'I think we have failed to take into account a trait which ...
Charles Darwin: The Historical Influence upon Science Education
Julie A. Dockery
Juliedockery@ or
Julieannedockery@
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for EDCI 658
Dr. L. Burlbaw
April 27, 2003
Charles Darwin: The Historical Influence upon Science Education
" Most students of the history of ideas believe that the Darwinian revolution was the most fundamental of all intellectual revolutions in the history of mankind."
– Ernst Mayr, scientist (Shermer, M. 2001.)
On June 30 1860, Oxford University contained over 700 people including scientists, religious leaders, and the general public who were present for the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Most of those present for this meeting were religious leaders who were there to defend their faith against Charles Darwin's ideas that were presented in the recently published book Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Hellman, 1998). The talk was to be about the implications of Darwin's theory on the social progress towards the development of Europe. Darwin's work had created quite a controversy between science and religion. According to Hellman, one of the major problems with Darwinian concepts was that it meant so many different things to so many different people. Many of Darwin's closest friends and scientists stood up that day to claim that the Bible was the ultimate truth. Robert Fitzroy, former governor of New Zealand, had chosen Darwin
for the two-year survey of coastal South America aboard a ship called the Beagle because in his mind, Darwin was a "well-bred" gentleman who would relieve the isolation of command, and share the captain's table. Darwin was considered an asset, a man of zeal and of spirit. But during the meeting at Oxford, Fitzroy stood up and testified against Darwin and claimed that the Bible was the only source of truth. Even today, we see that generations since have still not been able to comprehend Darwin's writings in its completeness.
Journalism flourished in the Victorian culture during this time. Although photography was relatively new, cartoonist, pamphleteers, and novelists had new material in which to provoke and captivate audiences with. Victorian society looked at both religion and science in a new light (Hellman, 1998). The table was set: Religion
1871 Cartoon on Darwin
and the Theory of Evolution would never be the same. The Victorian Era was one of intense debate between liberal and conservatives. Darwin and the nature of science
challenged religious orthodoxy and contributed to political unrest (Gutek, 1995).
It has been 144 years since Darwin's Origin of Species was publicized. On November, 22, 1859 The "Origin of Species" went on sale to the public at a price of 15 shillings. 1,250 copies were printed which sold out the first day. According to Ananova News (2003), the book is now worth an average of £50,000. The Origin of Species was an immediate success and Darwin started the same day editing the work for a second edition. Since that time, there have been a total of 6 editions and in that time, science and religion have wrestled for and against the notion of evolution and of the creation of life by a Supreme Being. With each edition, Darwin tried to answer his critics and deal with the problems that sprung forth from prior editions. The dynamic processes that Charles Darwin saw in natural selection have continued throughout history to be antagonistic to the orthodox Christian viewpoint.
As society began to accept Darwin's theory, instructional methodology within the classrooms began to change. With the help from Herbert Spencer and William Sumner, underpinnings of evolution and natural selection initiated change in the educational policies in both England and the United States (Gutek, G. L., 1995). It was not until 1920 that a solid foundation in Darwinian evolution began to be taught as a standard in public education. This educational methodology gave rise to anti-evolutionary methods.
Evolution was linked to the degeneration of the morality in America. It was during this time that the famous Scopes trials took place, which helped to eliminate Darwin and his
views from education. In the 1920's, teaching evolutionary concepts were outlawed in Tennessee, Mississippi, Florida, and Arkansas. Much of the science revolution in the United States came about with the launching of the Soviet Union's Sputnik which began the contest in the space race to become the most productive country in science and one way to do this was to improve teaching of science to America's children. In 1961, Darwin and his theory were reintegrated into American science education. According to Michael Shermer (2001), there are three historical trends that helped account for the Darwinian renaissance: (1) changes in the 1960s that contextualized scientists within their cultures; (2) changes in the biological profession that applied Darwinism successfully after the modern synthesis; and (3) changes in the general culture, especially with the Sputnik scare, that placed more emphasis on educational sciences, including reintroducing Darwin and evolutionary theory (p. 116).
