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Legacy of Slavery and Indentured

Labour

Linking the Past with the Future

Conference on Slavery, Indentured Labour, Migration, Diaspora and Identity Formation.

June 18th – 23th, 2018, Paramaribo, Suriname

Org. IGSR & Faculty of Humanities and IMWO, in collaboration with Nat. Arch. Sur.

Na koni fu Fesi ten ini wan Nyun ten

Knowledge of Former Days in a New Era, Active Involvement of the Enslaved and Their Descendants in Guarding Their Health

Marlyn . R. Aaron – Denz. MA.

[pic]

Van de bananenboom worden zowel vrucht bladeren en bast gebruikt als medicijn (the banana tree delivers fruit, leaves and bark for medicinal purposes)

Abstract

Migration can now days be regarded as a political controversial issue, as it was in the past (Chaudhary, A.R, 2016). The political and economic components refer to the cause and effects of the forced migration of black people from Africa to the Atlantic world. Diaspora and identity formation refers directly to the effects for both sides, by this I mean the enslaved Africans, their descendants wherever they are and the Europeans who maintain the system of slavery in Africa as well as in the America’s

In this paper I conduct research to the way in which slaves in Suriname managed to take sustainable preventive and curative actions to stay in “good shape" (physical and mental balance), how the knowledge transfer was and how current the approach to personal responsibility for health is for descendants today.

This paper is an eye opener to reflect on the discussion regarding the official acknowledgment and the process to commercialize the knowledge and expertise associated with the use of medicinal herbs in Suriname. Finally, I hope to contribute with this paper to the central theme of the conference linking the past to the future: how can we make a better future?

Introduction

Background of the paper

“So langa ede no fadon, a sa weri ati"

( As long as there's life there’s hope)

This Surinamese proverb fits well with the theme of the conference the legacy of slavery and the title of this paper, Na koni fu fesi ten ini wan nyun ten. It says a lot of the effort black people from the African continent, who had been enslaved, make to survive and construct a new life, with tools and strategies from Africa.

Koni refers to the knowledge, skills and wisdom black people developed and use in the African continent, to keep their life in balance physically, mentally and spiritually. It also refers to the use of knowledge and skills after have being held captive in the slave factories on the African coast, during the unwillingly voyage on the middle passage and after their arrival on the plantations in the America’s.

Fesi ten can be described as the first period in the life of the millions of black Africans, when they enjoyed their freedom in the African continent.

Nyun ten in the context of this paper is the period in time in which millions of black Africans and their descendants went through several stages in live; they have been held as slaves in the new world, They ran away from slavery, towards freedom. They get manumission, lived in apprentice ship, get emancipation and went to live all over the world.

In the new world there were also new circumstances. Fortunately responsibility for their own health was a familiar custom. Although it may be expected that those who disrupted the balance - the slave traders and the plantation owners - would take on this responsibility, for buying slaves was an expensive investment. The knowledge and expertise of enslaved people about the use of plants enabled them to nurture themselves, to heal and also to take preventive actions for their own wellbeing (physical, mental and spiritual) it enabled them to go through the process from despair to hope which they have passed on to their descendants and also committed to the welfare of those who have appealed to them. There can be no doubt about the active role of enslaves and their descendants in the prevention and control of diseases and the support of recovery processes.

The central question in this paper is: What contribution do slaves and their descendants deliver in maintaining and monitoring their health within their own culture group and on an intercultural basis?

Context of the paper

The conference is organized by the History Department of the Faculty of Humanities, the Institute for Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR) in collaboration with the Social Science Research Institute (IMWO) of the Anton de Kom University of Suriname and with support of several cultural organizations, the National Archives Suriname (NAS) and the Directorate of Culture.

The conference will present fresh views and new insights regarding the research of the legacy of slavery and indentured labor, by linking the past to the future. Migration, diaspora and identity formation are some key elements in this process.

This conference is organized in order to commemorate:

• the 165th anniversary of Chinese immigration

• the 155th anniversary of abolition of slavery

• the 145th anniversary of immigration of East Indians

• the 128th anniversary of immigration of Indonesians

• the 50th Anniversary of the Anton de Kom University of Suriname

Fesi ten

Mama bere na nengre sipi, a de tyari ogri nanga bun[1]

(Mother belly is like a slave ship that brings good and evil)

This proverb can be regarded as a clear visual spokes, when we look for the answer to the question about the origin of the knowledge and skills of enslaved in Suriname, concerning the use of plant material for food and medicinal purposes. The emphasis will be on the contribution of slaves to the introduction, cultivation and use of plant material in the New World.

Perceptions

By making a short study on the different perceptions within history and ethno botanic[2], some clarity can be brought about

• the agricultural and botanical knowledge and skills of Africans

• why the transport of plant material during the slavery period has received little attention

At the same time, studying perceptions also demonstrates what is revealed when sufficient attention is paid to the plant material on board of slave ships.

For decennia the impression is often awakened that the history of Africa and African people starts with the Triangular trade between Europe, Africa and the America’s in age 15th. The forced migration of African people, which last for three centuries was part of the trade, but cannot be seen as the beginning of their existence. Also the colonization and division of Africa by European countries in the second half of the 19th century does not tell us the real story of African people. Even the present image of Africa we see today, which refers to poverty, hunger, civil wars, refugees and requirement of massive infusion of charity to feed its people and manage their health does not tell the real story. The images mentioned says more about the modus operandi of Europe in the past and in present, but less about Africa and who African people really are.

