Human Physiology



Human Physiology

Bio 342

Objectives: Student should be able to…..

Chapters 1 and 7

Tissues, Organs, and Control Systems and Homeostatsis by Negative Feedback

*Describe, in a general way, the topics studied in physiology and the importance of physiology in modern medicine.

*List the four primary tissues and their subtypes and describe the distinguishing features of each primary tissue.

*Describe how the primary tissues are organized into organs, using the skin as an example.

*Define homeostasis and describe how this concept is used in physiology and medicine.

*Explain the nature of negative feedback loops and how these mechanisms act to maintain homeostasis.

*Explain the nature of positive feedback loops and how these function in the body.

*Explain how negative feedback inhibition helps to regulate the secretion of hormones, using insulin as an example.

Chapter 8

The Nervous System: Organization, Electrical Activity, and Synaptic Transmission

*Describe the parts of a neuron and their functional significance.

*Describe the anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous system.

*Describe the locations and functions of the different types of neuroglial cells.

*Describe the blood-brain barrier and explain its significance.

*Describe the sheath of Schwann and explain how this sheath helps the regeneration of cut peripheral nerve fibers.

*Explain how a myelin sheath is formed.

*Define depolarization, repolarization, and hperpolarization.

*Explain the actions of voltage-regulated Na+ and K+ gates and the events that occur during the production of an action potential.

*Describe the properties of action potentials and explain the significance of the all-or-none law and the refractory periods.

*Explain how action potentials are regenerated along a myelinated and a nonmyelinated axon and explain why saltatory conduction improves the conduction speed of nerve impulses.

*Describe the events that occur between the electrical excitation of an axon and the release of neurotransmitter.

*Describe how ACh stimulates a postsynaptic cell.

*Describe the characteristics of an EPSP and compare these characteristics to those of an action potential.

*Compare the mechanisms that inactivate ACh and catecholamine neurotransmitters.

*Explain the nature and significance of the inhibitory effects of glycine and GABA in the central nervous system.

*Explain how EPSPs and IPSPs can interact and explain the significance of spatial and temporal summation.

*Describe the processes of presynaptic inhibition and post-tetanic potentiation.

The Central Nervous System

*Describe the location of the major brain regions and the structures contained in each of these regions.

*Describe the organization of the cerebrum and the primary roles of it lobes.

*Describe the location and function of the sensory cortex and motor cortex.

*Explain the lateralization of functions in the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

*Identify the structures involved in the control of speech and explain their interrelationships.

*Describe the structures involved in the limbic system and explain the possible role of this system in emotion.

*Identify the location of the thalamus and explain its significance.

*Identify the location of the hypothalamus and explain its significance.

*Describe the locations and structures contained in the midbrain and hindbrain, and the particular importance of the medulla oblongata in the control of visceral functions.

*Explain the organization of the spinal cord and how ascending and descending tracts are named.

*Describe the origin, pathways, and significance of the pryamidal motor tracts.

*Explain the role of the basal ganglia and cerebellum in motor control by means of the extrapyramidal system, and describe the pathways of this system.

*Explain the structures and pathways involved in a reflex arc.

The Autonomic Nervous System

*Compare the structures and pathways of the autonomic system with those involved in the control of skeletal muscle.

*Explain how autonomic innervation of involuntary effectors differs from the innervation of skeletal muscle.

*Describe the structure of the sympathetic division of the autonomic system and the general functions of this division.

*Describe the structure of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic system and the general functions of this division.

*Indicate the neurotransmitters of the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

*Describe the structural and functional relationships between the sympathetic system and the adrenal medulla.

*Distinguish between the different types of adrenergic receptors, indicate their anatomic locations, and explain the physiological and clinical significance of these receptors.

*Explain how the cholinergic receptors are divided into two categories and describe the effects produced by stimulation of these receptors.

Chapter 9

Sensory Physiology

*Describe the different categories of sensory receptors and explain the differences between tonic and phasic receptors.

*Explain the law of specific nerve energies.

*Describe the characteristics of the generator potential.

*Describe the different types of cutaneous receptors and the neural pathways for the cutaneous senses.

*Explain the concepts of receptive fields and lateral inhibition.

*Describe the sensory physiology of taste and olfaction.

