Attitude Formation Origins of Attitudes
[Pages:8]SocialPsychology
AttitudeFormation ? attitudesaredefinedasenduringsystemsofbeliefsthatcanbeexaminedonthreedifferentlevels:
? cognitive(howwethinkorreasonthroughanattitude) ? emotional(howwefeelregardinganattitude) ? behavioral(howweactonanattitude)
OriginsofAttitudes ? researchhasindicatedthereareseveralwaysinwhichweacquireattitudes ? oneofourearliestagentsofattitudeformationareourparents,laterfollowedbyourpeersand
themedia ? fourmajorsourcesofattitudeformationare:
? classicalconditioning:associatingbehaviorsandattitudesas"good"or"bad"(i.e.it'sgoodto tellthetruth,it'sbadtosteal)
? operantconditioning:beingrewardedorpunishedforbehaviorandattitudes(i.e.being praisedfortellingthetruthorbeingpunishedforstealingsomething)
? cognitiveappraisals:weighinglogicalargumentsindeterminingyourattitude ? observationallearning:learningattitudesthroughpeerbehaviorandthemedia
AttitudesandPersuasion ? mereexposureeffectthemoresomeoneisexposedtoanattitude,themorethatpersonwilllikeit (e.g.buyingthenamebranditembecauseyou'veseenlotsofcommercialsforit) ? centralroutepersuasion--deeplyprocessingamessage'scontent(e.g.whydoyoulikethis particularproduct) ? peripheralroutepersuasion--dealswithotheraspectsratherthanthecontent(e.g.likingthe spokespersonforaproduct)
Persuasion ? persuasionisanattempttochangeaperson'sattitudes ? researchhasindicatedthereareseveralkeycomponentsthatmakemessagesmorepersuasive,
thepersuasivecommunicatorandthepersuadedaudience.
PersuasiveMessage ? thepersuasivemessagehasseveralvariables:
? familiarity:messagesaremorepersuasiveifwearefamiliarwiththeproductorinformation ? repetition:themoreamessageisrepeated(especiallyifitiscomplex),themorepersuasiveit
is ? twosidedarguments:bothsidestoanargumentarepresented ? emotionalappeals:commercials,especially,aremorepersuasiveiftheyappealtotheemotions ? argumentsthatruncountertothecommunicator'sinterests:messagesthatseemtogoagainst
theinterestsofthepersonspeakingtendtobemorepersuasive
PersuasiveCommunicator ? thepersuasivecommunicatorstendsto:
? showexpertise ? betrustworthy ? beattractive ? besimilartotheaudience ? comefromhealthprofessions ? researchhasindicatedthatwhenfoodandmusicareaddedtomessages,theirpersuasiveness increases.
PersuadedAudience ? thepersuadedaudiencetendstohavetwocharacteristics:
? lowself-esteem:lowsenseofself-worth ? highsocialanxiety:ahighneedtofitintosociety
ComplianceStrategies ? footinthedooreffect--aftergettingsomeonetoagreetoasmallrequestyoufollowupwitha
largerrequest ? footinthefaceeffect--afterhavingsomeonedenyalargerequest,youfollowupwithasmaller
request ? normsofreciprocity--afterdoingsomethingniceforsomeone,youexpectthemtoreciprocate
LeonFestinger:CognitiveDissonance ? thetheoryofcognitivedissonanceisproposedbyLeonFestinger ? Festingerstatesthatwhenwehavetwocontradictorybeliefswefeelanxiety ? forexample,weknowhowtofixourcarbutwebringittoamechanictofix--wewillattemptto
reduceouranxiety,calleddissonancereduction,bycomingupwithareasonforouractions ? wemightjustifythemechanicworkingonourcarbecausewe"don'thavethepropertools"or
"don'thavethetimetofixit" ? cognitivedissonancealsooccurswhenourthoughtsandbehaviorsareinconsistent
? apersonknowssmokingcigarettesisbadforhishealthbutsmokesthemanyway;hemay rationalizethisbysaying"he'snotsmokingthatmuch"or"evidenceiscontradictoryonthe effectsofsmokingonhealth"
? cognitivedissonancealsooperatesontheideathat"yougetwhatyoupayfor" ? thethinkingthatsomethingthatcostsmoremustbeofhigherqualityexplainsthis ? theideabehindthisisthemoreyoumustgiveupforsomething(money)themorevaluableit mustbe(higherquality)
? patronsatamoviematineewillmorelikelyratethemovieasmoderatelyentertainingwhereas patronsataneveningperformancewillrateitsignificantlyhigherorlowerbecausethey'vepaid moreforthemovie BalanceTheory