The truth is, that in thousands of years before the Atlantic slave trade and the colonization Africa was well known as the cradle of mankind and civilization. African’s as well as their counterparts in Asia and the America’s participated fully in the agricultural revolution[3] that was taken place simultaneously around the world (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff, R.N. 2009:1).

They developed ways to manage flood, domesticate animals and plants, decides how manage the different types of soil to grow plants for food and/or medicinal use. Another explicit fact which has been undisputed for decennia, is that the triangular trade[4] does not mention the shipment of plant material. The question that can be asked is why little attention has been paid to this aspect over the years? By asking this question we come across the different views of ethno botanists.

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1Picture Trangular Trade

Ethno botanist from a European perspective stated that there is a very small chance that enslaved Africans could bring seeds or plants on board of slave ships and therefore their role in bringing plants to the Atlantic world is not significant. In their perception European navigators, man of science, colonists and the slave traders are the one responsible for the introduction of plants and seeds from Africa to the America’s. According to this approach the African’s who came to the Atlantic world by force also needed European instructions in order to participate in the agricultural process (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff. R, N. 2009 : 105-107) Finally we notice, that the supporters of the European perspective acknowledge the relationship between migration and the use of plants, when it concerns the Atlantic slave trade.

Ethno botanist from an Afro-Caribbean perspective stated that enslaves played a significant role in the introduction and cultivation of African plants to the Atlantic World. They argue that African Diaspora was one of plants as well as peoples; Africa’s botanical legacy traveled with its peoples and improved the sustenance of millions across vast intercontinental trading networks[5]. By study the post-Columbian era during the past fifty years, their understanding has been enriched by efforts to uncover hidden histories of plants, animals and peoples who were involved in the making of the Atlantic world. They were able to look beyond standard emphasis on commodities that dominates discussions of burgeoning Atlantic world to a new emphasis on subsistence which is to say, the everyday food that sustained the human beings willingly and un-willingly involved in that era’s economic expansion. Another important source of information came from narratives by enslaved and their descendants (Carney, J.A & Rosomoff. R.N,2009: 5).

The Afro-Caribbean perspective also reject the fact that there was a need for European instruction to participate in the agricultural process. They explain that many of the enslaves were plant gatherers and farmers when they live in Africa, so they came to the Atlantic world with their own skills and knowledge. They emphasize that new knowledge enslaves gain about plant and the use in the Atlantic world came from Amer-Indians (Carney, J.A & Rosomoff. R.N. 2009 :89)

This afro-Caribbean approach is an eye-opener for me, which reveals how Africans in Africa and the Atlantic world rely on nature to supply in their need for physical, mental and spiritual well- being. It also bring up the challenge to investigate how descendants of enslaved actually deal with these knowledge and the skills.

Between Africa and the America’s

Given the perspectives mentioned above, there are some interesting points to

take a closer look at:

• Why should either enslaved blacks or slave traders try to bring plants or seeds from Africa to the new world during the middle passage?

• What was the role of enslaves on board of the slave ships?.

A closer look shows similarities and difference between the motives of enslaved and slave traders. The similarity we recognize is, that both the enslaved people and the slave traders focus on the aspect of food during the middle passage, so we can say that it was a conscious act. The ability of Atlantic merchants to export slaves depended directly on their ability to feed them from the moment of purchase until they departed for the America’s. This requires a mind shift and focus on what was really going on during slave trade; Africans were forced on one hand to produce plants on plantations at the coast of Africa to supply food for captives, European slave traders and officials stationed at forts along the coast The slave traders knew that changing the food of the captives will lead to great loss. (Carney, J.A & Rosomoff, R. N. 2009:46)

This also explain what they were stowed as provisions on board of slave ships; meat, medicines, spices, lamp oil even flavoring to improve drinking water quality. Slave ships became the unwil-ling vessels of Africa’s botanical heritage by carrying seeds, tubers and the people who valued them to the Americas. It is almost certain, that captains of slave ships who purchased African food staples knew little of the crops with which they provisioned their vessels, much less the ways these unfamiliar foods were grown. Plant introduction owed their presence in slave food fields to Africans themselves, who took the initiative in planting their dietary preference from the leftover provisions that at times fortuitously remained from slave voyages (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff. R, N 2009:66) Focusing on the role of enslaves on board we notice that during the middle passages captive women were given tasks like, food preparation and working the corn mill on board of the ships.

This creates the opportunity to collect seeds, trunks, roots, leaves, and skin of tuberous, which they can use in the new world and also to exercise a skill related to a traditional task and techniques they knew from Africa (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff. R.N,2009: 72-75).

Women worked for 3-6 weeks on board, while captives allowed two daily meals during the voyage. Now we can see clear the relation between immigration, plants and culture, which helps generations of enslaved Africans to survive in the new world.

