Individual Differences Approach - haringeypsychology



Name_________________Rosenhan (sane in insane places)Thigpen and Cleckley (multiple personality disorder)Griffiths (gambling)This individual differences approach assumes that:-That all human beings are uniqueThat human beings will be different in terms of intelligence, personality, lifestyles etcThese differences make it difficult to categorise our behaviourSome behaviour is normal and some abnormal and often this is difficult to defineDescribe how the individual differences approach explains gambling addiction. (4 marks)______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Describe how the individual differences approach explains the difficulty of distingusihing between sanity & insanity. (4 marks)______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Describe how the individual differences approach explain multiple personality disorder. (4 marks)______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________What is abnormality?In order to say someone is ‘mentally ill’ and needs treatment we need to decide what abnormality is. Do you think that there is a ‘normal’ way of behaving? How could you define normality and how many people would fit into your definition?Abnormality can be a useful concept as it can help medical professionals to diagnose people who are struggling with problems such as depression.However, what happens when the categorisation of mental disorders are wrong, or when someone is labelled with a mental disorder that they do not have?-3804851640668414655939800 DSM and schizophreniaSchizophrenia is often thought to be ‘hearing voices’ however the symptoms describe someone whose personality is ‘disorganised’. Symptoms include disorganized speech and thinking, paranoid or bizarre delusions and auditory hallucinations, lack of motivationDiagnosing mental disordersThe DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) is like the bible of mental illness. It is a classification system used in the US by psychiatrists and lists all the mental disorders and their symptoms. It is regularly updated and is used as a diagnostic tool. A Personal Account of a Schizophrenia Patient“On the way to the store, I had a flat tire. I thought this was planned also. At the petrol pump, the man smiled at me with twinkle’s in their eyes and I knew they were closing in. I was done for. They would kill me. Suddenly I saw their faces in the skies…”I developed a feeling that I smelled bad and that somewhere I had left a tap open and consequently would be responsible for destroying a building, and that if I accidentally struck a match, I would cause mass destruction and kill many people. I was suspicious about everyone…At first, I strained to hear the voices. They were soft and working in the form of a code. I broke the code after a long struggle. Then I could distinctly hear four voices. “The rotten prostitute…” said one. “The Gods will not leave her…” said the second. “I think you should kill yourself and spare God the trouble…” said the third one addressing directly to1. What was Rosenhan’s aim? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________2. What is a pseudopatient? 3. Describe Rosenhan’s procedure in Study 1 … Use the following words to help you …Field Experiment. Covert participant observation. Pseudo patients. 5 males + 3 females 12 hospitals. “empty” “hollow”“thud”. facts of their lives. cease to show symptoms ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________4. Results in Study 1_________ of the patients were admitted to hospital. _______ of them were diagnosed with ___________________ -2076457774305They spent between ______ and ________ days in hospital – an average of 19 days. They were released with a diagnosis of ___________________________ in _________________. BBeing ‘in remission’ means that the patient is not considered as sane, they are still mentally ill, but not showing any symptoms at the time.The normal behaviours interpreted in context of diagnosis of being mentally ill:The ‘insane’ label for some pseudopatients was so powerful that the staff completely overlooked or misinterpreted their normal behaviour:The staff disregarded the pseudopatients’ sane personal history. Instead the circumstances of being in the hospital influenced the staff perceptions. For example, one pseudopatient described his relationships with parents, wife and children (all normal) and how they changed over time (again, normal). The hospital summary stated “Affective (affective = mood) stability is absent”; staff distorted past behavior to fit the theory of schizophreniaPseudopatients took notes extensively and in public; the nursing records for three pseudopatients suggested that the writing was pathological behavior (pathological = ill).The nurses assumed that real patients’ behaviour stemmed from their illness, rather than from external events. For instance, real patients were waiting outside the cafeteria 30 minutes early. A psychiatrist informed student psychiatrists that this behaviour was characteristic of the “oral-acquisitive nature of the syndrome”. In reality, the patients had very few things to look forward to besides eating.The staff never detected the pseudopatients as sane (although many of the real patients did ask them if there was anything wrong with them).