Chapter 6: Peers
CHAPTER 106: PEERS
INTRODUCTION
PEER RELATIONSHIPS FILL A REQUIREMENT THAT CANNOT BE ADDRESSED BY PARENTS OR SIBLINGS. THEY OFFER A FORUM FOR EXPRESSING FEELINGS, LEARNING RULES, AND ESTABLISHING INTIMACY NOT ACHIEVED IN OTHER ARENAS.
( Peer group relationships increase during middle and late childhood.
( Peers contribute to the environmental context for normal development.
( Peer relations provide a base for reciprocity, justice, and exploration.
Parents consciously and unconsciously influence the types of peer relationships established by their adolescent children. Early attachment histories influence later relationships with peers. Parents choose environments in which adolescents live, go to school, and recreate. Parents suggest strategies for establishing and maintaining peer relationships. After peer relationships are established, it is likely that pressure to conform will be experienced with both beneficial and detrimental consequences. Peers influence opposition to parents’ preferences in only some areas. Nonconformity and anticonformity occurs, however, when adolescents refuse to conform to either peer or societal standards.
Peer status is an aspect of peer relationships influenced by numerous adolescent characteristics.
( Popular children are reinforcing, good listeners, enthusiastic, concerned, and confident.
( Neglected children are unlikely to be nominated as a best friend, but are not disliked.
( Rejected children tend to be impulsive and aggressive, and are disliked by their peers.
( Controversial children are unpredictable, nominated both as best friends and as disliked.
Adolescents overcome deficits by becoming better listeners, learning how to join groups, or demonstrating self-control of disruptive behavior. Social cognition represents adolescents’ ability to draw on positive relationship building behavior, to establish good social problem problem-solving skills, and to interpret the social behavior of others.
Conglomerate strategies for improving social skills include:
( Discussing rationale, describing acceptable alternatives, and modeling appropriate skills;
discussingDiscussing rationale, describing acceptable alternatives, and modeling appropriate skills;
( reinforcingReinforcing demonstrations of self-control and establishing skills in stress management; and
( engagingEngaging in social problem solving or decision making.
Responding successfully to threatening encounters with bullies requires added support from adults.
Friendships with peers provide the opportunity for adolescents to develop intimacy with someone who comes from the same place and time, and someone who sees things from the adolescent perspective. Friendships provide: companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison, and intimacy/affection. Sullivan (1953) was the first to propose that adolescents require same-age friends to share intimacy; to bolster well well-being; to engage in light-hearted companionship; and to promote social acceptance, tenderness, and sexual relations. Subsequent research supported Sullivan’s ideas. Relationships with friends who are from markedly different age groupss do seem to result in more deviant behavior than same-age friendships.
Groups provide adolescents with norms or rules that all members are expected to follow. They also afford an opportunity for group members to take on roles to accomplish designated goals. Distinctions between group characteristics result from differences in age or culture.
( Children’s groups often are same-sex, based on chance (family friends or neighbors), and less structured than older groups progressing toward couples.
( Peer groups shift from (1) isolated, (2) unisexual groups, (3) transitioning unisexual, early mixed-sex groups, and (4) fully mixed-sex groups to (5) crowd disintegration and couples.
( Group membership in crowds (e.g., band membership) or cliques (e.g., jocks) contributemembership in crowds (e.g., band membership) or cliques (e.g., jocks) contributes to a sense of affiliation, positive self-esteem, and support separate from parents.
( Peer group affiliation often is based on social class and ethnicity that may define the group.
( Ethnic minority youth may depend on peers for affiliation within the larger majority culture.
( Group membership in crowds (e.g., band membership) or cliques (e.g., partiers, jocks) contribute to a sense of affiliation, positive self-esteem, and support separate from parents.
( Crowds provide opportunities to establish an identity, even if only temporarily.
( Crowds offer the possibility of trying out different roles if adolescents float between them.
( With maturity, adolescents are increasingly able to shift affiliation from one group to another.
Youth organizations are important groups that facilitate adolescent development by setting high standards, supporting achievement, and increasing adolescent involvement in community. Parents agree that youth programs are beneficial, but that not enough of them are available to youthadolescents. Program location may have an impact on participation by low-income and minority youth. Programs that encourage youth youth-directed entrepreneurial activities promote youth initiative and enthusiasm.
Peer groups are affected by gender and culture. Boys associated in larger groups than girls and engage in competition and risk taking more than girls. Girls are more oriented toward interpersonal relationships and intimacy than boys. Peer group affiliation often is based on social class and ethnicity that may define the group. Ethnic minority youth may depend on peers for affiliation within the larger majority culture.
Adolescents demonstrate serious heterosexual contact through dating. Dating and romantic relationships serve at least eight functions: recreation, status, socialization, intimacy, sexual experience, companionship, identity, and mate selection. Developmental changes in dating follow this sequence:
( Early dating helps adolescents to establish a sense of self and to identify acceptable behavior.
( Heterosexual groups and informal settings offer comfortable settings in which dating begins.
( First dates take place between 14 and 16 years of age; by 16 years, 90 percent have dated.
( About 50 percent of adolescents have a romantic relationship by tenth grade.
( Eleventh/twelfth-grade females spend 10 times as many hours with boys as fifth/ sixth-graders.
Much less research has been conducted with gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. Research has revealed great complexity on the romantic possibilities of sexual minority youth.
Cultural demands and gender roles influence courtship processes. High levels of emotion that accompany romance influence both male and female adolescents, and result in mood swings from day to day. Romantic love is experienced by most adolescents, followed by affectionate love typical with age. Attachment history, death of a parent, divorce, siblings, and peers influence intimate relationships.
Gender roles and cultural demands and influence courtship processes. Dating scripts are models that individuals use to guide dating interactions. The male script is proactive whereas the female script is reactive. The values and religious beliefs of a culture dictate when dating begins.
