e.g fathers for justice. Left Realists would argue that this viewpoint ignores the reality of male working-class crime. However statistics also show that there is a significant rise in female crime in recent times (laddettes)AO1/2 Going back as far as the 1950s Pollack argued that female criminals are just as common but are not caught because they are more devious and dishonest. AO3 His work is largely discredited however there is some evidence that females who are caught are treated more leniently by the CJS unless they have breached norms of femininity as well. E.g hurting a child. There is also evidence that the ‘chivalry factor’ accounts for why more women are not arrested and charged. This suggests that female crime could make up some of the ‘dark figure’ of crime which is estimated 50% of crimes which are never recorded.AO1/2 Pat Carlen points out we should ask why so few women do commit crime. She states that women are ideologically controlled and have a lack of opportunity to commit crime due to patriarchal control AO3 However there is increasing female crime (Adler) possible due to feminism and women becoming more masculine, However Heidensohn points out that middle class girls are the most influenced by feminism but the least likely to commit crime. Marxist feminists would point out also that female crime such as prostitution or shop lifting are often because of economic need. However Liberal feminists would argue that the socialisation of women has changed. AO1/2 It is useful to look at why males commit more crime. Messerschmidt argues that men strive constantly to be seen as masculine and working-class masculinity often involves violence. AO3 However Mac nGhaill argues that this often results in a ‘crisis of masculinity’ where males find it difficult to understand their gender roles in an ever changing world. However middle class boys often adopt an accommodating masculinity and conform to society and school. This suggests that ther are many different types of masculinity.Conclusion - Interactionists would not look at why males commit crime they would look at the effects of labelling an individual such as a hoodie might have on their behaviour. However Sub-culturalists would look at socialisation and how working-class males have been brought up to adopt oppositional forms of masculinity like gang cultures in London and females are socialised to be caring. Even though statistics suggest most crime is commited by males there are reasons why female crime is ignored and why statistics may be unreliable. Furthermore there is evidence that female crime is increasing.Critically assess the usefulness of Marxist theories of crime (40)Introduction – Marxism is a structural conflict theory that focuses on how capitalism causes inequalities between the rich (Bourgoiesie) and poor (Proletariat). When it comes to crime they therefore focus on how capitalism causes greed within society, how inequalities cause increased crime amongst working classes and how agents of social control such as the police, media and education (which are under bourgeoisie control) ignore upper and middle class crime.AO1/2 Marxists claim that capitalism itself is criminogenic – Criticisms of this view pointAO3It is contradictory – is it that working class crime is overestimated or is it that working class crime is caused by poverty?AO3 Communism is not a practical solution to the problem of crimeAO3Working class people commit crimes against each other (not very Robin Hood)AO1/2 Chambliss claims that crime exists across all classes but working classes are over-represented in crime statistics. E.g His study of crime in chicago found large amounts of corporate and white collar crime. Study of Saints and Roughnecks also found Saints were just as deviant but were not caught. This suggests…….. AO3 This is an important theory because it highlights that notions of the ‘typical criminal’ may be part of what Marx called a false class consciousness. Left realists would argue that this is a ‘Robin Hood’ theory which romanticises crime and does not acknowledge that crime is a real problem amongst working class people. Therefore the fact that working-class people commit crimes against each other is a major criticism. Furthermore Functionalists such as Durkheim would argue that it is not inequality, but the failure of informal social controls to integrate people into shared norms and values causing Anomie and crime. Marxist views on crime have also been criticised for not taking account of female crime or victimisation solely focusing on class. This suggests…..AO1/2 Lauren Snider proposed that laws are made to benefit the rich and powerful who can easily avoid punishment, as seen in the case of state crimes such as the Iraq war, torture in Guantanamo bay or corporate crimes like the Bhopal disaster. AO3 However it could be argued that some laws are there to protect the vulnerable in society such as health and safety laws and employment laws. However…. It could also be argued that cases of corporate and white collar crime have been punished recently e.g MP expenses scandal and the Phone Hacking by the News of the World scandal. It could also be argued that Functionalist Merton’s strain theory could be used to explain both working and upper class crimes through a strain between means and goals e.g companies struggling reach a goal to increase profits may resort to less legitimate means. AO1/2 Louiss Althusser believed that the law represents an ideological state apparatus which keeps control over working classes by portraying them as more criminal. AO3 However left realists would point to a real fear of crime in society as reported by the BCS