-358950-4836605. Rosenhan said the hospitals made two types of errors, a type one and a type two error:Type 1 ErrorType 2 Error Calling a healthy person sick(False positive)Doctors have a bias towards this as it is more dangerous to diagnose someone who is ill as healthy than someone who is healthy as ill – they will tend to err on the side of cautionTherefore in study one the doctors tended to make a _________ ______________ errorCalling a sick person healthy(false negative)In study two doctors tended to make a ___________ __________ errorFollow-up study:61468004095756. One hospital told Rosenhan that they did not believe that this could have happened, therefore Rosenhan told them that over the next 3 months one or more ______________________________ would try to be admitted to the hospital. Each member of staff was asked to rate whether they thought the patients admitted were __________________________ Over the 3 months:193192341These results led Rosenhan to conclude that hospitals were now making more Type ______ errors Conclusion: It is clear that we cannot distinguish between the sane and the insane. Rosenhan himself concluded that, “Any diagnostic process that lends itself so readily to massive errors cannot be a very reliable one.”-12700062992007. What does Rosenhan mean by the ‘stickiness of labels’? Give at least two examples from the study to illustrate this (such as the lunch queue and the personal history)…_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________righttop8. Rosenhan describes what it was like to be hospitalised. Reading the study, give two examples from the study which show how differently the pseudopatients were treated to ‘normal’ people.___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________9. How long was the average amount of time that staff spent outside of their offices?_____________________ %10. When pseudopatients asked the nurses or psychiatrists when they would be discharged or presented at the staff meeting how often did they stop to respond?Nurses - ______________%Psychiatrists - ___________________%leftcenter11. Rosenhan also reports the patients feeling powerless and depersonalised. What do these mean and give examples of each… Powerlessness = __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Examples of powerlessness in the patients was: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Depersonalisation = _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Examples of depersonalisation in the patients = ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Conclusions?Rosenhan concluded that we cannot ______________ the sane from the insane.Hospitalisation for the mentally ill results in ___________________________ and _______________________Instead we could treat mental illness differently – providing care within the community or ensuring that mental health workers are more sensitive.Evaluation of Rosenhan’s Study Using PECGive one strength of the Rosenhan’s method(P) One strength of Rosenhan’s method was that it had high ecological validity. (E) This is because the participants were carrying out their observations in actual mental hospitals and were thought to be real patients by the staff. (C) Staff depersonalised the pseudo-patients, often ignoring them and treating them with little respect. However, some real patients suspected that the pseudo-patients were well. Give one weakness of Rosenhan’s method(P) One weakness of Rosenhan’s method was that it was unethical. (E) For example deception was used by (C) This meant that beds which could have been used on genuinely ill patients were used for the pseudopatients.How representative was the sample in Rosenhan’s study?(P)(E)(C) What quantitative data was collected in the study?What qualitative data was collected in the study?How useful is Rosenhan’s study?(P)(E)(C)Give one change to the Rosenhan study and say how this would effect results:Section A questions – test your knowledge:In the Rosenhan study;Name two of the pseudopatients’ behaviours which were taken as evidence of abnormality (2 marks)Outline one reason which it is difficult to define abnormality and normality (2 marks)Rosenhan suggested that mental patients experienced powerlessness and depersonalisation.Give two examples to support this (2 marks)Outline one possible explanation for the behaviour of staff in this study (2 marks)Rosenhan used the phrase ‘stickiness of labels’What did he mean by this phrase (2 marks)Give one example of how the label ‘schizophrenic’ affected the way the pseudopatient’s behaviour was interpreted by the staff (2 marks)4. In the study by Rosenhan the pseudopatients were incorrectly diagnosed as schizophrenic. Give two possible explanation why the hospital staff made this mistake (4 marks)Using the Rosenhan study:Describe the method used in your chosen study and give one advantage of using this method.