Total Teaching Package Outline
CHAPTER 106: PEERS
|HEADING | |RESOURCE |
|I. ExploringTHE NATURE OF PEER RELATIONS | |Learning Goal: 1 |
| | |Image Gallery: 127 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.10.1 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.10.1, 6.10.2, 6.10.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Peer Group Functions | |Lecture Topic: 6.10.1 |
|Developmental Changes in Peer Time | |Discussion Topic: 6.10.1, 6.10.3 |
|Are Peers Necessary for Development? | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.10.2 |
|Positive and Negative Peer Relations | |Essay Question: 1 |
|Family-Peer Linkages | |Video: Views on Family and Peers at Age 15 (VAD) |
| | | |
| | |WWW: Adolescent Peer Relations at mhhe. ccom/santrocka109 |
| | | |
|Family-Peer Linkages | |Discussion Topic: 6.1 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.2 |
| | |Thinking Critically: Parent-Peer Linkages In Your Adolescence |
| | | |
|Peer Conformity | |Learning Goal: 2 |
| | |Image Gallery: 163 |
| | |Discussion Topics: 6.10.3, 6.10.5 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.10.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | |WWW: Peer Pressure at santrocka109 |
| | | |
|Peer Statuses | |Learning Goal: 2 |
| | |In-Class Activity: 6.10.2 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.10.2 |
| | |Research Article: 6.10.1 |
| | |Research Project: 6.10.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 2 |
| | |Through the Eyes of Psychologists: John Coie |
| | | |
|Social Cognition and Emotion | |Learning Goal: 2 |
|Social Cognition | |Lecture Topic: 6.10.2 |
|Emotion | |Short Scenario: 6.10.1, 6.10.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 3 |
| | |WWW: Peer conflicts at santrocka109 |
| | | |
|Emotional Regulation in Peer Relations | |Learning Goal: 2 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 3 |
| | | |
|Conglomerate Strategies for Improving Social Skills | |Learning Goal: 2 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 6.10.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 3 |
| | |WWW: Cooperative Groups and Conflict Resolution at |
| | |santrocka109 |
| | | |
|Bullying | |Image Gallery: 85 |
| | |Essay Questions: 2, 3 |
| | |WWW: Reducing Bullying at Santrocka9 |
| | | |
|II. FRIENDSHIP | |Learning Goal: 23 |
| | |Image Gallery: 127 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.10.4 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.10.2, 6.10.3 |
| | |Research Article: 6.10.2 |
| | |Research Project: 6.10.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 4 |
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|Its Importance | |Essay Question: 4 |
| | |WWW: Friendship at santrocka109 |
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|Sullivan’s Ideas | |Essay Question: 5 |
| | | |
|Intimacy and Similarity | |Lecture Topic: 6.10.3 |
|Mixed-Age Friendships | |Short Scenario: 6.10.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | |Through the Eyes of Adolescents: We Defined Each Other with Adjectives |
| | | |
|Mixed-Age Friendships | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | | |
|III. ADOLESCENT GROUPS | |Learning Goal: 34 |
| | |Image Gallery: 94 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 6.10.1 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.10.3 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.10.1, 6.10.2, 6.10.3 |
| | |Research Article: 6.10.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 5 |
| | | |
|Group Function and Formation | |Image Gallery: 126 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.10.3 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.10.2 |
| | |Research Article: 6.10.2 |
| | |Research Project: 6.10.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 5 |
| | | |
|Children Groups in Childhood and Adolescencet Groups | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | | |
|Ethnic and Cultural Variations | |Essay Question: 7 |
| | | |
|Cliques and Crowds | |Learning Goal: 5 |
|Cliques | |In-Class Activity: 6.10.1 |
|Crowds | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | |Video: Talking about Cliques at Age 15 (VAD)Through the Eyes of |
| | |Psychologists: Bradford Brown |
| | |Through the Eyes of Adolescents: King of the Geeks |
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|Youth Organizations | |Essay Question: 8 |
| | |WWW: Youth Programs, Youth-Serving Organizations, Boys and Girls Clubs at|
| | |santrocka109 |
| | | |
|IV. Gender and Culture | |Learning Goal: 4 |
| | |Essay Question: 7 |
|GENDER | | |
|Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity | | |
|Culture | | |
| | | |
|IV. DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS | |Image Gallery: 164 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 6.10.3 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.10.2 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.10.3 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.10.2, 6.10.3 |
| | |Research Projects: 6.10.1, 6.10.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 9 |
| | | |
|Functions of Dating | |Learning Goal: 56 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.10.2, 6.10.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 9 |
| | |WWW: Exploring Dating at santrocka109 |
| | | |
|Types of Dating and Developmental Changes | |Learning Goal: 56 |
|Heterosexual Romantic Relationships | |Short Scenario: 6.10.3 |
|Romantic Relationships in Sexual Minority Youth | |Essay Question: 9 |
| | |Video: 15-year-old Girls’ Relationship with Boys (VAD) |
| | |Through the Eyes of Adolescents: They Were Thinking About Having Sex with|
| | |Girls from Budweiser Ads |
| | |WWW: Teen Chat at santrocka109 |
| | | |
|Emotion and Romantic Relationships | |Learning Goal: 5 |
|Romantic Love and Its Construction | |Image Gallery: 165, 176 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.10.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 10 |
| | |WWW: Types of Love at santrocka10 |
| | |WWW:Love, Exploring Close Relationships at santrocka10 |
| | |Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Where Is He? |
| | | |
|Gender and Culture | |Learning Goal: 56 |
|Gender | |Essay Question: 9 |
|Ethnicity and Cultureand Dating | | |
| | | |
|Male and Female Dating Scripts | |Learning Goal: 6 |
| | |Essay Question: 9 |
| | | |
|Emotion and Romantic Relationships | |Learning Goal: 7 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 10 |
| | |Thinking Critically: Evaluating Your Dating Experiences |
| | |WWW: Types of Love at santrocka9 |
| | | |
|Romantic Love and Its Construction | |Learning Goal: 7 |
| | |Image Gallery: 165, 176 |
| | |Essay Question: 10 |
| | |Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Where Is He? |
| | |WWW: Love, Exploring Close Relationships at santrocka9 |
SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS
TOPIC 6.10.1—CHILDREN WITHOUT FRIENDS
Children and adolescents, who are unable to make friends or become a part of their peer group, experience tremendous risk for long-term psychosocial difficulties. Research suggests that about 6 to 11 percent of grade school children and almost 20 percent of adolescents are rejected by their peer group. The majority of students who do not graduate drop out due to lack of peer acceptance.
Several studies provide details about the circumstances that lead to students’' decisions to drop out of school. Gronlund and Holmlund noted that 46 percent of boys with low acceptance by peers stayed in school compared to highly- accepted boys with an 81 percent completion rate. Females show a dramatic 65 percent rate of completion when identified as low acceptance students. Conversely, females with high acceptance had a completion rate of 96 percent. Kupersmidt conducted as 6-year longitudinal study to identify the rate of dropping out. The reported rates for dropping out were 30 percent for rejected students, 10 percent for students identified as neglected, 21 percent of students identified as average, but only 4 percent for students identified as popular. Rejected students clearly experienced the least favorable outcomes of limited peer affiliation.
Teachers have the opportunity to observe students in the classroom, lunchroom, and unstructured settings. Direct observation of student interaction provides the clearest information about student involvement with peers. Teachers may begin by asking themselves the following questions:
( Do peers ignore, avoid or reject the adolescent?
( Does the adolescent initiate interaction with others? Are the initiations socially appropriate? Do peers respond favorably?
( Does the adolescent demonstrate misunderstandings of social cues or messages given by peers?
( Does the adolescent make requests or tactfully communicate personal preferences?
( Does the adolescent demonstrate an appropriate amount of assertiveness?
( Does the adolescent demonstrate an overly aggressive manner with peers?
( Does the adolescent disrupt classroom and/or unstructured activities?
