Higher Biology - Larbert High School
Higher Biology: WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW
UNIT 1: CELL BIOLOGY
|Cell Structure in relation to function |
|Cell Variety |
|Variation in structure of cells in one tissue compared to cells in another tissue. |
|The existence of unicellular organisms. |
|The relationship of structure to function. |
|Structure of plant and animal cells and identify the organelles present in each. |
|Functions of each organelle. |
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|Absorption and secretion of materials |
|Diffusion and osmosis |
|The role of the cell wall and plasma membrane to these processes. |
|Cell wall, reference to cellulose fibres and permeability. |
|Plasma membrane, reference to fluid mosaic model. |
|Membrane made of protein/phospholipid composition |
|Function of plasma membrane in relation to active transport in absorption and release of chemicals. |
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|Photosynthesis |
|The role of light and photosynthetic pigments |
|Absorption transmission and reflection of light by a leaf. |
|Blue and red light is absorbed by chlorophyll. |
|Name the 4 photosynthetic pigments. |
|Know that chlorophyll a is principle pigment and the names of the accessory pigments. |
|Action spectrum (rate of photosynthesis) and absorption spectra of each photosynthetic pigment. |
|Role of chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments. |
|Separation of pigments by chromatography, know the positions and colours of the pigments. |
| Photolysis and Carbon Fixation |
|Chloroplast structure |
|Location and significance of photolysis |
|Splitting of water results in release of oxygen as a by-product. |
|Hydrogen produced is transferred to NADP. |
|ATP produced, and the hydrogen are transferred to the carbon fixation stage. |
|Location of carbon fixation stage (Calvin Cycle). |
|Glucose is produced in a series of enzyme controlled reactions, requiring ATP and hydrogen and CO2. |
|Know the number of carbons in CO2, GP, RuBP and glucose. |
|CO2 enters the cycle and is accepted by ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) |
|CO2 is reduced to form carbohydrate. |
|Hydrogen is accepted by glycerate phosphate (GP) |
|All major biological molecules in plants are derived from the photosynthetic process. |
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|Energy Release |
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|The Role and Production of ATP |
|The importance of ATP as a means of transferring chemical energy. |
|The role of ATP in cellular processes. |
|ATP is continually regenerated from ADP and Pi |
|Respiration is a series of reactions in which 6-carbon glucose is oxidised to form carbon dioxide. |
|This is accompanied by the synthesis of ATP. |
| |
| Glycolysis |
|Located in the cytoplasm. |
|Does not require oxygen. |
|Glucose (6C) is broken down into pyruvic acid (3C). |
|Net production of 2 ATP. |
|In the shortage of glucose, fats and proteins can enter as alternative respiratory substrates. |
| |
|Kreb’s Cycle |
|Also called Tricarboxylic acid cycle and Citric acid cycle. |
|Requires oxygen. |
|Location is in the central matrix of the mitochondrion. |
|2-carbon compound (acetyl-CoA) joins the cycle as it reacts with a 4-carbon compound to form citric acid (6C). |
|Citric acid (tricarboxylic acid) is gradually converted, in a cycle of reactions back to the 4-carbon compound. |
|The carbons are lost as carbon dioxide. |
|Know the number of carbon atoms for the intermediates in the cycle. |
|The hydrogen produced is transferred on NAD to the cytochrome system. |
| |
|The Cytochrome System |
|Requires oxygen. |
|Complete oxidation of glucose only happens in the presence of oxygen. |
|Located on the Cristae (inner membrane) of mitochondria. |
|It is a system of hydrogen carriers which release energy. |
|Hydrogen, carried on NADH2 is passed through these carriers. |
|This energy is used to synthesise ATP from ADP and Pi. |
|The final hydrogen acceptor is oxygen, which forms metabolic water. |
| |
|Label the different parts of a mitochondrion. |
|In Aerobic respiration 38 ATP are produced per molecule of glucose. |
|In Anaerobic respiration only 2 ATP are produced per molecule glucose. |
|In animal muscle lactic acid is the product of anaerobic respiration. |
|In plants carbon dioxide and ethanol are the products of anaerobic respiration. |
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|Synthesis and Release of Proteins |
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|The role of DNA, RNA and cellular organelles |
|The importance of amino acid sequence in protein structure. |
|The function of protein is closely related to its structure. |
|Fibrous and globular proteins. |
|Named examples of each type. |
|DNA structure (nucleotide structure, bases, double helix) |
|Each genes codes for one protein and makes up a region of the chromosome |
| Structure and function of RNA |
|mRNA and tRNA and their role in protein synthesis |
|The processes transcription and translation |
|Role of rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in processing molecules for secretion |
| |
|Cellular Response in Defence of Animals and Plants |
|Virus structure |
|The sequence of viral replication in host cells |
|Process of phagocytosis |
|Antibody production |
|Antibody/antigen interaction |
|Toxic compounds produced by plants |
|Isolation of injured areas by plants |
UNIT 2: GENETICS AND ADAPTATION
|Variation |
|Sexual reproduction as a means of maintaining genetic variation |
|Meiosis (outline of process) |
|Crossing over of chromosomes at chiasmata |
|Independent assortment of chromosomes |
|Genetics problems: dihybrid cross |
|Linked genes |
|Frequency of recombination |
|Sex Linked genes |
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|Mutation |
|Mutant alleles |
|Mutagenic agents |
|Changes in chromosome number through non-disjunction |
|Polyploidy: advantages in crop production |
|Changes in chromosome structure (TIDD) :- |
| Translocation |
| Inversion |
| Duplication |
|Deletion |
|Gene Mutations (SIDI), alteration in base type or sequence:- |
| Substitution |
| Inversion |
| Deletion |
| Insertion |
| |
|(b) Selection and Speciation |
|Natural Selection |
|Survival of organisms best suited to their environment. |
|Concept of a species |