The National Academy of Science (NAS) documents that the theory of evolution has become the central unifying concept of biology and is a critical component of many related scientific disciplines. According to the NAS, the claims of creation science lacks empirical support and cannot be meaningfully tested. According to Stephen Jay Gould (1999), "Science covers the empirical realm: what is the universe made of (fact) and why does it work this way (theory). The magisterium of religion extends over questions of ultimate meaning and moral value. The two magisteria do not overlap, nor do they
encompass all inquiry." If creationism or Intelligent Design of the origin of life is not considered science because they are not testable according to science, then how can
evolution truly is considered science and not a religion itself?
Teaching evolution presents special challenges to science teachers. In upholding the court rulings that "creation science" is actually a religious view and knowing that public schools must be religiously neutral under the U.S. Constitution. It is interesting to note that many public schools are putting disclaimers into textbooks such as the Alabama Board of Education did in 1995. It read as follows: "This textbook discusses evolution, a controversial theory some scientists present as a scientific explanation for
the origin of living things, such as plants, animals, and humans. No one was present when life first appeared on earth. Therefore, any statement about life's origins should be considered theory, not fact." Other districts have required similar disclaimers (The National Academy of Sciences, 1998).
In a study by Holland, (1985), nearly 2,400 science students at Ohio State University were surveyed and it was found that 47% did not believe Darwin’s theory and fully 80% felt that if Darwin’s theory of evolution is taught in public schools, other views including special creation should also be taught. In another study by Blank and Andersen, (1997), 218 pre-service teachers were participating in a teacher training
program. These teachers were surveyed and it was shown that 88% of the elementary and 60% of the secondary science teachers felt that non-Darwin views should be given
equal time in class. Dr. Jerry Bergman, biology professor at Northwest College in Ohio, has reviewed fifty studies that surveyed opinions on teaching origins in public schools.
The survey data showed that almost 90% of the public sector desired that both creation and evolution or creation only be taught in the public schools. About 90% of Americans consider themselves creationists of some form, and about half believe that God created
humans in their present form. 15% of American high school teachers teach both evolution and creation, and close to 20% of American high school science teachers and about 10,000 scientists (including more than 4,000 life scientists) reject both macroevolution and theistic evolution.
One of the most troublesome difficulties with Darwin's Origin is the problem with natural selection, which has paved the way for the controversial "Social Darwinism". According to Colson (1999), Social Darwinism is the idea that the rich and beautiful are in charge of life because they have proven themselves to be the most fit in the struggle for survival. Darwin's theory has been taken by Eugenics to mean that humans are merely animals competing in the struggle for existence and that the weakest will be left behind. The creation of a new race was the key component in scientific utopianism. After Hugo De Vries rediscovered Gregory Mendel's work on genes in 1900, many scientist began to look at Darwin's work more closely. The idea of genetically
engineering a superior race of people became the vision of men like Nietzsche and Hitler which caused the deaths of 50 million people in World War II (Colson, 1999). Francis Galton stated "I think we have failed to take into account a trait which is almost universal and is very deep in human nature. People simply are not willing to accept the idea that the genetic base on which their character was formed is inferior and should not
be repeated in the next generation. We have asked whole groups of people to accept this idea and we have asked individuals to accept it. They have constantly refused and we have all but killed the eugenic movement ... they won't accept the idea that they are in general second rate. We must rely on other motivation. ... it is surely possible to build a system of voluntary unconscious selection.
Darwin at 31
Charles' grandfather, Erasmus Darwin was a leading intellectual giant of the eighteenth century. Erasmus was a well-respected physician and portrayed a love for nature, poetry, and philosophy. Erasmus talked about how competition and sexual selection in nature could cause changes in species and that this contest among males seems to be that the strongest and most active animal should propagate the species,
which should thus be improved. Charles did not contribute his intelligence to his father. He commented, "I do not think that I owe much to him intellectually-nor to my four
sisters…I am inclined to agree with Francis Galton in believing that education and environment produce only a small effect on the mind of any one, and that most of our qualities are innate" (Darwin 1887, p. 43). Thus, herein lies the debate of nature vs. nuture.