Students can benefit from cognitive-behavioral interventions to improve social skill. First, establish rationale for learning social skills and develop skills to fit situations in which the adolescent is failing. Teach students to differentiate between skills so that they can use the best skill at the appropriate time and place. Learning and practicing appropriate social skills with peers, authority figures, and parents seems essential for generalizing skills in the future. It is important for teachers and other adults to provide positive feedback about the successful use of desirable skills early on. Ultimately, experiencing success with peers can greatly enhance the likelihood that students will establish a niche and subsequently develop competencies for fulfilling relationships.
References
Bullock, J. R. (2000). Children without friends: Who are they and how can teachers help? In E. N. Junn & C . J. Boyatzis (Eds.) Child growth and development (7th ed.) (pp. 97-–101). Guilford, CT: Dushkin McGraw-Hill.
Hazel, J. S., .; Schumaker, J. B., .; Sherman, J. A., & Sheldon-Wildgen, J. (1981). ASSET: A social skills program for adolescents. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Topic 6.10.2—An Information-processing Model of Social Acceptance
Theorists who explain relationships from a social cognition view claim that immature or poorly functioning thought processes naturally result in antisocial or disordered social behavior. There are both Piagetian and information information-processing variants of this theme. Selman (1980) explains that socially dysfunctional youth lag behind peers in their stage of social cognitive thought, while whereas Dodge (1990) attempts to show that problems lie in the steps or processes of social cognition that youths follow.
Kenneth Dodge (1983) explains that children (or people of any age) go through these five steps while processing social information about the world:
( Decoding social cues——looking at the individual’'s facial expression and body language, attending to tone of voice;
( Interpreting——deciding what the cues might mean based on previous experience;
( Deciding on a response——generating a variety of responses that might be made under the circumstances;
( Selecting an optimal response——weighing the pros and cons of each alternative and choosing the one the likely will work best;
( Enacting the chosen response——implementing the selected response, determining how well it worked, and if necessary, trying another response option.
Socially skilled youths adolescents are able to quickly and accurately decode and interpret social cues, and successfully identify a variety of desirable responses that maintain positive relationships. They recognize that it may take time to establish a relationship and put forth the necessary effort. Unpopular youths adolescents often selectively attend to social cues, misinterpret what they observe, generate aggressive response alternatives, choose one that works quickly to get rid of potential threat, and enact the a response with little thought of the short-term or long-term consequences of their behavior. Resultant isolation and mistreatment by others limits opportunity to interact with socially skilled models, supports negative interpretations about the intentions of others, and increases the intensity of hostile responses toward peers.
Social skills training programs have been developed to teach youth to demonstrate teach appropriate social behavior in interacting with peers, parents, other adults, and authority figures. Successful behavior remediation usually requires simultaneous changes on the part of family and community members.
References
Dodge, K. A. (1983). Behavioral antecedents of peer social status. Child Development, 54, 1386-–1399.
Dodge, K. A., .; Coie, J. D.; Pettit, G. S., & Price, J. M. (1990). Peer status and aggression in boys groups: Developmental and contextual analysis. Child Development, 61, 1289-–1309.
Goldstein, A. P. (1999). Teaching prosocial competencies (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Selman, R. L. (1980). The growth of interpersonal understanding: Developmental and clinical analysis. New York: Academic Press.
Topic 6.10.3—Identity and Intimacy
In early adolescence, the desire for independence clearly motivates adolescents to become separate from parents and to establish new skills through affiliation and conformity with peers. Erikson, however, describes the adolescent’'s dilemma as “Identity versus Role Confusion,” or the identity crisis. Forming an identity represents a formidable task requiring a sense of independence, and the confidence to differentiate oneself from peers and parents. The identity crisis may result from rapid changes in appearance, cognitive ability, emotions, or societal expectations. The successful adolescent represents one who successfully integrates these changes into a manageable set of personal guidelines after actively questioning and exploring alternatives. During the time of exploration, the adolescent is said to be in a psychological moratorium. While Although the theory suggests that the stage will be completed by age 20, Erikson and others (e.g., Whitbourne) believe that it is a lifelong process.
Adolescents also think about intimacy in personal relationships, and are establishing required competencies to maintain intimate relationships with best friends and love interests. Erikson describes the crisis in young adulthood as one that occurs between “Intimacy versus Isolation.” He argues that only the individual with a secure identity can take a chance on entering a relationship that requires love. Young adults with a strong identity can and will enter into successful relationships with others. Failure in the previous stages, or the inability to successfully accomplish goals or achieve an identity, will result in withdrawal from personal relationships and establishing personal isolation. The capacity for intimacy results in the virtue Erikson identified as love.
Realistically, adolescents are working to resolve both issues during adolescencets; —with both stages are under development. The identity crisis clearly begins during early adolescence and quickly is quickly followed by new issues of intimacy. Whitbourne and colleagues (1992) conducted a 22-year longitudinal study to investigate changes in identity and intimacy by young adults from two cohort groups. They identified distinct patterns of age-related increases in identity and intimacy scores for 20- and 30-year olds from both groups. No further changes in identity and intimacy scores were found after age 31. The final goal of adulthood appears to be the achievementing of a sustainable balance between independence and intimacy.
References
Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. New York: Norton.
Hergenhahn, B. R. (1995). An introduction to theories of personality. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Whitbourne, S. K., .; Zuschlag, M. K., .; Elliot, L. B., & Waterman, A. S. (1992). Psychosocial development in adulthood: A 22-year sequential study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 260-–271.
CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES
DISCUSSION TOPICS
Discussion 6.10.1—The Nature of Parent and Peer Influence
A common stereotype of peer influence on adolescents is that peer influence inevitably places adolescents in conflict with their parents. An older term in the literature for this conflict is cross-pressure. Interestingly, research has shown that parents and peers are well connected (Updegraff, 1999; Walker, Hennig, Krettenauer, 2000). Educational attainment and personal habits tend to be highly correlated between parents and peers. The stereotype, however, persists.
A good way to discuss the nature of parent versus peer influence would be to consider in detail the classic work of sociologist Clay Brittain. Brittain, a sociologist, presented teenagers with a series of hypothetical dilemmas in which an adolescent receives conflicting advice from parents and peers. In his research, he had participants decide which advice the adolescent should followed. A clever feature of Brittain’s research was that he presented subjects with the same dilemmas two weeks later, but reversed the advice parents and peers were giving them, and again had his participants decide which advice the adolescent should followed. If his respondents shifted their decisions in either the new peer- or parent-endorsed alternative, Brittain had a measure of parent or peer orientation. If his respondents continued to endorse the same solution despite the change in who endorsed it, Brittain had a measure of independence from parent or peer influence.
Get Obtain a copy of Brittain’s research report. Read a sample dilemma to the class, and discuss with your students whether or not the dilemmas seem compelling to them as problems about whichwherein peer and parent advice might clash. Review Brittain’s research design and strategy, and discuss its strengths and weaknesses. Finally, review his findings, and relate them to more contemporary research. You will be able to show that research on this issue has been very consistent over the years: Parent and teen influences are as likely to complement each other as they are to contradict each other.
This discussion topic provides a point of departure for later discussions on conditions and factors that genuinely put peer influences in opposition to parents’ influences on their teenagers.