The differences are related to the second important activity which took place on the middle passage; Africans brought the medical use of plant material to the attention, when slave traders depend on their intervention in case there were outbreaks of diseases on board. The leaves and pulp of seed of the tamarind plant played an important role in combating sickness rely to the drinking of unhealthy water among slaves on board of ships. Other disease which outbreak among enslaved on board are; fever, flux dysentery, measles and worms (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff. R.N, 2009:70, 67, 75). Enslaves had knowledge to cure and prevent them. Another difference is the fact that after selling the Africans in the America’s the concerning’s about nutrition and health, due to the use of plant material was still very important for the enslaved but no longer for the slave trader.

Wan ogri tyari wan bun

(Something good can also come from the worst situation)

How have enslaved apply the knowledge and skills needed to feed and heal themselves in the Americas? What challenges have they faced in this process?

A closer look at the contribution of enslaved people in recognizing, domesticating and applying new types of plant material, shows a striking dichotomy in the process; a difference in the development of the maroons and the development of city and plantation slaves. After the sale of slaves was over, the journey began to the plantation where they will live and work. Once at the destination, enslaved and the plantation owner awaits so many new challenges. There was no instruction booklet on nutrition, what to do in case of illness, how to deal with physical and

mental effects of the shocking experience of being captured and transported during the middle passage. No instructions how to keep your mind and body in balance after the daily challenges of slave labor and everything that went with it.

To gain some insight into the answers that enslaved have found to the above mentioned challenges, I interviewed descendants of enslaved and again made use of information from the science of ethno botanic.

Questions posed by ethno botanist in this context;

• How the forced migration of these large numbers of Africans influenced their knowledge and use of plants?

• How did they adapt to the American environments that were unfamiliar to them?

Three strategies botanist came up with are:

- adhering to plants brought from the country of origin

- acquiring new plant knowledge

- substitution of homeland species with new ones from the host environment.

With the interviewees I took the living conditions of enslaved as a starting point and tried to determine what the most common possible challenges could have been in the area of food and health. For both maroons and plantation slaves we came to the following finding.

- Inadequate diet, fatigue both physically and mentally, homesick, low or high blood pressure, dizziness, headache, gastrointestinal complaints; obesity, diarrhea, fever, many skin disorders (vitamin deficiency), injuries, muscle aches, broken body parts and other infectious diseases.

- Risks for women before and after pregnancy, challenges with menstruation.

- Applying rituals at, birth and death.

Ethnobotanist reported about the living conditions and health status of slaves on the plantations;

• Surinamese slaves formed a very heterogeneous group. They were put to work on the sugar and coffee plantations, enduring severe privations: hard work, little food, brutal punishments and almost no medical care (Andel van, Tinde, 2015:1)

• A Saramaccan narrative linked to marronage; in slavery there was hardly anything to eat. It was a place called Providence Plantation. They whipped you……than they would give you a bit of plain rice in a calabash….. and the gods told them that is no way for human beings to live. They would help them. Let each person go where they could. So they ran (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff. R, N.2009:80)

This situation seems to apply generally wherever enslaved Africans were brought into the new world (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff. R, N.2009:80)

1561, Hispaniola; Africans were not only corporally maltreated, but have so much work that they do not sleep at night and likewise do not eat.

1667, French Caribbean; slaves received nothing save sufficient on plant food crops, and some other subsistence items.

1718, Danish West Indies; negroes were expected to raise all their own food, when the food supply ran short the masters gave them some low grade fish or defective Irish beef.

1740, St. Thomas; slaves received nothing from their masters in the way of food and clothing, except for a small plot of land at the outermost extremity of his plantation land that assigns to each slave.

The process of recognition

The first generation enslaved that was brought to the Americas, ended up in an environment where the plantations themselves were not yet entirely laid out by the plantation owners. Their first important mission was thus to contribute to the design of the plantations, by making forest and terrain operable and preparing them ready for planting. Therefore there was hardly any attention for the living and health conditions of the enslaved. So you can say, the responsibility for the preparation of the plantation and for their own well-being fully rested on their shoulders. On one hand the supply of new slaves and the construction of more and more plantations and on the other hand the care of the enslaves for their own welfare were part of a continuous processes until about the first half of the 19th century

Three strategies regarded to plant recognition;

• Ability to discover new plants in Suriname with the same characteristics as plants from their homeland. According to ethno botanists, recognition is possible because plants belonging to a certain plant family, wherever they occur in the world, are recognizable to insiders. The word insider endorses that the botanical knowledge of the enslaved was very accurate. Naming is also directly related to the recognition, for in naming of new world plants the same sound as in Africa can also be heard in a similar-like plant; predeku / pedreku in Sranan tongo is pechereku in Africa (Benin) and in Latin Xylopia aethipica. The application is the same in Africa and in Suriname (Andel van Tinde 2015:12). This strategy was applied by plantation slaves and maroons.

• System of identified trial and error; with plant species unfamiliar, poisoning during use is always a risk. Dr. T. van Andel (Oso,2010, 2e jrg:377) refers to a report by the naturalist Daniel Rolander from the 18th century, the system of identified trial and error was an important element in the process by which African slaves in Suriname discovered useful plants. In particular, the nearly impassable terrain, the rough forests force them to be very resourceful and seek nourishment from nature. And if the wandering black does not know how to make a proper selection [of forest fruits], his ignorance may cost him his life (Andel van, Tinde, 2015:7). This strategy was applied by maroons and plantation slaves.