and suggest that ignoring this will lead to a lack of solutions. Furthermore sub-cultural theorists would suggest that the socialisation of working-class people is at fault. E.g Walter B Miller’s focal concerns or Cloward and Ohlin and illegitimate opportunity structures.AO1/2 A more thorough theory of crime was developed by Taylor, Walton and Young using a Neo-marxists approach, New Criminology or Radical Criminology. This tried to encompass causes of crime on many different levels ranging from the actions of the state to labelling of certain individuals. AO3 This theory however still maintained that capitalism was the main cause of crime and was later called ‘left idealism’ by Jock Young himself. He then went on to produce Left Realism which acknowledged problems with working class sub-cultures particuarly those of black caribbeans in the UK which lead to gang culture and high material aspirations.To conclude – Marxism is useful because it acknowledges that working classes may be overprepresented in crime statisitics and white collar crime may make up some of the Dark figures of crime. However there are problems with the theory etc.The police are institutionally racist - Discuss (40) Introduction – Ethnic minorities are overpresented in rates of conviction and in prison statistics and under-represented in figures of victimisation. Institutional racism is different to overt racism. Racist attitudes cannot be expressed because of the law, but policies and practices of institutions like the police or education can be unintentionally racist; this is known as implicit racism which is hidden from view but neverthless disadvantages certain groups.These patterns might suggest that ethnic minorites are the victims of a racist police force. However some sociologists would argue that the statistics represent a true picture and that ethnic minorities are actually more criminal.AO1/2 Official statistics show that whilst the ethnic minority population in the UK is only 9% the prison population is 26% for males. Paul Gilroy points out that black minorities are subjected to institutional racism by the police. He believes that black males develop a ‘culture of resistance’ against unfair practices.AO3 Lea and Young, Left Realists would support this view as they believe that the relative deprivation, marginalisation and sub-cultures of black minorities is a major cause of crime. However critics points out that black people commit crimes against each other but also that most immigrant and minority people are law abiding. Marxists might agree that minorities form cultures of resistance but would put this down to inequalities of wealth and power suffered as a consequence of capitalism rather than racism. However Castles and Kosack point out that in a recession like the one recently experienced, racism increases and BME become more marginalised in terms of unemployment which may lead to crime.AO1/2 Philips and Bowling point out that black people are 5-8 times more likely to be stopped and searched than whites and are more 4 times more likely to be arrested and convicted, suggesting that the force is institutionally racist.AO3 Heidensohn would support this view suggesting that there is a ‘canteen culture’ which is highly sexist and racist amongst police. However interactionists would say that this may be due to social interactions between police and offenders such as weighing up a scene at the time and problems such as labelling (Becker). Furthermore, Clancy also points out that ethnic minorites are in general younger and may therefore be a part of a moral panic over youth and crime. Waddington also points out that areas known for high crime are likely to be populated by ethnic minorities.AO1/2 The murder of stephen Lawrence in 1993 is still yet to be solved. The murder was said to be not taken seriously at the time which led to important evidence being concealed. The claim later by the McPhearson report was that the metropolitan police force was ‘Institutionally racist’ AO3 The Lawrence case has recently been re-opened showing the determination of the police to convict those responsible. Functionalist might argue that this is due to the successful integration of ethnic minorities into the ‘host’ culture which has resulted in more BME police officers. Rotherham case !!!AO1/2 Ethnic minorities have often the subject of moral panics and become what Stan Cohen called ‘folk devils’ In the 1970s there was media hype about black muggings and today there is coverage of Islamic terrorism which has led to a moral panic over Asian immigrants. Therefore attention has shifted towards Asian crime. AO3 Abbas claimed that racist attacks towards Asians has increased since the 9/11 attacks on the twin towers. This event may also have been an important factor when it came to sentencing the Asian rioters responsible for the Bradford riots in 2001. AO3 However the Cantle Report produced after the race riots in the north of England in 2001 suggested that racial tension and a lack of integration was a real problem and should be dealt with through community efforts. This conflicts with the Functionalist notion that immigrants will eventually be assimilated by the ‘host’ culture. Furthermore it can be argued that the UK no longer has a definitive ‘host’ culture because it is so diverse and multicultural.Conclusion – There is evidence to suggest both that the police are institutionally racist and that BME are more criminal – summarise.Discuss the contribution of interactionist theories to our understanding of crime. (40)Introduction -In contrast to structural theories, Interactionists see humans as being thinking, feeling individuals who react to