? balancetheoryisalsousedtoexplainourattitudesandanxietyrelatedtopeopleweknow.There arethreepossiblestatesinbalancetheory: ? balance:whensomeonewelikeholdsthesameattitudesaswedo ? imbalance:whensomeonewelikeholdsacontradictoryattitudetoours ? nonbalance:whensomeonewedon'tlikeholdsacontradictoryattitudetoours
InGroup/OutGroupDynamics
? Ingroupandoutgroupdynamicsaretiedtodiscrimination ? Peopletendtoseemembersoftheirowngroup(ingroup)asmorediversethanmembersofother
groups(outgroup) ? Outgrouphomogeneity--outgroupmembersareseenasessentiallyallthesame ? Ingroupbias--peopleprefermembersoftheirowngroup;theyseethemselvesasbasicallygood
people
InterpersonalAttraction ? studiesconductedamongcollegestudentshaveindicatedthatthenumberonethingmaleslook
forinalong-terminterpersonalrelationshipislooks ? thenumberonethingfemaleslookforispersonality ? proximity,orthephysicalclosenessofonepersontoanother,isthemostimportantcharacteristic,
accordingtoresearch
OtherFactorsinAttraction ? thereareseveralotherfactorsinvolvedininterpersonalattraction:
? attitudinalsimilarity:researchsuggestswearemoreattractedtopeoplewhosharethesame attitudesaswedo
? the"RomeoandJuliet"effect:earlyinarelationship,parentaldisapprovalcanactuallyintensify feelingsofinterpersonalattraction
? propinquity:attractionislikelytodevelopbetweenpeopleincloseproximitybecausetheywill seemoreoftheotherperson'sinnerqualities
? playinghardtoget:playinghardtogetisactuallyseenasanundesirableattitude;devotional behavior,orchannelingattentiontoonlyoneperson,isseenasmostdesirable BodyLanguage
? bodylanguagehasbeenstudiedwithvaryingresults ? mostresearchindicatesthattheeyescanexpresswhensomeoneispayingattentionorlying ? crossedarmsandlegscanbesignsofdefensiveness ? rapportingistheunconsciousactofmirroringthebodypostureofsomeoneyou'retalkingto;if
youcrossyourarms,thepersontalkingtoyoumaydothesamething
PersonalSpace ? personalspaceistheimaginaryareawekeeparoundourselvestobecomfortableinvaryingsocial
situations ? therearefourlevelstopersonalspace:
? intimatedistance:contactto18inches,thespacewereserveforintimaciesandlovedones ? personaldistance:18inchesto4feet,thespacewehavearoundusinmostsocialsettingsat
school(e.g.thedistancebetweenastudentandthestudentsittingnexttothem) ? socialdistance:4to7feet,thespacewehavearounduswhenwe'reoutinpublicplaces,like
themall ? publicdistance:7feetandgreater,thespacebetweenusandperformersatpublicevents(e.g.
concerts,lectures) ? researchhadindicatedtherearebothculturalandgenderdifferencesintheparametersof
personalspace
AttributionTheory ? dispositional(orperson)attribution--attributingactionstopersonalfactors ? situationalattribution--attributingactionstoexternalorenvironmentalfactors ? stableattribution--conditionsthatarealwayspresent ? unstableattribution--conditionsthatarenotstableandmaybeoccasionalorintermittent ? thesemaybecombined:
? situationstable--aclassisconsideredhard ? personunstable--aclassmatemayhavegottenagoodgradeonanexambecausetheystudied
extrahardforit
? attributiontheoryexamineshowweattributethesourceofouractions ? defensiveattributionisthetendencytoattributeoursuccessestoourownefforts (dispositional)andourfailurestoexternalfactors(situational) ? fundamentalattributionerroristhetendencyofpeopletooveremphasizepersonalcausesfor otherpeople'sbehavior(dispositional)andunderemphasizepersonalcausesfortheirown behavior(dispositional) ? fundamentalattributionerrorislesslikelytooccurincollectivistculturesthaninindividualist cultures AdditionalFactorsinAttributionTheory
? falseconsensuseffectthetendencytooverestimatethenumberofpeoplewhoagreewithyou ? selfservingbias--thetendencytotakemorecreditforgoodresultsthanbadresults
? justworldbias--thetendencytobelievethatgoodthingshappentogoodpeopleandbadthings happentobadpeople ? theassumptionisthatbadthingshappeningtopeoplearedeservedbecausetheymustbebad people HaroldKelley