• Exchange knowledge with indigenous people. By naming typical plants of indigenous knowledge, I have taken as starting point the challenges Maroons unquestionably had when they entered the jungle; for external use Maroons have learned to use koeswe to ward off insects, which could bother them on their search for a permanent stay in the dense jungle. To combat diseases such as fever they were taught to take a bath with Lantana camara (korsu wiwiri). Red cotton (redi katoen) leaves use as a beneficial steam bath, prepared for menstrual pain and religious purpose to calm down yorka’s (spirits of the dead). In a Mashed form red cotton was used against wounds. Red cotton for internal use; juice of young flower buds is dripped into the eye against eye inflammation, young fruit is squeezed out in the ear after heating.

Tea from leaves inhibits different inflammations. Application of Tobacco as a medicine against stomach pain and snake bites. From the leaves of the kapok tree they were taught to make bath to calm the tired body, also one could prepare a drink to counter gift. Among the plants that serve as food are maize, cassava, sweet potato, pineapple and sour bag (Mukaro Borero, R. 2018)

Challenge for the maroons.

Maroons had to build their villages and set up their own plots of land after the acquired knowledge and skills. They also applied the skills of hunting and fishing, which they had learned in Africa and from the indigenous. In this way they came to a well-balanced menu again. However, the construction of plots of land, also had a disadvantage. When maroons were being chased by troops from the government, the building plot became a sign of recognition that maroon villages are in the vicinity. The plots of land were destroyed without mercy in order to starve the maroons. Maroons therefore always had baskets of seeds and cuttings ready. When the signals that troops were on the way reached them, women were forwarded to other areas taking along the basket and the children. Always carrying with them the conditions to live. (OSO, 1983:180)

Recognize and domesticate on the plantation

The story of plantation slaves differs in a number of aspects from maroons. They did not have freedom, had to work exceptionally hard, and there was hardly any attention for their living and health conditions. Silvia de Groot mentions that despite regulations which obliges the master to take care, there was little or no provision for the adequate quantities of food, clothing, housing and care, there was no supervision of compliance in every aspect. (OSO, 1983:175)

The enslaved who stayed on the plantation was firstly heavily dependent on the little amount of plant material that had come from Africa and secondly to a large extent by recognizing new plant species from their well-known brands, which they often had to cultivate.

Another description show how little time the enslave on the plantation left to provide for their own food, or discovering and cultivating new plant species; They work until Saturday afternoon when they are allowed to dress their own gardens. Having nothing but a how (tyap) to produce from thence to live upon; unless perhaps their master vouchsafe them, as a great favor, a little rotten salt fish. Or if a cow or horse that or itself, they get roasted meat. Their lodging is a hard board and their black skins their own covering. These wretched miseries not seldom drive them to desperate attempt for the recovery of their liberty, endeavoring to escape (Carney, J. A & Rosomoff. R, N.2009; 109)

Although their chances of survival were downright bad, it is thanks to knowledge and skills tha they developed resilience to survive and even to generate life. Knowledge of Fesi ten enable them to cultivated plants that could thrive, did not need much care but were nutritious and well known. Some plants are; Yams, tuberous, rice, peas, okra, grasses and banana. Because of the condition of the soil and the location, construction and maintenance of their own garden also meant hard work. Yet they had advantages, plants they grow are beneficial for food and medicinal purpose, immediately ready to be used, the next harvest can be planned.

Application for medicinal use

Not every slave was involved in making medicine, in the beginning it was an underground activity. Once the plantation life had taken shape, tolerated policies were conducted by plantation owners when it concerned health of the enslaved. Old Negroes and Negresses were usually designated to fulfill a role as a healer among the enslaved. Richard Price (1990;5-7) refers to a slave named Lanu who arrived in one of the first cargo’s, he was recognized and given respect as a diviner and healer tinged with fear, it was well known among the other salves that he possesses an obia and an apuku (spirits of gods) .

Tolerance of the plantation owners met with opposition from church, and surgeons, the last were not able to serve all the sick and applied methods which were not desirable and unknown to the enslaves. Their knowledge of tropical diseases was in an experimental phase, so there was insufficient confidence. David Cohen Nassy a physician and plantation owner was dissatisfied with the knowledge of the enslaved traditional medicine; the best medicine or the most detailed observation of doctors is ruined when mixed with medicine from Negroes.

They play an important role with their herbs and so called healing methods, among Christians and Jews, despite the fact that they are being fooled by these quacks and the horrific ceremonies they hold in Suriname as prophets ( Andel van Tinde, 2015;2). From the corner of the church it was mainly criticism of idolatry and ceremonies.

While the church and doctors, as representatives of the colonial system refuse to acknowledge the medicinal practice of the enslaved, we notice that scholars shows interest; Among the oldest herbarium vouchers from Suriname, collected for German botanist Paul Hermann around 1687, there are two African food plants: sesame and okra. Both species are accompanied with Latin descriptions of their uses as food and medicine. These historical collections not only solidly prove the presence of African food crops in seventeenth-century Suriname, but also provide us with evidence that slaves continued their medicinal practices with familiar plants from their homeland in their new surroundings (Andel van, Tinde, 2015;8.)