(6 marks)Describe two ethical issues in your chosen study.(6 marks)With reference to your chosen study, give one reason why the researchers had to break the ethical guidelines and one reason why they should not have done so.(6 marks)Suggest how your study could be made more ethical.(6 marks)Outline the implications of the ethical changes you have made.(8 marks)A Case of Multiple Personality Disorder5480523292902Background & ContextWhat are the symptoms of MPD:1._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________2._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________3._________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________4.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________One view is that MPD is a real disorder and a response to childhood sexual abuse, in which the child forms alternative personalities to deal with the trauma occurring. The other view is that it is a disorder created by the therapist when using hypnosis and guided imagery – the therapist is ‘encouraging’ other personalities to form. DOES MPD EXIST?-139700155575This is a CASE STUDY METHOD. This is a long term, detailed study of an individual or particular group. The case study method is often applied to unusual examples of behaviour which provide important insights into psychological theories. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the case study method?StrengthsWeaknesses√√??…let’s begin …What was the aim of the study?What was the method used to find out about Eve’s condition?Include the following words: 25 year old . Eve White . psychiatrist . hypnotism . letter . Eve Black . 14 months . interviewDear Doctor,Remembering my visit to brought me a great deal of relief to begin with.Just being able to recall the trip seemed enough but now that I’ve had time to think about it and all that occurred it’s more painful than I ever thought possible.How can I be sure that I’ve remember all that happened, even now? How can I know that it won’t happen again? I wonder if I’ll ever be sure of anything again.While I was there with you it seemed different. Somehow it didn’t matter as much to have forgotten but now it does matter. I know it’s something that doesn’t happen lots.I can’t even recall colour schemes and I know that would probably be the first thing I’d notice.My head hurts right on top. It has ever since the day I was down there to see you. I think it must be my eyes. I see little red and green specks and I’m covered with some kind of rash.Baby please me quite clear lord don’t let me lose patience with her she’s too sweet and innocent and my self controlAs you read, jot down words and incidents to describe the two personalities – the first ones have been done for you. Make sure you understand the differences between the two women3.Eve BlackEve White circumspectchildishly daredevilmatter of facterotically mischievousmeticulously truthfulcarefreeA third personality JANE appears. Jot down how she appears and the differences between her and the two Eves. TESTING…TESTING…TESTINGFill in what each of these tests measure?4.Rorschach (projective) =Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale = Wechsler Memory Test = 4034155180975 -26924060325Hypnosis = Drawing of human figures (projective) = EEG Electroencephalogram = 21158201879605247005184150lefttop5. Complete the results of each of these tests:EVE WHITEEVE BLACKJANEPhysiological or Psychological Test?Weschsler Intelligence ScaleWeschsler Memory TestDrawing of Human FiguresRorschachHypnosisEEG What did Thigpen and Cleckley conclude about MPD?What is the evidence to suggest that Eve White had MPD and was not a good actor?40352872596895______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Time to evaluate the study…..Weaknesses of the method:P: A weakness of the case study is that it only provides evidence from one person.E: It was one woman, who was being treated by two therapists.C: It is difficult to generalise these findings, it may be that there was something unusual about her MPD. P: Another weakness of the method is that she was observed and tested by researchers who were also treating her.E: Thigpen and Cleckley were Eve’s therapist but they also believed she was suffering from MPDC: This may create bias as they are looking for signs of MPDStrength of the method:(P) Both qualitative and quantitative data was gathered. (E) For example they tested Eve White, Black and Jane using IQ tests which provide quantitative data and Rorschach inkblot tests providing qualitative data about the personalities. (C) This gives more valid data as the different types of evidence can be compared to see if they agree.Ethics:P: There is an ethical issue with the studyE:C:Sample:P: The sample was not representative. E:C: Usefulness:P: This study is useful in order to find effective treatments for patients with MPDE:C:Section A questions…test your knowledge by answering these short answer questions.All studies raise some ethical dilemmas. Outline two ethical issues raised by the study of split personality by Thigpen & Cleckley.