*Describe the structure of the vestibular apparatus and explain how it provides information about acceleration of the body in different directions.

*Describe the functions of the outer and middle ear.

*Describe the structure of the cochlea and explain how movements of the stapes against the oval window result in vibrations of the basilar membrane.

*Explain how the organ of Corti converts to mechanical energy into nerve impulses, and explain how pitch perception is accomplished.

*Describe the structure of the eye, and how images are brought to a focus on the retina.

*Explain how visual accommodation is achieved, and explain the defects involved in myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism.

*Describe the architecture of the retina, and the pathways of light and nerve activity through the retina.

*Explain how rhodopsin functions as the visual pigment in rods and explain dark adaptation.

*Explain how light affects the electrical activity of rods and their synaptic input to bipolar cells.

*Explain the trichromatic theory of color vision.

*Describe the differences in synaptic connections and locations of rods and cones, and explain the differences in function between rods and cones.

*Describe the neural pathways from the retina, explaining the differences in pathways from different regions of the visual field.

*Describe the receptive fields of ganglion cells and explain the significance of the arrangement of those receptive fields.

*Explain the stimulus requirements of simple, complex, and hypercomplex cortical neurons.

Chapter 10

Endocrine Glands: Secretion and Action of Hormones

*Define the terms hormone and endocrine gland, and describe how chemical transformations in the endocrine gland or target cells can activate certain hormones.

*Describe the different chemical classifications of hormones.

*Explain how different hormones can exert synergistic, permissive, or antagonistic effects.

*Describe the parts of the pituitary gland and the relationship between the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.

*List the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary and explain the origin of these hormones and how the hypothalamus regulates their secretion.

*List the hormones of the anterior pituitary and explain how their secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus.

*Describe the production and actions of the thyroid hormones and explain how thyroid secretion is regulated.

*Describe the location of the parathyroid glands and explain the actions of PTH and how secretion of this hormone is regulated.

*Describe the types of actions of corticosteroids produced by the adrenal cortex and explain how the secretions of the adrenal cortex are regulated.

*Describe the actions of epinephrine and norepinephrine, secreted by the adrenal medulla, and explain how the secretions of the adrenal medulla are regulated.

*Explain why the pancreas is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland and describe the structure and functions of the islets of Langerhans.

*Describe the actions of insulin and glucagon and explain how secretions of these hormones are regulated.

*Describe the mechanisms of hormone action in the case of steroid and thyroid hormones.

*Explain how the concentrations of a hormone in the blood are regulated and how the effects of a hormone are influenced by its concentration.

*Define what is meant by autocrine regulation, and identify the chemical nature and physiological roles of the prostaglandins.

Chapters 11 & 12

Muscle: Mechanisms of Contraction and Neural Control

*Describe the gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscles.

*Describe the all-or-none contraction of skeletal muscle fibers and explain how muscles can produce graded and sustained contractions.

*Distinguish between isometric and isotonic contraction.

*Describe how the series elastic component affects muscle contraction.

*Define a motor unit, explain how motor units vary, and explain how the motor units are used to control muscle contraction.

*Describe the structure of sarcomeres and of myofibrils and explain how this structure accounts for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle fibers.

*Explain the sliding filament theory of contraction.

*Explain the events that occur during cross-bridge cycles and the role of ATP in muscle contraction.

*Explain the physiological roles of tropomyosin and troponin and the role of Ca++ in excitation-contraction coupling.

*Describe how action potentials in a nerve and muscle fiber affect the contractile mechanism and explain the role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction and relaxation.

*Describe the structure and functions of muscle spindles and explain the mechanisms involved in a stretch reflex.

*Explain the function of Golgi tendon organs and explain why a slow, gradual muscle stretch might avoid the spasm that could be caused by a rapid stretch.

*Explain reciprocal innervation and describe the neural pathways involved in a crossed-extensor reflex.

*Describe the significance of gamma motoneurons in the neural control of muscle contraction and in the maintenance of muscle tone.

*Describe the neural pathways involved in the pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems.

*Explain the function of phosphocreatine in muscles.

*Explain the differences in structure and function between slow-twitch, fast-twitch, and intermediate fibers.

*Explain how muscles fatigue and what changes occur in muscle fibers in response to physical training.