Once the knowledge was gained by enslaves the practical application followed, often with the desired result. Within the slave community, this information was shared only with those who were eligible to continue the work. People outside the slave community were given very scarce or no information at all. The French physician and naturalist Philippe Fermen complains about this by stating that Slaves also refused to share their recipes with outsiders, ‘Many times I have visited several black slaves, who know a great number of these plants, but these people are so protective about their knowledge that I haven’t learned anything from them. I have never been able to persuade any of them, not with money, kind words or any other condition, to teach me something’ (Andel van, Tinde, 2015:3)

To demonstrate the knowledge and skills to apply medicinal plants, which were used simultaneously as food on the plantations, I pay extra attention to the banana plant in this paper. I study literature and take interviews ( Troon van , F) to gain information. According to Carney and Rosomoff (2009;112-116), the trunk of the banana tree was brought to the new world by slave ships and the tree stands for more than food and healing. It forms an essential connection between the African who is enslaved, his homeland and Africans in diaspora. By growing the banana tree, their chances of survival in America have become real.

Even after the abolition of slavery, and a few decennia later when descendants establish themselves as free migrants in Europe, the banana tree still means a lot for them.

Agricultural Characteristics; it is easy to maintain and you only plant once. After every harvest the sham stem will dry out and 4 to 6 new shoots emerge. From each tree you can count on a bunch of bananas after about 6 to 9 months. The whole family can be fed from such a bunch (depending on the type).

Food characteristics: Banana is prepared in different ways; cooked, roasted, dried and mashed. Usually the cooked banana is eaten in combination with other tuberous and salt fish (heri heri) or as soup. Roasted (Losi) banana is eaten at plantation or in the district on special occasions. Dried banana is crushed into banana flour after, made from porridge for babies, mashed as balls in soup. Banana is also prepared in different ways by other population groups.

Medical characteristics: As a medicinal plant many benefits of all parts of the banana tree are known, It is also called 'wonder tree'. It occurred on all costumes of the plantations, present day heirs and gardens. It is used for physical-, mental- and spiritual health. Parts of the banana tree are also used in combination with other medicinal herbs. To provide you with as much information as possible, I produce an overview of the knowledge, skills and application of the Musa paradisiacal. (Latin name) (see Appendix).

Application in ritual and spiritual practices

Rituals of Maroons (Mosis, Andre)

The Aukan rituals

Three bracts mixed with merki wiri, nengrekopoe and carpenter's chalk, boiled and then drunk. The pan in which the drink is cooked must not be on the ground, but must rest on a banana leaf roll. The decoction must run past a person in the woman's mouth. This ritual is used to prevent miscarriages. During pregnancy, the woman has to break banana leaves regularly to make sure the winti's are well-tuned, so that the pregnancy goes well.

The Saramaccan rituals

Winti priests in Cayenne still use the dungulali obia, a series of rituals with magical plants, smoke and chants. During this ritual a special tobacco is smoked which is made from leaves of the toto bana, a dark banana cultivator with sour taste. This ritual ensures that the medicine man can keep spirits of the dead separated from the living,

He also makes fighters inviolable for weapons or ensures that evil spirits stay away from patients or himself. Leaves of toto bana also end up in pratiwatra to ritually clean relatives after the death of their love ones. In the past, the saramaccan were not buried in a coffin but wrapped in cloths and then laid on banana leaves in the grave.

Rituals at plantation slaves

Cooked and raw bananas are an integral part in food offerings to gods and spirits in the winti religion. Food for winti’s is often served in banana leaves, according to the saying that the ancestors from Africa also ate from this. Banana leaves also occur in herbal baths for expelling evil spirits or yorkas (spirits of dead). Cooked and mashed bananas are kneaded into a ball and offered in soup to mother earth. The leba, the god of the crossroads - di e krin pasi - is often displayed as hanging with dry banana leaves. It is said that the leba sighs and stays under banana trees, so there is an urgent warning not to urinate or spit there (Mosis, Andre).

Diaspora en Africa

No sidon na bakra sturu fu seri yu nengre bangi[6]. 

Because in this paper the emphasis is on responsibility for health, this proverb is an appeal to all descendants of the enslaved to not forget their roots. At the same time it says something about the ongoing challenge with which they struggle. Among scholars and descendants awareness was raised about the knowledge and skills of enslaved; Bekend is eindelijk, dat negers vele kruiden tegen lepra gebruiken en toe dienen aan anderen. Ze hebben de gewoonte daarvan geheim te maken. Wenselijk ware het deze kruiden en andere middelen door de negers gebezigd te leren kennen en aan wetenschappelijk onderzoek te onderwerpen. De klasse zoude zich gaarne met dit onderzoek belasten. De klasse wil de mogelijkheid der genezing van lepra dus niet ontkennen. (verslagen over Lepra te Suriname, departement van koloniën 16-12-1847, 5-3-1851: 12,13).

According to F.van Troon (interview) Maroons use the medicinal plant blaka uma (diospyos) which grows long the river side to heal leprosy.  In 1722 enslaves were forced to check their health by western medicinal practice; hiertoe werd naast het hoofdgebouw van het militair hospitaal een "negerziekenhuis" gebouwd, waar schurft- en lepralijders in werden ondergebracht". (onderscheid moest er zijn), ,( J. de Bye )

Another successful practice of enslaves and descendants which also admires friend and foe, is the healing of bone fractures by the use of medicinal plants. According to van Troon, among the herbal healers there is a small group of initiates who are in the position to heal fractures. Patients must often refrain from some activities and spend a period in isolation together with the healer, while some operations are repeated during the process. (van Troon, F interview).