Many transformations have come about as a result of Darwin's works. Darwin's views on natural selection led to modern concepts of intelligence testing. In 1959 the 100th anniversary of the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species, the Galapagos Islands became Ecuador's first National Park. The same year the internationally non-profit Charles Darwin Foundation was established to assist the in preservation of the
islands. These two organizations regulate tourism in the Galapagos. The National Park regulates policies, issues permits, approves landing sites and itineraries while the Darwin Station provides a training area for the guides which work there.
Charles Darwin, grandson of Erasmus Darwin, had blue-gray eyes, a receding hairline, thick sideburns, and stood at only 5 feet, 11 1/2 inches tall and weighed a
meager 148 pounds at 31 years of age (, 2001). As he got older, he grew a beard, which was unkept perhaps to prevent those from recognizing him or to disguise that his health was in serious trouble. There has been much speculation on the reasons for Darwin's death. Perhaps, it was the stress of the times that actually caused the decline in health. The impact of Charles Darwin can be seen in the transformations of not only the Western World but also in Victorian Culture. The self-taught scientist from Shrewsbury was buried in Westminster Abbey next to Sir. Isaac Newton. Darwin was never knighted due to Queen Victoria and her clerical adviser, Bishop Wilberforce, disagreeing with the thoughts published within the Origin of Species but Darwin was definitely recognized as one of the greatest scientific revolutionists of all time (Hellman, 1998). On his death on 19th April 1882 Darwin was the major scientific figure of his day. Charles Darwin, hailed by many as a hero of science and by others as a thorn in the side of creationists.
Macmillan's Magazine published the following exposition after the publishing of the Origin of Species. It read as follows:
"No scientific work that has been published within this century has excited so much general curiosity as the treatise of Mr. Darwin. It has for a long time divided the scientific world with two great contending sections. A Darwinite and an anti-Darwinite
are now the badges of opposed scientific parties. (Shermer, 2001, p. 126).
Westminister Abbey
Down House
Darwin's home in Kent, England.
References
About . (2001). Darwin Pictures. [Electronic Version] Retrieved April 17, 2003 from
Ananova Ltd. (2003). Rare library book finally returned after 88 years. [Electronic Version]. Retrieved April 22, 2003 from
Blank, L., &, Andersen, H., (1997). Teaching evolution: coming to a classroom near you? National Center for Science Education Reports 17(3): 10–13.
Bergman, J. (1999). The Attitude of Various Populations toward Teaching Creation and Evolution in Public Schools. Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal, 13, (2).
Colson, D. (1999). How Now Shall We Live? TN: Lifeway Press.
Darwin, C. (1999). The Origin of Species. NY: Bantam Publishing.
Darwin, C. (1887, 1958). The autobiography of Charles Darwin. In N. Barlow (Ed.). London: Collins.
Galapagos Online. Early Colonists. [Electronic Version] Retrieved April 17, 2003 from
Gould, S. J. (1999). Rocks of Ages. Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life. NY: Ballantine Publishing Company.
Gutek, G. L. (1995). A History of the Western Educational Experience. IL: Waveland Press, Inc.
Hellman, H. (1998). Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the liveliest disputes ever. New York: Wiley.
H.L. Mencken (1965). The American Scene- A Reader. New York: New York. Alfred A. Knopf publishing.
Holland, E., (1985). Creation Science: A Survey of Student Attitudes, Ohio State University Quest 7(3): 1.
National Academy of Science. (1980). Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science. [Electronic Version] Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Retrieved March 14, 2003 from .
National Academy of Sciences. Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Osborn, F. (1956). Galton and Mid Century Eugenics. Eugenics Review, 48, (1).
Shermer, M. (2001) The Borderlands of Science: Where Sense Meets Nonsense.
NY: Oxford Press.
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Photos
Left: Darwin, as a child, at 7.
Right: Darwin at 65.
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