*Compare the structure and physiology of cardiac muscle with that of skeletal muscle.

*Describe the structure of smooth muscle, and explain how its contraction is regulated.

Chapter 14

Heart and Circulation

*Describe the composition of blood plasma and the classification of the formed elements of the blood.

*Explain the meaning and significance of the blood types.

*Explain how a blood clot is formed and how it is ultimately destroyed.

*Describe the path of the blood through the heart and the function of the atrioventricular and semilunar valves.

*Describe the structures and pathways of electrical impulse conduction in the heart.

*Explain the electrical activity in the sinoatrial node and why this tissue functions as the normal pacemaker of the heart.

*Relate the time involved in the production of an action potential to the time involved in the contraction of myocardial cells and explain the significance of this relationship.

*Describe the pressure changes that occur in the ventricles during the cardiac cycle and relate these changes to the action of the valves and the flow of blood.

*Explain the origin of the heart sounds and describe when these sounds are produced in the cardiac cycle.

*Explain the cause of each wave in an electrocardiogram and relate these waves to other events in the cardiac cycle.

*Compare the structure of an artery and vein and explain how the structure of each type of vessel relates to its function.

*Describe the structure of capillaries and explain how this structure aids the function of these vessels.

*Explain the nature and significance of atheroscleosis and describe how this condition may be produced.

*Describe the components and functions of the lymphatic system.

*Describe some common arrhythmias that can be detected with an ECG.

Cardiac Output, Blood Flow, and Blood Pressure

*Define cardiac output and describe how it is affected by cardiac rate and stroke volume.

*Explain how autonomic nerves regulate the cardiac rate and the strength of ventricular contraction.

*Explain the intrinsic regulation of stroke volume (the Frank-Starling law of the heart).

*Describe the factors that affect the venous return of blood to the heart.

*Explain how tissue fluid is formed and how it is returned to the capillary blood.

*Explain how edema may be produced.

*Explain how antidiuretc hormone helps to regulate the blood volume, plasma osmolality, and the blood pressure.

*Explain the role of aldosterone in the regulation of blood volume and pressure.

*Describe the renin-angiotensin system and its significance in cardivascular regulation.

*Explain, using Poiseuille’s law, how blood flow is regulated.

*Define total peripheral resistance, and explain how vascular resistance is regulated by extrinsic control mechanisms.

*Describe the mechanisms involved in the autoregulation of blood flow.

*Explain the mechanisms by which blood flow to the heart and skeletal muscles is regulated.

*Describe the changes that occur in the cardiac output and in the distribution of blood flow in the body during exercise.

*Describe the cutaneous circulation and explain how circulation in the skin is regulated.

*Describe the factors that regulate the arterial blood pressure.

*Describe the baroreceptor reflex and explain its significance in blood pressure regulation.

*Explain how the sound of Korotkoff is produced and how these sounds are used to measure blood pressure.

*Describe how the pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure are calculated and explain the significance of these measurements.

*Explain the mechanisms that contribute to and that help compensate for the conditions of hypertension, circulatory shock, and congestive heart failure.

*Diagram the integrated response to hemorrhage.

Chapter 15

Respiratory Physiology

*Describe the structures that comprise the lungs and explain their functions

*Explain how the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures vary during ventilation and how Boyle’s law applies to these pressure changes.

*Define the terms compliance and elasticity and explain how these lung properties affect ventilation.

*Explain the significance of surface tension in lung mechanics, how the law of LaPlace applies to lung function, and the role of pulmonary surfactant.

*Explain how inspiration and expiration are accomplished in unforced breathing and describe the accessory respiratory muscles that are used in forced breathing.

*Define the various lung volumes and capacities that can be measured by spirometry and explain how obstructive diseases may be detected by the FEV test.

*Describe the nature of some pulmonary disorders, including asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and fibrosis.

*Explain Dalton’s law and describe how the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases is calculated.

*Explain Henry’s law, describe how the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in a fluid (such as blood) is measured, and explain the clinical significance of these measurements.

*Describe the roles of the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebral cortex in the regulation of breathing.

*Explain why the Pco2, serves as the primary chemical stimuli for breathing.

*Explain how the chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata and the peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies respond to changes in PC02, pH, and PO2.

*Describe the Hering-Breuer reflex and its significance.