In an attempt to reinforce western medical practice, a law was passed in 1830, which determined that a population screening would take place among slaves and free people. In 1873 the govern-ment started to interfere more with the care of the sick and in 1879 district doctors were appoin-ted in Suriname under the authority of a medical inspector. These measures have led, to the fact that descendants became estranged from knowledge and skills of Fesi ten.

Around the sixties of the 20th century nationalism came into vogue in Suriname and Creoles took the lead. Their goal was to reassess their own, by focusing on culture experiences[7]; Sranang tongo and the winti religion in which the use of medicinal herbs is an important, has been strongly promoted. This process brought many descendants into a two-track attitude, also known as double consciousness in the Black Atlantic theory (Denz, Marlyn, R 2015: 6) In the seventies there was a mass migration to the Netherlands, some emigrants had a connoisseurs of traditional medicine, so the knowledge can also be spread there while new users will be added.

Diaspora

Although the issue of knowledge sharing would remain a challenge for a long time to come, we notice a breakthrough among descendants of enslaved in Suriname. There has been publications from a Surinamese perspective since 1972, knowledge sharing with ethnobotanists from Europe and recently on weekly base a TV program named, Sranan oso dresi, where several preparers of oso dresi shared knowledge with the community. Since these activities are not prohibited by the government, this can be noted as positive in the process of recognition. Also an increasing number of persons openly declare to go back to the roots by using oso dresi, alone or in combination with western medicinal practices.

A great advocate of recognition and application of traditional medicine in the 20th century is Heijnes Landveld. In anticipation of the recognition, he founded Odany Jewa, the green pharmacy, where he has spent decades researching the medicinal properties of herbs and leaves for various ailments and diseases. He also developed and applied herbal formulas for those who did not find credit in 'Western medicine'. On service outside the culture group, Landveld states; descendants of all ethnic groups belong to his clientele. It should be noted that all ethnic groups in Suriname have their own traditional healers, who offer not only physical but also mental and spiritual healing. They also indicate that they attract customers from all ethnic groups. In the context of this paper, this development can be considered favorable, as there seems to be little evidence of tension between traditional medicine and ethnicity. Landveld has provided lectures on traditional medicine in the region, but also in Latin America and Europe. He has been co-founder of the Caribbean Association of Researchers and Herbal Practitioners.( de Ware Tijd, 03/01/2018)

To gain information of development in diaspora I use different sources;

Research Commissioned by the Dutch government concerning the use of medicinal plants in the Netherlands among the Surinam population . It appear that Afro Surinamese are the largest group of users. They argue that familiarity with the use of the plants, the lower side effects and greater effectiveness than synthetic medicines motivate them.

The fact that faith in the winti religion strongly determines the use of oso dresi is interesting, because it does not restrains non winti believers to get engage with the knowledge and application of medicinal plants. Another outcome, which can be related to the aspect of commercialization is, that most users do not make the medication themselves; it is sold in the Netherlands ready to use buy Indian toko's, directly bought in Suriname, made by family members or traditional healers. Most people came into contact with a dresiman after visiting the annual kwakoe festival in Amsterdam-Zuidoost. A number of people indicated that they would also go to a dresiman in Suriname during their holidays. (Andel van, Tinde.2008; 4, 14-16.)

As it was in fosi ten, challenges are present in New ten (in diaspora); criticism from various sides in the Netherlands: (van Andel, Tinde, 2008; 18, 19).

The focus is more on traditional healers and partly on the unfamiliarity with the method of preparation.

• Beware of Surinamese healers, there are many scammers. They determine the choice of the patient and pick you bald

• Good dresi-man must be deep in the forest ', do not ask too much money and know the boundaries of their treatment method.

• Members of protestant churches stated that use of herbs and visiting traditional healers are related to afkodrei/idolatry and should be rejected. Herbs are accepted by their church, but healers do not, because they "dealt with diabolical practices

• Legislation; the Government of the Netherlands is keeping a close eye on the issue of traditional medicine and healers from Suriname and is trying to set limits for their activities through legislation[8]. Regular health care is generally rather cautious with regard to alternative medicine[9]. KNMG rejects all complementary and alternative therapies that are not performed by doctors. ().

Attempts by the government to restrict matters are clear and at the same time contradictory; it turns out to be a very lucrative business that brings money to the Netherlands. Every year about 55,000 kilos of medicinal herbs are sent to the Netherlands by parcel post. By this ambiguous policy traditional medicine, remains in the sphere of tolerated policy among descendants in diaspora. Despite all commercially operating Surinamese traditional healers working in the Netherlands (Andel van, Tinde .2008; 21.22) Interviews with creole and maroon women who sells medicinal plants in Suriname at the Kankantri market, confirms this lucrative trade. (Interviews) .They mentioned that majority is used for winti rituals, bitters and vaginal cleansing.