? believespeoplemakeattributionsbasedonthreekindsofinformation ? consistency--howanindividualactsinthesamesituationovertime
? importantindeterminingwhethertomakeastableorunstableattribution ? distinctiveness--howthesituationtheindividualisplacedinisdifferentfrommorecommon
situations ? consensus--howsimilarotherswouldrespondinthesamesituation
? importantindeterminingwhethertomakeadispositionalorsituationalattribution
AttributionandPrejudice ? basedonattributiontheory,individualsmaydeveloppreconceivedideasaboutsomeoneelse ? thismayaffectthewaytheyvieworacttowardtheotherperson ? theseexpectationsmaycauseindividualstochangethewaytheyact ? theselffulfillingprophesyisthischangeinbehaviorduetotheinfluenceofhowothersviewthe
individual
Stereotypes ? stereotypesaredefinedasacollectionofideassomeonehasaboutanotherindividualorgroup
thatinfluenceshowtheyinteractwiththem ? stereotypescanbebothpositiveandnegative ? cognitivepsychologistsbelievestereotypesareschematawedevelopregardinggroups
PrejudiceandDiscrimination ? prejudiceisdefinedasanunwarranted,usuallynegativeattitudetowardagroup ? stereotypingcanleadtoprejudice ? ethnocentrism--thebeliefthatone'sowncultureisbetterthanothers ? discrimination--actingonone'sprejudice ? individualsseetheirowngroup(in-group)asbeingmorediversethanothergroups(out-groups)- -calledoutgrouphomogeneity ? individualswillprefermembersoftheirowngroupsthanthoseofothergroups--calledingroup bias ? individualsmayexercisetwodifferenttypesofaggressivebehaviorsinresponsetoprejudiceand discrimination ? instrumentalaggression--directedtosecuresomepurposeorparticularend ? hostileaggression--hasnotclearobjective ? therearevarioustheoriesabouttheoriginsofaggression: ? Freud--linkedtothethanatos ? Sociobiologists--anadaptationtocertaincircumstances ? Frustrationaggressiontheory--aresponsetoincreasedfrustration ? Sociallearning--exposuretoaggressionfostersaggression
ReducingPrejudiceandDiscrimination ? contacttheorycontactbetweenin-groupsandout-groupswillinevitablyreduceanimosity ? typicallybothgroupsworkonacommongoalthathascommonbenefitstoall--calleda subordinategoal ? thisisthetheorybehindmostcooperativelearningactivitiesinschoolsandbusinesses
SolomonAsch:Conformity ? thetwolandmarkstudiesonconformityandobediencewereconductedbyAschandMilgram,
respectively. ? conformityisdefinedasvoluntarilyyieldingtosocialnorms,evenattheexpenseofone'sown
preferences ? SolomonAschconductedanexperimentinwhichsubjectswereaskedtocomparethelengthsof
lines ? confederates,orsubjectsinontheexperiment,purposelygavewronganswerstoseeifthetest
subjectswouldconform
? severalvariablesthatwouldincreasethelikelihoodthatthesubjectswouldconformwerefound: ? subjectswouldconformuptotheadditionoffourconfederates;afterthattheincidenceof conformitystayedaboutthesame ? theserialposition(whentheywereaskedtheiranswer)mattered,theclosertothebeginning ofthegroupwouldyieldlessconformitythanbeingaskedtowardtheendofthegroup ? ifconfederateswereunanimousintheiranswers,moreconformitywouldtakeplace;ifone confederateprovidedadifferentanswer,morenonconformitywouldtakeplace ? themoreambiguouswastaskwas,themorelikelyconformitywouldtakeplace ? ifthesubjecthaslowself-esteemorfeltnotascompetentasothersinthegroup,more conformitywouldtakeplace StanleyMilgram:ObediencetoAuthority
? obedienceisdefinedasachangeinbehaviorinresponsetoacommandfromanotherperson, typicallyanauthorityfigure
? StanleyMilgramconductedanexperimenttotestasubject'slikelihoodtoobeyanauthorityfigure ? Milgramaskedstudentsdodeliverelectricshockstosubjectswhoansweredincorrectlyona
seriesofquestions ? theywereflipswitchesonamechanicalboxthatindicatedeachsubsequentswitchdelivereda