their situation. They therefore focus more on inner mental states and the social construction of society. In relation to crime they believe that crime and deviance are socially constructed and their definitions largely depend upon context e.g time, place, situation. Structural theories like Marxism or Functionalism might criticise interactionsim for ignoring causes of crime such as capitalism or a lack of integration (Anomie).AO1/2 Interactionists believe that definitions of deviance come from social reactions to certain acts. Howard Becker used the example of nudity which is only considered deviant in public. Social reactions can cause minor acts of deviance to become amplified. E.gLemert describes primary and secondary deviance and example of Pacific Indians and stammering. AO3 This suggests that no act is in itself deviant, only the reaction makes it so. However some would argue that certain things like genocide are morally wrong regardless of reaction. AO1/2 Becker proposed the theory of labelling which states that when a minor act of deviance gains attention from police or media offenders become labellede.g as thief or druggy, this then alters the person’s self image to become a master status of their identity and may lead to them only associated with other deviants. This can then lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and further deviance – deviancy amplification. Jock Young’s study of Hippy Marajuana smokers in Notting Hill showed how once labelled these people moved onto further drug use. AO3 However Becker’s theory does not explain why people commit devianct acts in the first place and is therefore not a very useful theory to explain crime. Furthermore Marxists would argue that it should be considered where the labels come from and how they might be used to benefit the Bourgoiesie. Furthermore labelling could be considered very deterministic as it suggest people passively accept labels rather than reject them.AO1/2 Interactionist also believe that the police and courts socially construct crime statistics. Cicourel for example claimed that statistics tell us more about the police and CJS than about the criminals. In his study in California, Cicourel found that notions of a ‘typical criminal’ influenced whether police charged an offender or not. These notions were typically working-class, young and black.AO3 However Functionalists and Right and Left Realists would argue that crime statistics portray a true picture of crime and that Interactionist views ignore the reality of crime. Sub-cultural theorists for example would point more towards issues such as socialisation in working classes e.gCloward and Ohlin’s opportuntiystructrures or Walter B Miller’s focal concerns. However it could also be argued that BCS victim surveys highlight that crime statistics do not account for all crimes committed and are therefore not very reliable. AO1/2Interactionist theories also suggest that the media amplifies crime and socially constructs crime statistics. Stan Cohen investigated how the Mods and Rockers were subject of a moral panic over youth crime. His study showed how small amounts of deviance was exaggerated by the media in order to gain a social reaction, this reaction then leads to increased police action and increased arrests and therefore more of these groups in the conviction rates, which leads to increased public concern. The media will continue to fuel the deviancy amplification spiral to sell more news. AO3 Marxists such as Louis Althusser would point to the use of the media as an ideological state appartus which keeps the working classes at bay.Therefore this suggests that the levels of crime are not as serious as portrayed in the media, but social reaction to it actually has the result of making it worse. In Cohen’s study he noted how the Mods and Rockers were not particularly opposed to each other until media reports portrayed them as such. Another example of this is in the riots in London 2011 which spread across the UK as a result of the media attention.Conclusion – Interactionist theories are useful as they point out the socially constructed nature of both crime and deviance and crime statistics. However there are some criticisms as they fail to recognise structures such as inequalitiesin wealth which may cause crime. They also do not look for the origins of deviance but only at social reactions to it. etc.Critically assess functionalist theories of crime (40)This plan also contains details of sub-cultural theory. In the exam you should be prepared to discuss both Functionalism and subcultural theory possibly in the same essay as they are both functionalist based. Intro – Functionalism is a consensus theory and a macro theory – explain key aspects of functionalism in general. The value consensus is key to functionalist understanding of crime and deviance and they focus on shared norms and values and sub-cultures being the cause of crime.Ao2 Functionalists and sub-cultural theories have been criticised for trusting crime statistics and focussing mainly on male working class crime and for ignoring ethnicity and gender.AO1/2 Durkheim’s early analysis of crime stated that crime is both functional and inevitable – explain society of saints and positive functions of crime.AO3 However critics suggests that Durkheim contradicts himself by stating that too much crime is dysfunctional for society, also crime is not functional for individual victims and Left realists suggest the victim should form a more prominent part of the study of crime.AO3 This suggests..................................................................................................................AO1/2 Durkheim’s