References
Brittain, C. V. (1969). A comparison of rural and urban adolescents with respect to peer vs versus parent compliance. Adolescence, 4, 59-–68.
Brittain, C. V. (1967). An exploration of the bases of peer-compliance and parent-compliance in adolescence. Adolescence, 2, 445-–458.
Updegraff, K. A., .; McHale, S. M., .; Crouter, A. C., & Kupanoff, K. (2001). Parents’ involvement in adolescents’ peer relationships: A comparison of mothers’ and fathers’ roles. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 655-–668.
Walker, L. J., .; Hennig, K. H., & Krettenauer, T. (2000). Parent and peer contexts for children’s moral reasoning development. Child Development, 71, 1033-–1048.
Discussion 6.10.2—Liking, Loving, and Relating
S. S. Hendrick and C. Hendrick have created, validated, and compiled considerable research with an instrument called “The Love Attitude Scale.” This is a device for determining which of seven different types of love predominates in the respondent’s love relationships. Try to get obtain a copy of the scale from the Hendrick’s book, Liking, Loving, and Relating (1992), and administer distributeadminister it to your class. Have your students score their responses. Depending on how shy and responsive your class is, you can collect the data as a basis for discussing the prevalence of different types of love among their cohorts, among younger adolescent cohorts, and among adult cohorts. The experience may also be the springboard for a discussion of methodological issues in the study of love (can you really use questionnaires to study it?), or the controversy about whether love and romance areis a fit an appropriate topics for research.
References
Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1992). Liking, loving, and relating. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1992). Romantic love. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1997). Love and satisfaction. In R. J. Sternberg & M. Hojjat (Eds.), Satisfaction in close relationships (pp. 56-–78). New York: Guilford.
Discussion 6.10.3—Musical Inspirations
Adolescent musical preferences may be analyzed to determine whether adolescents are making political or value-oriented statements that separate them from adults. You can engage the class in a very interesting activity by playing tapes or CDs of songs from the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s and having students analyze these songs in terms of (a) sexual themes; (b) conflict with or rebellion against adults; and (c) adolescent preoccupations (e.g., love, cars, sex). You can also mention some of the early accusations against rock music (e.g., being communist-inspired, or an immoral influence on youth). Michael Walraven, who made this suggestion for a class activity in the instructor’s course planner for the fifth edition of Adolescence, recommends these songs:
( Queen, “I’m in Love with My Car”
( Jackson Brown, “Cocaine” and “Daddy’s Tune”
( Joni Mitchell, “Big Yellow Taxi”
( Stevie Nicks, “Stop Dragging My Heart Around”
( Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young, “Teach Your Children Well”
( Bob Dylan, “The Times, They are a-Changing”
( Cat Stevens, “Peace Train,” “Father and Son,” “Where Do the Children Play?”
( Bob Seger, “Night Moves”
Reference
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.
Discussion 6.10.4—Friendships
Ask students to describe the first friendship they can remember and a more recent friendship. What did they do with their first friend? What did they know about that friend? What about their recent friend? How does the intimacy in the two friendships differ? How does this difference confirm or deny the developmental data presented in the text? Are there general characteristics for earlier or later friendships for the groups?
Early friendships are generally based on proximity and similarity. Friendships later in life involve more intimacy than friendships early in life. Younger friendships might be expected to focus on play activities; friendships of older individuals might focus more on conversation, sharing ideas, and feelings.
Students are likely to remember more details about their friends in junior high school and high school relative to their memories of specific activities. Because of the more intimate nature of friendships in the later years of school, they probably learned more about these people at the time. There is also a time compound to explain the difference.
Reference
King, M. B., & Clark, D. E. (1989). Instructors’ mManual to accompany Child development: An introduction (4th ed.) by J. Santrock and Yessen. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Discussion 6.10.5—The Power of Peers
Demonstrate the power of groups by reenacting the Asch conformity experiment. Asch presented a list of adjectives to participants, alternating a single word in the list, to describe a person. Participants then were asked to write a description of their impressions of the fictitious person. Ex: John: “intelligent, skillful, industrious, _______, determined, practical, cautionscautious.” The words used to fill in the blank were “warm, cold, polite, or blunt.” The paper summarized the results of his research, but in a nutshell, “warm” was associated with generous and “cold” was associated with reliable, but the terms polite and blunt seemed to be associated with a variety of descriptors. The experiment may be replicated easily, but you have to take care in recruiting class members to be your confederates. Use this experience to discuss the nature and influence of real conformity pressures in adolescents’ lives.
Reference
Asch, S. E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41, 258-–290.
In-Class Activities
Activity 6.10.1—Student Reports on Crowds
James Coleman demonstrated different peer crowds in high schools by asking students to name the groups in their school. Your students can attest to this as well. Have students list the major high school crowds that they can remember. Urge them to use the names that identified these crowds, and to write brief descriptions of the individuals who belonged to each.
Next, collect the lists of crowds from some or all of your students, or have them read their lists to the class. In either case, write the names down on a blackboard or overhead. Attempt to note whether students from different high schools report the same type of crowd, and keep track of the number of crowds students reportreported by students.
Finally, show that the number and types of crowds are fairly similar from high school to high school. For example, there should be athletic crowds, academic crowds, rebellious crowds, burnout crowds, and political crowds. Whatever you find, explain students’ reports in relation to material in Adolescence on the nature, significance, impact, and functioning of adolescent crowds and Research Article 2, Adolescent Peer Networks, that follows.
References
Coleman, J. S. (1980). The peer group. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.
Urberg, K. A., .; Degirmencioglu, S. M., .; Tolson, J. M., & Halliday-Scher, K. (1995). The structure of adolescent peer networks. Developmental Psychology, 31, 540-–547.
Activity 6.10.2—Psychometric Measures
Have your students develop psychometric techniques to identify individuals who are popular, socially accepted, and have high status. You can suggest naturalistic observations of adolescent groups, and encourage students to define operationally behaviors that reflect the underlying construct (e.g., number of times a person complies with someone else’s suggestions, time spent talking, seating arrangements). This exercise can be used to introduce the sociogram, or students could develop a paper-and-pencil measure of popularity. Whatever approach you encourage students to take, have students think of ways to validate their instruments and to compare them with measures described in the literature.
Reference
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.
Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 6.10.1—Theoretical Orientation
In the first Critical Thinking Exercise of the previous chapter you attempted to determine which of the five theoretical orientations Santrock outlined in Chapter 2 of Adolescence was most influential in the chapter. Do the same again for Chapter 610: Which theoretical orientation seems to be most dominant in this chapter? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as good.
A. Psychoanalytic theories D. Ecological theories
B. Cognitive theories E. An eclectic theoretical orientation
C. Behavioral and social learning theories
Exercise 6.10.2—Peer Relationships
An important concern for anyone who wants to intervene in adolescents’ peer relationships is accurate knowledge of the causes of successful or unsuccessful peer relationships. A limitation on research in this area is the difficulty of doing experimental work that would provide direct evidence of causal relationships. Listed below are several relationships derived from research that potentially have useful applications in intervention. Which of these is most clearly known to be based on causal relationship, according to information in Adolescence? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A.