slightlyhighershock ? thelastfewswitchesindicatedthatthevoltagewassevere ? hefoundthat65%ofthesubjectswouldobeyhisrequeststoshockthesubjectsintheotherroom
(who,ofcourse,weinontheexperimentasconfederatesandwerenotgettingshocked)
? severalvariableswereidentifiedbeforeMilgramwasforcedtoshutdownthishighly controversialexperiment
? wearemorelikelytoobeywhen ? weperceivethefigurerequestingweobeyasanauthority ? wearefarremovedfromthepersonweareinflictingpainon(e.g.it'seasiertobreakupwith someoneoverthephone) ? theactissharedbyothers(diffusionofresponsibility) ? theauthorityfigureispresent(e.g.whenMr.Sisman'scomesouttochecktoseeifpeople outsideareworking) GroupBehavior
? socialfacilitationhasbeenseeningroupbehavior ? wetendtospeedupouractionswhenothersarepresent ? runnerstendtorunfasteringroupsthanindividually ? animalsrunninginpacksthentorunfasterthanindividually
? socialloafingoccurswhenthepresenceofothersslowsdownouractions ? evaluationapprehensionisthefearthatothersareevaluatingourbehaviors
? themostcommoninstanceofthisisfearofpublicspeakingbecauseothersarefocusingonthe mistakesandmannerismswemakeratherthanthecontentofourspeech
? groupthinkthetendencyofgroupstomakebaddecisionsbecauseindividualmembersaresilent abouttheirreservations
? highly-cohesivegroupsmakingriskydecisionsaremostsusceptibletothis ? ingroupdecisionmaking,polarizationtendstooccur
? thismeansthatgroupswilltendtoeithermakeextremelycautiousorextremelyrisky decisions,whereasindividualsactingalonewilltendtobemuchmoreconservativeintheir decisionmaking
? morelikelythannot,groupswilltendtopursuetheriskiercourse;thisiscalledriskyshift ? thereasonthisoccursiscalleddiffusionofresponsibility,ortheideathatresponsibilityis
sharedbythegroupratherthanjustoneindividual ? ingroups,individualscangetsocaughtupinthe"groupmentality"thattheycanloseasenseof
selfandpersonalresponsibility;thisiscalleddeindividuation ? highly-cohesivegroupsmakingriskydecisionsaremostsusceptibletothis
? PhilipZimbardofamousprisonexperimentdealtwithdeindividuationbutalsotheeffectsofroles andthesituation
? thestudywasconductedatStanfordUniversity--studentsrole-playedguardsorprisoners ? theexperimenthadtobeendedearlybecauseofthecrueltreatmentbytheguards
LeadershipStyles ? therearebasicallythreetypesofleadershipstyle:
? autocraticisastyleinwhichthegroupleadermakesallthedecisions ? democraticisastyleinwhichmembersofthegroupprovideinputtotheleaderinmaking
decisions,oftenbasedonmajorityvote ? laissezfaireisastyleinwhichthegroupisallowedtopursuewhatevercourseitwants;there
isageneralabsenceofautocraticordemocraticleadership
TypesofPower ? leadersinagroupcanwieldoneormoreoffivetypesofpower:
? expertpoweroccurswhentheleaderisperceivedasanexpertinthefield ? legitimatepoweroccurswhentheleaderhasonofficialpositionthatgiveshimorher
statutoryorperceivepower ? referentpoweroccurswhenaleaderiswell-likedbythegroup ? rewardpoweroccurswhentheleadercanbestowbenefitsorrewardstogroupmembers ? coercivepoweroccurswhentheleadercanpunishgroupmembers
AltruisticBehavior ? the1964rapeandmurderofKittyGenovese,wherenearly40peoplewitnessedwhatwas happeningyetnoonecalledthepolice,haspromptedsocialpsychologiststounderstandthe parametersofhelpingbehavior ? witnessesoftheGenovesekillinginNewYorksaidtheydidn'tresponsebecause: ? theythoughtsomeoneelsewouldgetinvolved ? theydidn'twanttogetinvolved
ProsocialBehavior:TheHelper ? researchindicatesthefollowingregardinghelpingbehavior: ? thehelper:wetypicallyhelpwhen... ? weareinagoodmood ? wehaveempathyforthevictim ? weareNOThighlymasculine(highlymasculinehelpersfearpotentialembarrassmentifthey can'tsuccessfullyhelp) ? wefeelassenseofpersonalresponsibility ? wepossessthebehavioralcompetencytohelp
? thevictim:Individualsaremorelikelytobehelpediftheyare... ? female ? attractive ? alone ? similartothehelper
? situationaldeterminants:Wearemorelikelytohelpif...