theory of Anomie – explain concept - related to rapid social change leaves people unsure of prevailing norms. also seen in suicide rates.Durkheim’s theory was influential because..........................................................................AO3 This is supported by examples such as Poland and Russia where rapid change has led to increase in crime. Therefore this suggests...............................................................However it is too vague as does not explain why people commit different crimes of differing severity.For example why...........................................................A01/2 Explain Robert Merton’s strain theory uses Anomie in different way – strain between institutional means and cultural goals and five responses.AO3 Merton’s theory is better because....................................................However there is an assumption that everyone shares the same goals in a large society. Marxists would argue it exaggerates working class crime and ignore white collar and corporate crimes committed by individuals who have achieved success. AO1/2 Sub-cultural theorists such as Walter B Miller would argue that the cultural goals of some working classes have been turned up side down to become the opposite of mainstream society.He argues that working class males focus of ‘focal concerns of ……..’AO3 However Matza argues that everyone is capable of deviance and working class do not possess culture that different from ordinary people they drift in and out of criminal behaviour. This suggests......................................AO1/2 Travis Hirshi explains why many people do not commit crime using a functionalist concept of ‘bonds of attachment’ – explain these and how they prevent crime.AO3 However this does not explain why people who have strong bonds still commit crime as in white collar crime. For example......................................AO1/2 Sub-cultural theories are similar to and based upon functionalist ideas believing that crime statistics are a true picture and that working class males commit the majority of crime. Albert Cohen and status frustration – explain AO3 good because it explain non-utilitarian crime. However it assumes that delinquent males share society’s goals in the first place to be frustrated by not achieving them. Left Realists would argue that relative deprivation and marginalisation is the problem caused by a lack of investment in deprived areas. Marxist would go further and suggest that white collar and corporate crime is more damaging and widespread but it completely ignored by Cohen. This suggests that Functionalism is deeply flawed as it cannot explain all types of crime.AO1/2 Other sub-cultural theorist such as Cloward and Ohlin have suggested that shared cultures of the working classes are important in providing illigitimate opportunity structure e.g if organised crime exists young can be socialised into criminal sub-culture. AO3 This suggests criminal activity is largely related to a culture of deviance. Charles Murray would support this argument claiming that welfare is responsible for criminal behaviour amongst the underclass due to their deviant values of dependency upon benefits and single parenthood, poor socialisation. However Left Realists would point out that groups that are marginalised are bound to fight back and form resistant sub-cultures. Marxists would also suggest that inequalities lead to working class crime. Although Marxists contradict themselves excusing working class crime whilst also claiming that working class crime is exaggerated over middle and upper class crime. Furthermore sub-cultural theories ignore the role of the media in demonising groups which threaten the bourgeoisie.ConclusionSummarise main points and suggest the main flaws in functionalism. It ignores middle and upper class crime, gender and ethnicity. Traditional theories of crime are no longer relevant in a post modern world – discuss.(40)Intro - Outline postmodern perspective and the idea that they are critical of all other theories. They suggest that traditional theories like Functionalism and Marxism are outdated. Lea 1998 argues that the crisis of modernity is also a crisis of criminology stating we need to find new theories and new solutions.AO1/2 Carol Smart suggests that each criminal act is unique and there is little point in trying to find a cause. Generally there is little point in relying on scientific methods to reveal the truth about anything – science has failed to produce a unified theory of crime. All crimes cannot be explained with one theory anyway e.g how can poverty explain rape. Theories which focus on females victims and male offenders do not appreciate that identities like masculinity have become multi-faceted and we cannot make generalisations about male ways of being. Thomas Hamilton who shot teachers and children in a Dunblane primary school was said to be adversely affected by the feminisation of the primary school setting. This was his unique way of negotiating masculinity which cannot be generalised to all men.AO3 Post Modernism seems to dismiss all theories without offering any kind of explanation for criminal behaviour. Furthermore without a unified theory on a cause of crime such as those provided by Functionalism or Marxism it is difficult to see how we can solve the problem. Therefore Post Modernist views of crime seem a little pessimistic as they can only look for causes of crime on an individual level.Whereas, for example Marxism identifies elements of the structure of society that can cause crime such as capitalism.A01/2 Post Modernism says that there are countless new opportunities for crime unaccounted for by traditional theories e.g Identity theft, internet fraud or copyright, cyber bullying etc. AO3 Difficult to use traditional theories to explain globalised crime such as drug demand from Colombia. Although Strain theory or anomie could be applied (explain) innovation is where farmers in Columbia are trying to achieve goals. Drug use in Uk relates to retreatism. Innovation could also be used to explain use of the internet for criminal purposes although paedophilia rings’ use of the internet cannot be explained by wanting to achieve an ‘american dream.’ AO1/2 However technology in the post modern world has also provided better ways of dealing with crime. Foucault (1991) pointed out that surveillance is penetrating more and more into private aspects of our lives, aided by new surveillance technology like CCTV, which monitors the movements of people in every sphere of life.This is accompanied by growing control of entry to streets and housing complexes in ‘gated communities’.In addition, vast amounts of data are collected on individuals through things like consumer tracking. Stealing cars has now become much more difficult due to technology also.AO3 Therefore this suggests that as ways of dealing with crime is changing so is crime itself. However this could be explained with an interactionist perspective that already states that crime is essentially social constructed according to the given societal reaction at the time. Interactionists such as Stan Cohen also claim that the media can affect our perceptions of crime by creating moral panics though overexaggeration. Media and post modern spectacle e.g 9/11 media influences reality and perceptions of crime and we are unable to tell the difference between real and not real. (could be linked to Colombine massacre and use of Matrix as inspiration for killing school peers, However concept of subculture and resistance used by Phil Cohen is probably more useful). However concept of deviancy amplification and Moral Panics has already described this phenomenon.and Marxists would explain this as need for profit by newspapers etc. This suggests Post Modernism has not necessarily rendered other theories redundant. AO1/2 Traditional theories ignore the role of emotion – Katz – excitement and Lyng Edgework. Post modernism suggest that a good deal of crime can be explained by the pleasure it gives to some. Miller suggest some need to express masculinity and also autonomy in an ever more controlled environment of surveillance. Other such as Hobbs suggest that there is a growing nocturnal economy linked to leisure industry (pubs and clubs) due to globalisation and the lack of masculine type manufacturing jobs which are providing much opportunity for male deviance e.g drug dealing and fighting. Criminality is a way of expressing masculine identityAO3 – this is too similar to crisis of masculinity which has been 30 years! Could also be explained using Marxism as capitalism is the cuase of globalisation, could also use Sub-cultural theory of Walter B Miller Focal concerns of working class male. Could also use Strain theory as before. This suggests that Post Modernism has nothing new to offer to our understanding of crime.ConclusionThere are some useful concepts in Post modernism such as idea of social harm, how crime is changing with new technology etc etc. AO2 Many of the concepts used by Post Modernists are too similar to traditional theories to be useful. Evaluate realist theories of crime (40)AO1/2 Realist theories have been developed as a response to traditional theories which do not seem to solve the problem of crime or take the plight of victims into account. Realist criminologists take the problem of crime seriously and produce realistic views with regard to both prevention and punishment. Taking a realistic view means acceptance that most criminals are working class, ethnic minorities and male therefore realist crminiologist believe statistics show the true nature of crime. AO3 This suggests theories should focus on working class male crime AO2 However it has been shown by many studies that crime statistics cannot be relied upon as there is a ‘hidden figure’ which is unreported and unrecorded crimes. For example crimes committed by upper class or corporations, those committed by women and against women and those committed against ethnic minorities are invisible. AO1/2 Right realism is linked to New right theories in that it suggests that there is an element of choice involved in crime. They deny any relationship between poverty and crime. Wilson theories that in general most people are selfish and greedy by nature and to prevent crime society must control them and prevent undisciplined and permissive attitudes. His ‘broken windows thesis’ suggested that if a housing estate was left in state of disrepair that petty crime would be encouraged and then further deviance e.g the broken window suggests no-one cares what happens in the neighbourhood. AO3 Therefore this suggests that the best approach to crime is zero tolerance of minor deviance.Ao2 However this approach was tried in New York where 3 convictions meant life in prison and critiques argued that it simply moved the criminals elsewhere, however crime rates in new York did fall. This therefore suggests that realist crminiology can provide some useful understanding and better policies. However Right realism ignores the structures in society that may lead people into crime. For example material deprivation caused by inequalities in society and unemployment. AO1/2 Clarke and Coleman used the idea of Rational Choice theory to explain that criminals engage in a cost benefit analysis before committing an