A. Six concentration camp children who lost their parents but had intense attachments to each other became relatively normal adults.
B. Popular children are more likely than unpopular children to communicate clearly with their peers.
C. Negative-peer-status sixth graders are less likely than positive-peer status sixth graders to generate alternative solutions to hypothetical problems.
D. Students who show interest in others, cooperate, and maintain communication enjoy better peer relations than those who do not.
E. Early maturing girls are more likely to associate with girls older than they are and to engage in a number of deviant behaviors.
Exercise 6.10.3—Dating and Romantic Relationships
In Chapter 610, Santrock explores “Dating and Romantic Relationships,” social exchanges between adolescents in formal and informal dating contexts. Within the context of this section of the chapter, which of the following is an assumption, rather than an inference or an observation, we must make in order to accept the accuracy of Sherif’s findings? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A. Although most 15 15-year year-olds said that they had had a girlfriend of boyfriend in the past three years, most were not currently dating.
B. Males followed a proactive dating script, females a reactive one.
C. Romantic relationships often are involved in an adolescent’s emotional experiences.
D. BThe boys frequently discussed girls and sex.
E. Adolescents with a secure attachment to parents are likely to approach romantic relationships expecting closeness, warmth, and intimacy.
Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 6.10.1
A. This is not the best answer. Psychoanalytic thinking importantly influences the material on friendship, but makes no contribution to the other topics in the chapter. Attachment theory influences the discussion of romantic relationships. Dunphy’s theory has a strong maturational foundation.
B. This is not the best answer. Cognitive theories are particularly important in the discussion of popularity, social knowledge, and social information processing; cognitive-behavioral theory contributes to strategies for improving adolescents’ social skills. Dating scripts are also examples of cognitive constructs used to understand adolescent peer relations. However, cognitive theories are absent in discussions of most other aspects of peer relations.
C. This is the best answer. Behavioral and social learning theories play a role in peer group functions, in the analysis of popularity, and in social strategies for improving adolescents’ social skills. There is also the implication that learning and social learning processes play a role in friendship, group formation, and youth organizations. Behavioral and social learning theory orientations seem to influenced questions and research methods in each major topic area in the chapter.
D. This is not the best answer. Interestingly, in contrast to the analysis of families, the analysis of peer relations involves considerably less attention to interactions between social systems. The ecological orientation influences the material on ethnic minority adolescents’ peer relations, and the consideration of family-peer linkages discussed early in the chapter. In fact this perspective appears to get the least play in Chapter 610.
E. This is the second best answer. The foregoing arguments make the case for this alternative. All of the perspectives make a contribution to Chapter 6 10.
Exercise 6.10.2
A. This is not the best answer. Although in the context of the monkey findings Freud and Dann’s case study of these six children is compelling, it is nevertheless a case study and therefore not evidence that intense peer attachments have a causal influence on developmental outcomes.
B. This is not the best answer. The finding is essentially correlational, and therefore not evidence that any specific behavior of popular children causes them to be popular.
C. This is not the best answer. Again, the finding is correlational, and not evidence of cause-effect relationships.
D. This is the best answer. This claim is supported by an experimental study in which socially deficient children were trained in these skills. Compared to a control, they became more sociable with their peers.
E. This is not the best answer. Even though the finding derives from a longitudinal study and the pattern of findings is compelling, the work is correlational.
Exercise 6.10.3
A. This is not the best answer because it is an observation. Most 15-year-olds had a relationships within the previous four months, but less than 10 percent had a relationship that lasted longer than one year.
B. This is not the best answer. This is an inference because examples are provided but there are not data to indicate the consistency of this finding.
C. This is not the best answer because it is another observation. Romantic relationships explained one-third of females’ and one-quarter of males’ strong emotions, a significantly higher response than school, family, and same-sex peer relationships.
D. This is the best answer because it is an assumption. No further discussion of the topic is presented.
E. This is not the best answer. This is an inference because, although it is not supported by arguments that explain it specifically, it is part of a larger argument that specific insecure attachment styles are likely to be related to adolescents’ romantic relationships.
Short Scenarios
Scenario 6.10.1
Marsha has just learned that she and Jessica were elected to the student council. She wonders if her peers elected her because they think she can do the job well or because she is a good listener with a pretty smile. Actually, if you’re smart, it works best to express moderate interest and concern and keep unusual ideas to yourself. Marsha has found that she can stay relaxed and go along with others’ ideas for periods of time, but sooner or later, something happens that is impossible to ignore. It’s when she gets really excited, in either a positive or negative way, that she blows her cover as a “normal” person. At least she isn’t a wallflower like some of the kids. It’s better to be noticed for taking a stand than to be ignored altogether. Of course, there are always those kids that everybody notices and everybody agrees are completely intolerable. How could you not notice them?—tthey are rude, mean, and disgustingobnoxious. Certainly neither those who are ignored or despised will ever be in a position to get on the student council. Even though it is sometimes a lot of work to keep her temper in check, it’s important to count to ten and think of the other person’s point of view. Anyway, she must be doing good well enough. She now has an opportunity to work with some of the other students on the council to accomplish something worthwhile. First she will suggest some ways to show appreciation for the band members, chess club, and the athletic team. Then she will organize a community project.
( Marsha wonders if she was elected for her academic abilities and potential to be a good representative or her knowledge of social cognition.
( Marsha recognizes the behavior patterns associated with being popular: ; including enthusiasm, concern for others, self-confidence, and avoiding impulsive, emotional outbursts.
• Marsha may be labeled as a controversial adolescent because she does demonstrate some impulsive and disruptive behavior that calls attention to herself; the behavior may have a positive or a negative effect on her peers.
• ( Marsha may be labeled as a controversial adolescent because she does demonstrate some impulsive and disruptive behavior that calls attention to herself; the behavior may have a positive or a negative effect on her peers.
( She recognizes that her behavior has some similarities and differences from rejected students who are aggressive or shy.
( Marsha describes some techniques that she used uses to regulate her emotions emotions—such as counting to ten and reasoning through explanations of her peers’ behavior.
( Marsha will take part in the activities of the student council, an organization that can be described as a crowd of students working on the same activities.
( She recognizes the opportunity that youth organizations have to impact her community and to acknowledge peers’ academic, artistic, and athletic achievements.
Scenario 6.10.2
Lev has already had three dates since the girls started joining Gene and him at the coffeehouse. It didn’t take him long to pick Sondra. Gene has found the transitions through junior high and high school very interesting as both participant and observer. Lev always was more interested in the girls than he was himself. Lev was the first one in their group to invite girls to join them occasionally for trips to a Saturday matinee, to meet friends for a hamburger and coke, or attend a summer evening baseball game. In junior high, when groups of girls joined the guys, Gene was only peripherally involved with conversation or interaction that involved the girls. In his freshman year of high school, he began to find the other guy’s girlfriends more agreeable, but certainly wouldn’t spend his own money on them. A couple of the guys started planning dates for school dances. Lev seems to be enjoying his girlfriend both as part of group activities and on one-to-one dates. Gene is beginning to get more interested in dating, but he has not yet found anyone who meets his expectations. He thinks the his choices will improve when he transfers to a magnet school for math, sciences, and college preparation.