*Describe the different forms of hemoglobin and their significance.

*Describe the loading and unloading reactions and explain how the extent of these reactions is influenced by the PO2 and affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.

*Describe the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, explain the reason for and the significance of its shape, and demonstrate how the curve is used to derive the percent unloading of oxygen.

*Explain how oxygen transport is influenced by changes in blood pH and temperature and explain the effect and physiological significance of 2,3-DPG on oxygen transport.

*List the different forms of carbon dioxide transport in the blood and explain the chloride shift in the tissues and the reverse chloride shift in the lungs.

*Explain how carbon dioxide affects blood pH and describe how hypoventilation and hyperventilation affect acid-base balance.

*Explain the compensations of the respiratory system to life at a high altitude.

Chapter 16

Physiology of the Kidneys

*Describe the different segments of the nephron and explain the anatomic relationship between the tubules and the gross structure of the kidney.

*Describe the structural and functional relationships between the nephron and their associated blood vessels.

*Describe the composition of glomerular ultrafiltrate and explain how it is produced.

*Explain how the proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs salt and water.

*Describe active transport and osmosis in the loop of Henle and explain how these processes produce a countercurrent multiplier system.

*Explain how the vasa recta function in countercurrent exchange.

*Explain how antidiuretic hormone (ADH) functions to regulate the final urine volume.

*Describe the mechanisms of glucose reabsorption and explain the meanings of the terms transport maximum and renal plasma threshold.

*Define the renal plasma clearance, and explain why the clearance of inulin is equal to the glomerular filtration rate.

*Explain how the clearance of different molecules is determined and how the processes of reabsorption and secretion affect the clearance measurement.

*Explain the mechanism of Na+ reabsorption in the distal tubule and why this reabsorption occurs together with the secretion of K+.

*Describe the effects of aldosterone on the distal convoluted tubule and how aldosterone secretion is regulated.

*Explain how activation of the rennin-angiotensin system results in the stimulation of aldosterone secretion.

*Describe the interaction between plasma K+ and H+ concentrations and explain how this affects the tubular secretion of these ions.

*Describe the role of the kidneys in the regulation of acid-base balance.

*Describe the different mechanisms by which substances can act as diuretics and explain why some cause excessive loss of K+.

Chapter 17

The Digestive System

*List the structures of the digestive system and enumerate the functions of different organs of the digestive system.

*Describe the layers of the gastrointestinal tract and their function.

*Describe the mechanism and function of peristalsis and explain the significance of the lower esophageal sphincter.

*Describe the structure of the gastric mucosa, list the secretions of the mucosa and their functions, and identify the cells that produce each of these secretions.

*Explain the roles of HCl and pepsin and explain why the stomach does not normally digest itself.

*Describe the structure and function of the villi, and microvilli in the small intestine.

*Describe the location and functions of the brush border enzymes of the intestine.

*Explain the electrical activity that occurs in the intestine and describe the nature of peristalsis and segmentation.

*Explain how the large intestine absorbs fluid and electrolytes.

*Describe the flow of blood in the liver and explain how the liver functions to modify the chemical composition of the blood.

*Describe the composition and functions of bile and explain how bile is kept separate from blood in the liver.

*Explain the endocrine and exocrine structures of the pancreas and describe the composition and functions of pancreatic juice.

*Describe the enzymes and locations involved in the digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins and explain how monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed.

*Describe the roles of bile and pancreatic lipase in fat digestion and trace the pathways and structures involved in the absorption of lipids.

*Explain how gastric secretion is regulated during the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phase.

*Explain how pancreatic juice and bile secretion is regulated by nerves and hormones.

*Discuss the trophic effects of gastrointestinal hormones on the digestive tract.

Chapter 18

Regulation of Metabolism

*Describe the actions of insulin and glucagon and explain how the secretion of these hormones is regulated.

*Explain the causes and symptoms of type I and type II diabetes mellitus and the causes and symptoms of reactive hypoglycemia.

*Describe the metabolic effects of epinephrine and the glucocorticoids.

*Describe the effects of thyroxine on cell respiration and the relationship between thyroxine levels and the basal metabolic rate.

*Explain the causes and symptoms of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism in terms of the actions of thyroid hormones.

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