Regarding the comments on the traditional healers in the Netherlands, in Suriname these group is also being watch closely. F. Van Troon (interview) states that the approach of a money making business is against traditional rules. Landveld, however states that it is time for a business approach, at the same time healthcare must not get out of reach of those in need.

Feedback on Africa

When descendants of enslaved from Suriname visit Africa, it often concerns spiritual matters. They can be divided in three groups;

• Historians; Interesting in the slave road map

• Spiritual groups; interested in connection with the winti religion and reconciliation

• Tourist; visit Africa from a nostalgic point of view

It’s likely that the spiritual groups will show interest in medicinal plant for they are also related to the winti religion. Beyond all expectation a unique opportunity arose, when in October 2016, prince Ekue Leopold Messan, son of a traditional leader in the south of Togo conceived the plan for a symbolic transfer of a piece of land to the Surinamese Maroons. While studying in Holland, he met with Andre Mosis, a Surinamese Maroon and other friends. They exchange experiences of slavery. From both sides this gesture is considered to be a starting point for a process of forgiveness and reconciliations between the descendants. They literally get a foothold in West Africa again. Prince Euke also plans to visit Suriname.

Discussion points

• legislation and legalization

• structural knowledge transfer and exchange with western practices

• commercialization

Recommendation

To continue the attitude of responsibility

• Sharing knowledge in a structural, transparent and creative manner is necessary: nationwide annual organization of a Banana festival. Beside smaller regional festivals about other medicinal plants.

• Taking in consideration the process of commercialization; Supported by legislation we should find a middle way. As a nation we can save lot of money on one hand and earn money on the other hand; nationwide promotion to grow and use medicinal plants for ordinary matters

Conclusions

The role of enslaved Africans concerning the responsibility for their own food and health conditions was crucial, they:

- brought on board; knowledge and skills about plant material, food and health preparation

- still had knowledge, skills and several plant material when embarking the slave ship

- survived after arrival at the plantation, due to the knowledge and skills about agriculture, recognition, domestication and application of plants for food and medicinal use.

- were open to learn from indigenous people and were strong enough to build their forts and wise to always put plant material ready in case of threatening for survival of the next generation.

- dealt with traditional and western healing practices after abolition of slavery and decide each time what will be best to use for them.

- still depend on knowledge and skills of Fesi ten in diaspora and use them besides the western methods.

- serve other ethnic groups with their knowledge and skills on request.

- If descendants regain new interest and knowledge will be shared on structural base, they will be able to heal themselves and others in ordinary simple matters and attend initiates for specific matters.

References

(n.d.). Retrieved from )

(n.d.). Retrieved from .

(1847/1851). Retrieved from

(2018, 13). Retrieved from

Andel van Tinde. (2015). The Reinvention of Household Medicine by Enslaved Africans in Suriname. Retrieved from

Andel van Tinde. (n.d.). Ethnobotanical notes from Daniel Rolander’s.

Andel van Tinde, R. van Andela,b,1, Charlotte I. E. A. van ‘t Kloosterc, Diana Quiroza,d, Alexandra M. Townsa,b, Sofie Ruysschaerte, and Margot van den Bergf. (n.d.). Local plant names reveal that enslaved Africans recognized substantial parts of the New World flora. (F. S. Catherine, Ed.)

Bye, J. d. (n.d.). Over de geschiede-nis van 's Lands Hospitaal. Retrieved from

Carney J. A, & Rosomoff R.N. (2009). In &. R. Carney J. A, In the Shadow of slavery Africa's Botanical Legacy in the Atlantic world. Berkeley and Los Angeles California: University of California Press.

Chaudhary. (2016). Retrieved from

Denz, Marlyn.R. (2015). Nieuwe identiteit en Ontwikkeling naar een Autonome Status, Strategieen van gemanumitteerde vrouwen tussen 18323 n 1932. Paramaribo.

Dozier, B. (2010). Africa as the Cradle of Man and his Civilization. Retrieved from

Groot, d. S. (1983). Slaven en marrons. (KITLV, Ed.) Reacties op plantage systemen in de nieuwe wereld.

Heyde, H. (1990). Medicijn planten in Suriname (den dresi wiwiri foe Sranan). Paramaribo: Stichting Gezondheidsplanten informatie (SGI).

Hove, T., & Dragtenstein, F. (2007). Manumissies in Suriname 1832-1863. Paramaribo: Vaco Press.

Mukaro Borero, R. (2018). The Voice of the Taino People . Retrieved from ).

Price, Richard. (1990). Alabi’s World. London: John Hopkinsons university press.

Ruysschaert, A. v. (2014). Medicinale en rituele planten van Suriname. Paramaribo: Vaco Press.

Tinde, A. v. (2008). (R. FSB, Ed.) Oso dresi ini Bakra kondre. Retrieved from

Tinde, A. v. (2012). Ethnobotanical notes from Daniel Rolander’s.

Tinde, A. v. (2015). The Reinvention of Household Medicine by Enslaved Africans in Suriname.

(1847). Verslagen over Lepra te Suriname, departement van koloniën.