( Gene seems to be at Dunphy’s stage 4, participating in fully developed mix-sex group with close associations.
( Lev is making the transition to Dunphy’s stage 5; he may be leading the crowd disintegration as he begins to establish group associations as couples.
( Lev possibly was more socially oriented or matured at a faster rate than Gene, thus leading the progression of peer group relations.
( The dating process began informally as a group, demonstrating early exploratory behavior of romantic relationships.
( Gene is learning about socialization processes with girls in the group context.
( Lev appears to be establishing intimacy and meaning in a single relationship.
( Gene appears to be focused on some components of the status and achievement function of dating as he expresses a desire for specific characteristics in a dating partner.
Scenario 6.10.3
Janet has good relationships with her parents and brother, and they talk with and tease each other every day. It is rare that they would argue and really be mad angry at each other for any period of time. Her parents are “doers” and have a lot of friends that they know from work and community volunteer work. As it happens, her parents are friends with parents of her friends from clubs and organizations in which she has membership. Janet enjoys most of the members from these groups too. In grade school, Janet’s close friends were always girls. During her first year in middle school, some of the clubs like figure skating and hockey started doing things together after practice. Later in junior high, her parents let her go on “group dates” with friends from church or school. They went to arcades with video games, to the mall, and to ice cream stores. As a group, they occasionally helped with fundraisers for the skating teams.
Last September Janet met Ryan, a new student whothat recently moved from San Francisco. They talk on the telephone almost every day, meet after school to work on homework a couple times a week, and go on a formal date every Saturday night. They often go to a game, party, or meet friends on weekends too. Neither of them takes the other for granted, but they both have plans for college and career and realistic expectations for a romantic relationship.
( Janet appears to be securely attached to her parents and has a good sibling relationships.
( The positive family relationships appear to be carried forward into positive relationships with her peers.
( The family has a pattern of community service and participation in community organizations.
( The family-peer linkage that Janet’s parents have established is strong, and her parents have a great deal of influence on the relationships Janet establishes with her peers.
( Janet’s participation in figure skating allows her to participate in a crowd focused on athleticism, achievement, and competition.
( The interaction between the figure skating and hockey teams followed Dunphy’s progression of peer group relations.
( Janet belongs to the 50% of students who have a date every week and up to ten hours a week with Ryan.
( The characteristics of the youth organization have lead the adolescents to demonstrate initiative in achievement and developing funding to support the teams.
( The function of dating for Janet and Ryan appears to include every function except serious courtship.
Current Research Articles
ARTICLE 6.10.1—POPULAR BOYS
Little research has been completed to identify behavior profiles of different categories of popular children. Typically, children with high status on sociometric scales are characterized as “cooperative, sociable, assertive, sensitive, helpful, and constructive” (p. 14). Children with controversial status are similar to popular children and are often nominated as “most liked,” as well as “least liked.” The behavior patterns associated with controversial students are not clearly understood. This investigation analyzed the behavior categories associated with popular and controversial children, specified as popular-prosocial and popular-antisocial boys. Comparisons were made across peer-raters and self-raters and between different ethnic backgrounds in relation to configurations of characteristic behavior.
Participants were 4th fourth through 6th sixth grade boys from Chicago and North Carolina. A total of 59 classrooms and 948 students with 452 boys, 271 from urban Chicago and 181 from small town/rural North Carolina, participated in the study.
Two measures were used to assess competence. The Interpersonal Competence Scale—Teacher (ICS-–T) is an 18-item questionnaire using a 7-point Likert scale to assess Popularity (many friends), Olympian/Physical Competence (athletic, attractive), Affiliative (open, and friendly), Academic (academic competence), Aggressive (argues, fights), and Internalizing (sad, shy). The Interpersonal competence Scale—Self (ICS-–S) is a 21-item questionnaire that uses a 7-point Likert type scale producing composite scores on the same six categories. Peer interpersonal assessments were completed by children in each classroom. They were asked to nominate classmates who were the best examples of nine descriptive items. Items were: Cooperative, Disruptive, Acts shy, Starts fights, Leader, Athletic, Gets in trouble, Good Student, and Cool. Social Cognitive Maps (SCM) were used to assess social networks. Students were asked to identify specific groups and to list as many people as they could think of that spent time with those groups. Children identified by at least 50 percent of the group as affiliated were confirmed as part of the group. Social centrality was calculated by combining each child’s within-group centrality (Cw) with the centrality of his group (Cg).
Surveys were administered in the classroom in the fall and took approximately 40 minutes in the classroomto complete. Teachers completed their questionnaires in the classroom at the same time.
Configural analyses were performed to determine whether teachers identified profiles of prosocial and antisocial behavior of popular boys. The configurations provided the following results:
( Model boys (popular prosocial)—)—above average on academic, affiliative, popular, and Olympian; below average on shy, aggressive, and internalizing
( Tough boys (popular antisocial)——above average on aggressive, popular, and Olympian; below average on shy and academic; average on affiliative and internalizing
( Low-academic boys (average popular)——below average on academic; above average on affiliative; average on popular, Olympian, shy aggressive, and internalizing
( Passive boys (average popular)——above average on shy and academic; below average on aggressive; average on popular, Olympian, affiliative, and internalizing
( Bright-antisocial boys (unpopular antisocial)——above average on aggressive, academic, and internalizing; below average on affiliative, popular, and Olympian; average on shy
( Troubled boys (unpopular antisocial)——above average on aggressive and internalizing; below average on academic, affiliative, popular and Olympian; average on shy (pp. 17-–18)
Chi-square analyses did not identify an association between configuration and grade. Configurations were the same across the two research settings.
Peer nomination scores showed:
( Model and tough boys were recognized as being cool and athletic.
( Tough and troubled boys were identified as antisocial.
( Model and passive boys were least often recognized for antisocial behavior.
( Model boys received the most votes for prosocial behavior (leadership and studiousness).
Self-assessments showed the following results:
( Tough boys had the highest self-evaluation of popularity.
( Tough and troubled boys had the highest self-evaluations as aggressive.
( Model and passive boys had the lowest self-evaluation of aggression.
( Model and bright-antisocial boys had the highest self-evaluation of academic skill.
The statistical analysis showed a high correlation between teacher and peer assessments.
More European American (29 percent) than African- American (24 percent) youths adolescents were model boys, and though boys were over-represented by African Americans (18 percent) compared to European Americans (9 percent). The over-representation of African Americans as tough occurred to a greater extent in classrooms with students of both races than in classes of African- American students alone. In both ethnic groups, the proportion of model boys was larger than the proportion of tough boys.