? wefullyunderstandwhatweareseeing ? therearenootherbystandersaround ? weareacquaintedwiththevictim ? theenvironmentisfamiliartothehelper
EnvironmentalPsychology ? variousstudiesontheeffectsofnoisehavebeenconductedonchildrenwholiveinthelanding patternsofmajorairportsandonthelowerlevelsoftenementhousingalongbusystreetsincities ? resultsindicatethatthesechildrensufferfrom: ? morestress ? morehearingloss ? deficitsinlearningandmemoryability ? studiesdoneatloudclubsanddiscoshaveshownthatwhennoiselevelsexceed80decibels, feelingsofinterpersonalattractionstarttodecreaseandcoupleincreasethespacebetweenthem
JohnCalhoun:DensityandCrowding ? JohnCalhounisknownbestforhisstudiesondensityandcrowding ? hecreateda"ratuniverse"inwhichratswereallowedtoreproduceuntiltheircontainer,or "universe"becamecrowded ? henotedseveralformsofaberrantbehavior: ? mortalityraterose ? thefamilystructurebrokedown ? packsofdelinquentmaleratswouldterrorizeothersinthecontainer CrowdinginHumanEnvironments ? studiesofdensityandcrowdinghavealsobeenconductedinhumanenvironments ? prisonersatcrowdedprisonsshowhigherbloodpressure,ahighermortalityrateandmore mentaldisorders ? studentsincrowdedcollegedormitoriesshowlesssatisfactionwiththeirroommateandtendto withdrawmorefromsocialinteraction ? thetriplingeffecthasalsobeenobservedinsomedormroomsituations;whenthreestudents roomtogether,afriendshipcandevelopbetweentwoofthemandtheirthirdwillfeelostracized orleftout ? researchoncitydwellershasfoundthattheytendtoshakehandsless,theydonothelpstrangers andtheytendtoplanahead,especiallywhenwalking,toavoidpotentialdangers
Industrial/OrganizationalPsychology ? EltonMayoconductedthefirstexperimentsduringthe1920stodetermineifincreasingthe
lightingintheWesternElectricHawthorneplantwouldincreaseproductivity ? resultsindicatedanychangesinthelighting,highorlow,increasedproductivity,butnot
becauseofthelighting ? workersknewtheywerebeingobservedandincreasedtheirproductivityasaresultofbeing
watched ? theHawthorneeffectistheprinciplethatpeoplewillaltertheirbehaviorbecauseofresearchers'
attentionandnotnecessarilybecauseofanytreatmentcondition
? furtherresearchhasadvancedtheunderstandingofworkorganizations.Resultsofstudieshave found: ? workerswhoemployavarietyofskillsonthejobaremorelikelytoviewtheirjobsas meaningful,showincreasedmotivationandhavemoresatisfactionwiththeirjob ? workerswhoaremoreautonomousperceivetheirjobsasentailingmoreresponsibilityand producehigherqualitywork ? small,cohesiveworkgroupsaremoreproductivethanlarge,impersonalones--employers havemovedfromassemblyline ? workerstoautonomousworkgroupswhoproduceanentireunit--thishasledtogreater workersatisfaction,higher-qualityoutputanddecreasedabsenteeism
? researchoncommunicationandresponsibilityhavefound: ? centralizedcommunicationschemesworkbetterinsolvingsimpleproblemswhilesolving complexproblemsrequireslesscentralizationwithmembersfreelycommunicatingamong themselves ? assigningkeydecisionstoworkgroupsimprovessatisfactionwiththeoutcomeandtheir membershipinthegroup ? increasingthenumberofpeoplewhoparticipateindecisionmakingdoesnotleadto increasedproductivity
APCheck APstudentsinpsychologyshouldbeabletodothefollowing: ? Applyattributiontheorytoexplainmotives(e.g.fundamentalattributionerror,self-servingbias). ? Describethestructureandfunctionofdifferentkindsofgroupbehavior(e.g.deindividuation,
grouppolarization). ? Explainhowindividualsrespondtoexpectationsofothers,includinggroupthink,conformity,and
obediencetoauthority. ? Discussattitudesandhowtheychange(e.g.centralroutetopersuasion). ? Predicttheimpactofthepresenceofothersonindividualbehavior(e.g.bystandereffect,social
facilitation). ? Describeprocessesthatcontributetodifferentialtreatmentofgroupmembers(e.g.in-group/out-
groupdynamics,ethnocentrism,prejudice). ? Articulatetheimpactofsocialandculturalcategories(e.g.gender,race,ethnicity)onselfconcept
andrelationswithothers(pp.743748). ? Anticipatetheimpactofbehavioronaselffulfillingprophecy. ? Describethevariablesthatcontributetoaltruism,aggression,andattraction. ? Discussattitudeformationandchange,includingpersuasionstrategiesandcognitivedissonance. ? Identifyimportantfiguresinsocialpsychology(e.g.SolomonAsch,LeonFestinger,Stanley
Milgram,PhilipZimbardo.
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