|Speciation through isolating mechanisms, mutations and natural selection on the gene pool. |
|Importance of isolating mechanisms. |
|Adaptive radiation |
|High speed evolution of organisms e.g. antibiotic resistant bacteria and the melanic peppered moth. |
|Conservation of species. |
| |
|Artificial Selection |
|Evolution of a wide variety of plants and domesticated animals through selective breeding. |
|Hybridisation of genetically different breeding lines. |
|Genetic Engineering |
|Use of gene probes to locate genes. |
|Restriction endonuclease enzymes to cut DNA. |
|Ligase enzyme used to join DNA. |
|E.g. Insulin is produced by E. coli. |
|Somatic fusion in plants is used to overcome sexual incompatibility. |
|Use of cellulose to remove cell walls. |
|(c) Animal and plant adaptations |
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|Animal Adaptations |
|1. Maintaining water balance |
|Osmoregulation in fresh and salt water fish |
|Adaptations for salmon and eel migration |
|Water conservation in a desert mammal |
|Physiological and behavioural adaptations in desert rats. |
|Obtaining food |
|Animals are mobile |
|Foraging behaviour and search patterns |
|Economics of foraging |
|Behaviour must be organised to maximise energy gain. |
|Examples of interspecific and intraspecific competition |
|Dominance hierarchy and cooperative hunting |
|Territorial behaviour in relation to competition for food |
|Coping with dangers |
|Avoidance behaviour and habituation |
|Learning as a long-term modification of response |
|Individual and social mechanisms for defence |
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|Plant adaptations |
|Maintaining water balance |
|Transpiration stream |
|Factors which affect transpiration |
|Stomatal mechanism |
|Adaptations in xerophytes and hydrophytes |
|Obtaining food |
|Compare plants and animals ability to move |
|Competition in plants mainly for light and soil nutrients |
|Effect of grazing on species diversity |
|Compare compensation point in sun and shade plants |
|Coping with dangers |
|Structural defence mechanisms (stings, thorns, spines) |
|Ability to tolerate grazing (low meristems, deep roots systems and underground stems |
UNIT 3: CONTROL AND REGULATION
|CONTROL OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT |
|Growth differences between plants and animals |
|Growth patterns in plants and animals (an annual plant, a tree, a human and a locust) |
|Position and activity of meristems in plants, absence of meristems in animals. |
|Formation of annual rings. |
|Regeneration in angiosperms and mammals. |
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|Genetic Control |
|The Jacob-Monod Hypothesis of gene action in bacteria (lactose metabolism in E. coli; the terms regulator gene, operator and |
|structural gene; repressor molecule and inducer should be known). |
|The part played by genes in controlling metabolic pathways e.g. in phenylkenonuria (PKU). |
|The control of cell differentiation by switching particular genes on or off. |
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|Hormonal Influences |
|Pituitary hormones. The role of the pituitary gland in the control of growth and development involving human growth hormone, |
|thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland. |
|Plant growth substances e.g. IAA and GA. |
|Sites of production of IAA. Its effects at both cellular and organ levels; role in apical dominance, leaf abscission and |
|fruit formation. |
|Effects of GA on dormancy and in dwarf varieties of plants. |
|Role of GA in amylase induction in barley grains. |
|Practical applications of plant growth substances as shown by herbicides and rooting powders. |
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|Environmental Influences |
|The importance of individual macroelements N,P,K. (These are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.) |
|Symptoms of deficiency of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium in plants |
|The importance of iron and calcium in animals. |
|The inhibiting effect of lead activity. |
|The effects of thalidomide, alcohol and nicotine on foetal development. |
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|5. Light |
|The effect of light on vegetative shoot growth and development |
|The effect of light on flowering in long-day and short-day plants |
|The effect of light in the timing of breeding in birds and mammals |
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|Physiological Homeostasis |
|The principle of negative feedback |
|The need to maintain conditions within tolerable limits (for blood glucose, temperature and osmoregulation) |
|The role of the hormones ADH, insulin, glucagon and adrenaline and the name of the glands which secrete these. |
|Water content of blood and concentration of cell chemicals (the role of ADH and its effect of the kidney tubules) |
|Glucose and energy needs of tissues. The role of the liver as a store of carbohydrate, roles of insulin, glucagon and |
|adrenaline in maintenance of blood glucose. |
|The importance of temperature to enzyme controlled metabolic processes in the body. (Role of hypothalamus, nerve |
|communication, the skin as the effector organ) |
|Endotherms and Ectotherms. |
| |
|Population Dynamics |
|Regulation of plant and animal populations |
|Population fluctuations; the relative stability of populations despite short-term oscillations in number. |
|Name density dependent and density independent factors which influence population numbers. |
|Monitoring of wild populations for food/raw material sources, as pollution indicators, to protect endangered species and to |
|control pest species. |
|Succession and climax in plant communities including changes in species diversity, complexity of food web and increase in |
|biomass. |
|Unidirectional nature of plant succession and the associated habitat modification. |
|Percentage of a number | |
|Percentage change | |
|Graphs – labelling axis or missing | |
|units | |
|Graphs – plotting | |
|Graphs – scale | |
|Graphs – x/y axis wrong way round | |
|Table – missing headings or units | |
|Ratios | |
|Averages | |
|Interpreting information from a table | |
|Interpreting information from a graph | |
|Controls in an experiment | |
|Experimental design | |
|Describing something | |
|Explaining/Accounting for something | |
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