Overall, model boys and tough boys were over over-represented as central figures in their classrooms and cliques. The conclusion may be that a few early adolescents can be both popular and antisocial. Teachers, peers, and self-reports indicated consistent agreement about the characteristics that these groups demonstrate. The authors discussed the possibility that children make it difficult for African African-American boys to be popular, academic, and prosocial without being criticized for “acting white.” Finally, the context in which children find themselves influences the desirability of various social behavior, even problem behavior.
Reference
Rodkin, P. C., .; Farmer, T. W., .; Pearl, R., & Van Acker, R. (2000). Heterogeneity of popular boys: antisocial and prosocial configurations. Developmental Psychology, 36, 14-–24.
Article 6.10.2—Adolescent Peer Networks
Peer relationships between adolescents have been investigated by examining the relationships between single factors; such as best friends, cliques, or crowds. In reality, these and other aspects of friendship operate simultaneously to influence the adolescent. In this investigation, researchers examined several aspects of adolescents’ networks by examining the influential effects of friendship lists, best friends, groups of friends, and social crowds.
The sample included about 3,300 students across three school systems. System 1 (752 students) was about half as large as Systems 2 (1,330 students) and 3 (1,215 students). System 1 was attended primarily by White (69 percent) and African African-American (28 percent) students, ; System 2 was attended primarily by African African-American students (77 percent), and System 3 students were White (91.692 percent) and other minorities (8 percent) students.
Questionnaires were given to the students during class time. The questionnaires included the following measures:
( Friendship list——respondents were given a page with 10 spaces to list best friend in school, other close friends in school, and people with whom they spend time.
( Network role——the NEGOPY computer program (Richards & Rice, 1981) and sociograms were used to help students nominate and categorize friends and group membership.
( Social crowd——20 or more students were interviewed about the characteristics of crowds observed in each school; a crowd was included if it wasby identification by of five or more students.
The results represent outcomes in which two of the three systems demonstrated the identified effect and used p < .01 as the criterion for significance.
The percentage of friends in school changed between schools. Adolescents appeared to become more discriminating in naming friends with each successive grade. As grade increased, they made fewer choices and were identified as a mutual friend less often.
Aspects of Network were assessed by looking at ethnic or gender and grade differences in relation to networks:
( Friendship list——African African-American students in the minority had fewer mutual choices, and made and received fewer choices than White students in System 1. In System 2, African African-American students as the majority had similar mutual choices, made and received choices similarly to the Chaldean students in the minority while whereas White and other minority students had fewer selections in all three categories. Fewer choices were made and received by older students. Female students made, received, and demonstrated more mutual choice making than did males.
( Best friends——Females were somewhat more likely to nominate a best friend than were male students.
( Friendship groups——Minority students were less likely to be members of cliques, thus unconnected than were majority students. Females were more likely to be clique members than were males students. Males students were more likely to be unconnected.
( Social crowd——Five to seven crowds were identified in two of three systems. Student membership in crowds was 32 percent in System 1 and 51 percent in System 3.
Relationships between Levels of the Network
( Best friends with friendship groups and crowds——Best friends had a 92 percent to 97 percent chance of being in the same clique or group.
( Relationship between friendship groups and crowds——Adolescents were members of two or three crowds across the system. Three cliques, Popular, Jocks, and Burnouts, had more than one friendship group within the social crowd.
( Relationship between friendship list and groups and crowds——Analysis of friendship lists in relation to clique, loose group, or crowd showed females listed the same network roles and more greater numbers of crowd friends more often than did male students.
In conclusion, the results support the assumption that peer networks are both complex and multifaceted. Studying any single aspect of the friendship network in isolation gives limited perspective of adolescent connection to peers. Ties to multiple friendship groups, for example, give adolescents better opportunities to move from one group to another if they are rejected or choose to do so. Further, these networks appear to be influenced by the climate of the school and community. Thus the effects of ethnicity, grade level, and gender appear to be variable. The influence of these variables may change as a result of the age of the adolescent and the context in which the adolescent is assessed.
Reference
Urberg, K. A., .; Degirmencioglu, S. M., .; Tolson, J. M., & Halliday-Scher, K. (1995). The structure of adolescent peer networks. Developmental Psychology, 31, 540-–547.
Student Research Projects
RESEARCH PROJECT 6.10.1—DIRECT OBSERVATIONS OF ADOLESCENTS IN GROUPS
Objective: . Following completion of this project, students will be able to identify characteristic behavior patterns that lead adolescents to achieve popular, neglected, rejected, or controversial status with peers.
Type/Length of Activity: . variableVariable; 8 to 10 hours.
Directions: . Choose a class member with whom you will be able to coordinate your schedule to complete this assignment. As a team, identify a group of students that will meets at least weekly, and is available to be observed by you, and two college students who are not members of the group, which you will observe. Possible locations and adolescent groups for observation are community center patrons, YMCA / YWCA participants, high school student clubs or the student council, or church youth groups. Observers must obtain permission from setting supervisors, high student school students, and parents before beginning the project. Also consult the university or college human rights committee to determine if further permissions are required for this nonintervention observation activity by college students.
Begin by observing the group. Identifying behavior that might lead you to identify the popular versus unpopular students. After the first observation, design an observation code based on one of the sections of Chapter 6 10 in the area of adolescent status, friendship, Dunphy’s peer group relations, or romance. Find the high school students before choosing the behavior. It may be impossible to find high school students or a setting that fits your preferred topic. Choose behavior based on the opportunities provided by the available group. Decide which observation method discussed in Chapter 2 will document the occurrence of the behavior you identified and will answer your questions. Consider the observation tools included in the student handouts at the end of the Instructor’s Manual.
Observe at least weekly to collect data as high school students participate in their groups. You may need to observe as few as three times if students behave consistently across observations. More data become necessary with increased variability from one observation to the next. Identify differences in types and frequency of behavior demonstrated by students in the group. In addition to the observations, consider collecting sociometric data from all of the students in the group. Compare the resultant behavior patterns demonstrated by each of the students with the sociometric data.
Wrap-Up: . Complete written and/or oral reports following the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2001) that summarizes the methods, results, and conclusions from the observation and sociomentric data. Be sure to include data to support your results and conclusions. Be prepared to compare information across settings to formulate hypotheses about context and personality as influential variables for high school student behavior.
Research Project 6.10.2—Cyber Romance: Influential Factors in Online Relationships
Objectives: . Students will apply developmental concepts to online dating scenarios.
Type/Length of Activity: . Internet research and reaction paper; approximately 3 hours.
Directions: . Brows First, browse the following web sites:
( The Internet Personals
( One and Only Online Matching
( American
Then answer the following questions:
1. What personal characteristics would you choose to investigate as criteria for selecting a partner for a serious relationship?
2. Explain why these characteristics would be important to you.
3. Would specific characteristics differ if you wanted to develop a friendship, find a date, or develop a long-term relationship? If so, how?
4. How does delineating your qualifications for a partner in a personal advertisement relate to your own expectations or definition of a relationship?
5. How do you account for or explain the number of online romances that seem to have developed in recent years?
Write a reaction paper to compare and contrast your expectations about establishing personal relationships with those assumptions that are the premise for entering into cyber romances.