Interviews

➢ Van Troon.F. 23-3-2018

➢ Markt verkopers 23-3-2018 :

• Dollart, Alexandra

• Pique, Yvonne

• Mathilda

• Ismelda

• Patricia

|Bananenboom |Toepassing en bereiding |Doel |

|Jonge bladeren in combinatie met aftreksel |Drinken |Tegen diarree en dysentrie |

|jonge vruchten | | |

|Volgroeide bladeren |Drinken als thee |Urine uitdrijven Stimuleren van spijsvertering|

|In combinatie met Marfa bladeren trekken in | |Tegen gonoroe |

|heet water | | |

|2 gedroogde bladeren mengen met |Drank voor vrouwen |Om geboorte te bespoedigen |

|suikerrietwortel en drie pollen man grasi. | | |

|Samen op 1 liter gekookt water | | |

| | | |

|Gedroogde bladeren in combinatie met andere | | |

|kruiden | | |

| |kruidenbad |Om babies te laten aansterken en sneller te |

| | |laten lopen |

|Half verrotte bananen bladeren |Drank voor vrouwen, toe dienen via punt van |menstruatie te stoppen |

|gestampt met louisawiri, merkiwiri en gomawiri|een mes dat niet meer wordt gebruikt, herhalen| |

|in het schutblad van de bananenbloem |tot dat het stopt | |

|Bananen bladeren gestampt met morissi palm |Drank voor vrouwen |Tegen opgezwollen benen bij zwangerschap |

|bladeren koken | | |

|Bananen bladeren koken |Kruiden bad voor vrouwen |genitaliën stoombad |

|Bananen bladeren |Wikkelen in |tegen koorts |

|Schutblad van de bloem |als oogdruppel |tegen star, slecht zicht |

|Bevat water Trekken in heet water |als thee |tegen maagpijn, bij hart problemen |

| | | |

|De schijnstam van de boom |behandelen van wonden |bloeding laten stoppen |

|Kappen en het water opvangen |een lepeltje drinken |tegen bloederige diarree, buikpijn, |

| | |nierproblemen en pijnlijke urine lozing “tap |

| | |pisi” |

| | | |

|Mixen met aboma vet |smeersel bereiden en aanbrengen |herstel van verlamde lichaams-delen of bij |

| | |moeilijk te genezen wonden |

| | | |

|Omgevallen oude schijnstam |stampen tot moes en smeren |ontzield lichaam dat verstijfd is wordt weer |

| | |flexibel en geschikt voor bewerking |

| | |tegengift na slangen beet of op de wond smeren|

|Weefsel van de stam |stampen en drinken |nadat gift uit de wond is gezogen |

| | | |

|De schil van groene banaan |koken of laten verrotten, fijn stampen en |aan de voeten tegen voetschimmel |

| |smeren |op de plek waar ringworm steen puisten of |

| | |zweren voorkomen |

|De schil van rijpe banaan |Koken, als thee gebruiken |tegen |

| | |Hypertensie |

| | |lichte migraine |

|Wortels van de bananen boom |koken als thee gebruiken |tegen wormen |

2 Appendice overview of the knowledge, skills and application of banana

Bronnen; Carney, J and Rosomof, R (2009 ) van Andel, T en Ruysschaert,(2014 ) H. Heyde (1990 ) van Troon (2018 )

-----------------------

[1] forum gedichten-odo van de dag/83/mama1157/

Moeder weet om te gaan met goed en kwaad als het om haar kinderen gaat.

(moedersbuik is als een slavenschip, dat goed en kwaad met zich meebrengt)

[2] Ethno-botanica afgeleid van Etnobotanie is de studie van de relatie tussen planten en mensen. Het is afgeleid van 'etno' (studie van mensen) en 'botanie' (studie van planten). Etnobotanie wordt beschouwd als een onderdeel van de etnobiologie. Etnobotanie bestudeert de complexe relaties tussen (gebruik van) planten en culturen. Etnobotanie richt zich op hoe planten werden of worden gebruikt in menselijke samenlevingen en omvat planten gebruikt voor voeding, geneeskunde, voor de bouw, gereedschappen, geld, kleding, rituelen, sociaal leven en muziek

[3] Neolithische revolutie (circa 10.000 jaar geleden), die de basis zou gaan vormen voor de ontwikkeling van de menselijke sedentaire beschavingen. Deze revolutie wordt ook wel "de eerste landbouwrevolutie" genoemd.

[4] Triangular trade: the first leg of the triangle was the journey from Europe to Africa where goods were exchange for slaves. The second leg, or the middle leg of the journey was the transportation of slaves to the Americas. It was nicknamed’ the middle passage’. The third and final leg of the journey, was the transport of goods from the America back to Europe.

[5] Letterlijk vertaald: Zit niet op de blanke zijn stoel om daarna je "negerbankje" te verkopen 

Betekenis: Vergeet niet waar je vandaan komt/vergeet je roots niet

[6] Culture; the way groups of people are used to organizing their lives.

[7] Professional Examination Act in Individual Health Care (Wet BIG) 199 and Commodities Act Decree Herbal preparations

[8] kruiden (-extracten) die op de Nederlandse markt worden gebracht als geneesmiddel kunnen worden onderbouwd met objectieve (wetenschappelijke) gegevens. Bovendien staat er in dit besluit een lijst met planten die niet als kruidengeneesmiddel in Nederland mogen worden verkocht. T.v.a.2008;19 (overheid, gezondheidszorg versus natuurgeneeskunde

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