offense. If the benefits outweigh the costs then crime pays. AO3 This suggests that increasing the cost of crime will reduce it AO2 However a problem with this theory is that not all crimes are rational for example domestic violence or rape. Even minor crimes can be conducted for thrills or kicks (Katz) and therefore increasing the cost may not work. In the USA where capital punishment is widely used the murder rate is just as high as other western societies despite claims that it acts as a deterrent against killing.AO1/2 According to Right realists the solution to crime is to increase the cost as well as the opportunity to commit crime. An example of reducing opportunities to commit crime would be the use of CCTV in towns which has seen dramatic increase. Further measures like chip and pin and greater protection against car crime as been used. AO3 However it could be argued that by increasing such controls the freedoms of innocent people is also being eroded.AO1/2 According to Charles Murray dependence of welfare has produced apathy and attitudes such as blame culture and lack of responsibility amongst the underclass in UK. This is supported by the idea that increased affluence has not reduced crime rates but increased them. Murrays argument is that socialisation amongst the underclass is poor, particularly in working class single parent families. This leads to young men with deviant norms and values.AO3 However it could be argued that there is little evidence to support Murray’s view and he scapegoats single mothers who have no choice but to claim benefits. Ernst Van Den Haag suggests a solution of tougher punishments that target the poor e.g corporal and capital punishment - increases cost of crime.AO3 However Marxists would argue strongly that the criminal justice system can be used as a means of controlling the proletariat and ensuring that no revolution takes place. Lauren Snider for example argues that law enforcement and law creation benefits the rich unjustly. For example benefit fraud is severely punished whilst tax evasion is not. This suggests that Right realism does not offer a thorough explanation of crime.AO1/2 Left Realism was produced by Lea and Young in response to Right realism. Jock Young had written The New criminology from a Neo Marxist perspective years earlier and later called it Left Idealism and took a more pragmatic approach. Left realists accept that actions of the state can influence criminal behaviour but take a realistic view of working class crime and crime statistics. AO3 Left Realism is useful because they produced a ‘suare of crime’ taking into account of offenders, victims, state and informal controls in analysing reasons for crime. They also produce solutions which take various elements into account such as actions of the police for example.AO1/2 According to Lea and Young key aspects in crime include marginalisation, relative deprivation and sub-cultures. Some groups are seen as marginalised by communities and by the police leading to distrust e.g stop and search of black youths in London. Their analysis focuses of black criminality. They maintain that black youths have developed a subculture which encourages material possession and at the same time racist attitudes of society prevent them achieving this so leads to feelings of relative deprivation (not having what others have). This leads to deviant sub-cultures and criminal behaviour. AO3 This suggests that solutions to crime are not as straightforward as increasing punishments. They suggest that community policing is important and also integration into communities to provide informal controls. For example Stuart Hall maintained that inequalities in employment lead black men to call their jobs ‘white man’s shit work’ suggesting they feel marginalised. Ao2 however this does not explain why black people rob and steal from each other. Furthermore critics have argued that this theory is too similar to Robert Merton’s strain theory which argues that the concept of the American Dream leads to strain where some cannot achieve this goal and so turn to crime. A lack of integration leading to crime can also be related to Durkheim’s concept of Anomie. This suggests that left realist does not provide a innovative theory of crime is is therefore not that useful.Traditional Marxist theories also examine the actions of the police and criminal justice system that disadvantaged working class people.AO1/2 Left realist solutions to crime include reducing military style policing such as stop and search policies and introducing more community style policing and initiatives such as restorative justice. AO2 However tough punishments are often popular with voters and this often leads governments to compromise such as in Tony Blairs’ famous speech ‘tough of crime’ touch on the causes of crime’ To conclude Right realism suggests people chose to commit crime and that increasing the cost of crime through punishment will reduce it. Informal controls such as zero tolerance to crime and adequate socialisation will prevent people from being greedy and selfish. Policies put in place based on this theory are accused of focussing heavily on working class crime and ignoring upper class crime such as tax evasion. In contrast Left realism focuses on marginalisation of groups as well as actions of police and the production of subcultures. This theory supports policies such as community policing but is accused of not being tough enough to prevent crime. Therefore both realist theories have flaws and are in many ways similar to traditional theories such as functionalism and Marxism . ................
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