Wrap-Up: . Discuss your conclusions in class and determine the degree of agreement you have with your peers. How might you explain similarities and differences in you conclusion?
Reference
Skinner, P. J., & Clark, W. M. (2001). Instructor’s mManual to accompany Human Development (8th ed.) by D. E. Papalia, S. W. Olds, & R. D. Feldman. Boston: McGraw-Hill
Essay Questions
PROVIDE STUDENTS WITH THE GUIDELINES FOR “ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS” BEFORE THEY RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS. THEIR ANSWERS TO THESE KINDS TYPES OF QUESTIONS DEMONSTRATE AN ABILITY TO COMPREHEND AND APPLY IDEAS DISCUSSED IN THIS CHAPTER.
1. Summarize what we know about conformity throughout adolescence, and evaluate the positive and negative impacts conformity may have on adolescent social development.
2. What are the similarities and differences between adolescents identified as popular, neglected, rejected, and controversial children? What experiences would youths childrenyouths from each group have during adolescence?
3. List and explain how factors associated with social cognition and emotional regulation influence peer relations. What does current research suggest to improve social skills based on these factors?
4. What are the functions of friendship? What theory and/or data in Chapter 6 10 explain or illustrate these functions?
5. Do mixed mixed-age friendships promote or discourage positive developmental outcomes? Cite relevant data in your answer.
6. How do children’s groups differ from adolescents’ groups, and how do adolescent cliques differ from adolescent crowds?
7. Describe ethnic and cultural variations in adolescent peer groups, and trace implications for educators or other professionals interested in intervening in ethnic adolescent peer relations.
8. Describe the characteristics of youth organizations and explain how they benefit youth development.
9. Compare and contrast friendship and romance among adolescents. Cite relevant data that distinguish between early and later relationships.
10. What characterizes romantic love? Describe the influence of family relationships, typical adolescent emotions, and peer relations in romantic relationships.
Additional References
Holland, A., & Andre, T. (1999). Student characteristics and choice of high school remembrance role. Adolescence, 34, 315-–338.
Patrick, H.; Ryan, A. M.; Alfeld-Liro, C.; Fredricks, J. A.; Hruda, L. Z., & Eccles, J. S. (1999). Adolescents’ commitment to developing talent: The role of peers in continuing motivation for sports and arts. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 28, 741.
Sheridan, S. M., .; Hungelmann, A., & Maughan, D. P. (1999). A contextualized framework for social skills assessment, intervention, and ieneralizationgeneralization. School Psychology Review, 28, 84-–103.
Patrick, H., .; Ryan, A. M., .; Alfeld-Liro, C., .; Fredricks, J. A., .; Hruda, L. Z., & Eccles, J. S. (1999). Adolescents’ commitment to developing talent: The role of peers in continuing motivation for sports and arts. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 28, 741.
Videos
VIEWS ON FAMILY AND PEERS AT AGE 15 (VAD)
Overview
Two 15- year-old White females and one 15- year-old multicultural female discuss what is most important to them in their lives right now. All say family and friends, although Shena admits that her friends are much more important to her than her family.
Pre-Ttest
1. What is one of the developmental changes that occursoccur during adolescence in terms of peers.
a. Adolescentsce spend more time with their peers compared to younger children.
Correct. Adolescents spend more than twice as much time with their peers than with their parents on the weekends.
b. Adolescents prefer to spend time by themselves versus spending time with their peers.
Incorrect. Social isolation is associated with problem behaviors such as delinquency.
c. Peer relations have a negative eaffect on adolescent development.
Incorrect. Peer relations can be negative if an adolescent is rejected by peers;, however, most peer relations are positive, with increasing self-esteem and social skills.
d. Peer relationships are completely unimportant in adolescence.
Incorrect. Peer relationships are important for self-esteem, developing social skills, and getting emotional and social support outside of the family.
Post-Ttest
1. What is most important to these girls? , Tthemselves?, fFamily? , or Ffriends?
a. Themselves
Incorrect. They do believe it is important to recognize their own needs but they agree that family and friends are important as well.
b. PeersFriends.
Incorrect. They do acknowledge that peers are very important they also agree that their family is important.
c. Family.
Incorrect. They do acknowledge family is important but, they agree that peersfriends are important too.
d. Family, friends, and themselves.
Correct. They believe all three are important.
Talking about Cliques at Age 15 (VAD)
Overview
Two 15 year-old White females and one 15 year-old multicultural female describe the cliques in their school and what makes someone popular. They describe not only physical appearance as important, but personality too.
Pre-Ttest
1. What is a clique?
a. A clique is a small group of adolescents who form a group because they engage in similar activities.
Correct. It is a group of about 5–-6 adolescents, usually the same sex and age who share the same interests.
b. A large group of adolescents who engage in similar activities and have a reputation surrounding that activity.
Incorrect. This is the definition of a crowd.
c. A group of adolescents who hang around with each other because they live in the same neighborhood.
Incorrect. Cliques form because the adolescents engage in similar activities.
d. A clique is a group of mixed-sex adolescents who may vary widely in age.
Incorrect. Members of a clique are usually the same sex and are similar in age.
Post-Ttest
1. According to the girls in the video, what makes someone popular?
a. gGood looks
Incorrect. Although they did mention that some popular kids are good looking, not all of the popular kids are good looking.
b. gGoing along with the crowd.
Incorrect. The girls agree that being independent is important to being popular.
c. iIntelligence.
Incorrect. They did not mention intelligence as important to popularity.
d. pPersonality
Correct. These girls agree that a good personality is most important when it comes to being popular.
15-year-old Girls’ Relationship with Boys (VAD)
Overview
Two 15 year-old White females and one 15 year-old multicultural female talk about how their relationships with boys have changed since middle school. They discuss how boys are more mature in high school and are often easier to talk to than girls.
Pre-ttest
1. Which of the following is a NOT function of dating during adolescence?
a. rRecreation.
Incorrect. Adolescents see dating as a source of enjoyment.
b. To findfinding a marriage partner.
Correct. Dating in adolescence is a way to explore intimacy and can be a context for sexual exploration.
c. sSocialization.
Incorrect. Dating teaches adolescents how to get along with others.
d. sSource of status.
Incorrect. Adolescents, as part of the social comparison process, evaluate the statues of the people their peers date.
Post-Ttest
1. How have relationships with boys changed for these girls now that they are in high school?
a. They spend a lot less time with boys now that they are in high school.
Incorrect. These girls indicate that they spend more time with boys now that they are in high school.
b. Although they spend more time with boys, the are afraid to talk with them about their problems.
Incorrect. These girls say that it is sometimes easier to talk with the boys about their problems than it is to talk with another girl.
c. Although they have relationships with boys now, they feel the boys are much more immature than they are.
Incorrect. These girls feel that boys are more mature in high school compared to junior high.
d. They spend more time with boys, more time alone with boys, and more time talking about problems and issues with boys.
Correct. They are spending more time with boys and are more comfortable disclosing information with boys.
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- chapter 2 the science of adolescent development
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