(2 marks)2Using information from the study by Thigpen & Cleckley, explain the difference between having a ‘multiple personality disorder’ and “having different sides to your personality”.(4 marks)3The Thigpen & Cleckley study looks at the controversial diagnosis of “multiple personality”. It is controversial because some people do not believe that there is such a condition as “multiple personality”. Suggest two pieces of evidence from the case study which suggests that the patient really did have multiple personality.(4 marks)4Psychometric measurement attempts to give insight into human behaviour and experience through the use of reliable and standardised tests. This study by Thigpen & Cleckley used number of methods to gather data.a)Identify one psychometric measure that was used in the study.(2 marks)b)Describe one weakness of the psychometric measure used in this study.(2 marks)What was the aim of the Thigpen and Cleckley study?(2 marks)Describe the sample used in the Thigpen and Cleckley study and give one limitation of it (6 marks)(c) Describe how the data was gathered in the study. (6 marks)(d) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of psychometric tests.(6 marks)(e) Suggest two changes to the Thigpen and Cleckley study and outline any impact these would have on the results.(8 marks)(f) Outline the conclusions of the Thigpen and Cleckley study.(8 marks)Where are these features on the slot machine?bet the maximum amountstart the spinnumber of lines betamount won so farcost per playDo you need skill to play this machine or is it just luck???amount of credit left Do you ever gamble on anything? Fruit machines? The lottery?Can you stop yourself from buying more and more lottery tickets, or do you think just one more and I’ll win?Do you know anyone who is a gambler? What is it about them that has caused the addiction? Is there a certain type of person who becomes a gambler? What are they like?BackgroundWhat creates gambling addiction - is it personality? education? environment or a bias in thinking patterns?Wagenaar looked at current and previous research into gambling and concluded that it is influenced by cognitive thought processes, and that it is distortions in peoples thinking (cognitive distortions) which lead them to continue gambling I’m losing because the machine isn’t working properly todayI will win because I am skilful; I am in control not the machine A heuristic is…_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Wagenaar (1988) argued that all of us use heuristics, however, gamblers use heuristics at the wrong time in order to make decisions about how they will gamble. In other words they are creating a set of rules/patterns to work out how they can win.Regular gamblers might be using the wrong heuristics, fill in the examples…….Illusion of ControlFlexible attributionsRepresentative biasHindsight biasAim and HypothesesThe aim of the study was to compare the behaviour of regular and non-regular fruit machine gamblers.Four hypotheses …1234One more nudge and the money is mine …Thinking AloudThis is a great little machine …The next time I will win, it’s due for a payout …50p is that all? **@~~#~...What does thinking aloud mean and why would cognitive psychologists interested in it?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________MethodNon-regular gamblersRegular gamblersThinking aloudNon-thinking aloudThinking aloud 16 44Non-thinking aloud Quasi … why?random allocationWhat are the strengths and weaknesses of a field experiment?StrengthsWeaknesses√√??How were participants recruited?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________There were 29 male regular gamblers and 1 woman, what does this tell us about the nature of gambling?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Procedure:Use these words and images to help you to describe Griffith’s procedure …amusement arcade . poster . regular player . non-regular player . random allocation6030?3thinking aloud . non-thinking aloud . instructions . tape recorded___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________IV = __________Dependent Variables = Number of plays in a sessionUse the fist letter of each of the DVs to make a mnemonic to help you to remember themTotal number of minutes played in one sessionPlay rate – number of plays per minuteEnd Stake – winningsWins – number of winsWin Rate – number of plays between each winResultsFindingsSignificant findings or not?Regular gamblers had a higher play rate than non gamblers 8 vs 6Regular gamblers who though aloud had a lower win rateRegular gamblers spent more time on the machinesThere were no significant differences in the amount of the winnigsUsing the table below, and page 216 of your text book, identify some of the utterance categorisations with examplesutterance categorisation exampleRational or irrational verbalisations?I won forty pence I thinkI lost because I wasn’t concentratingThis machine likes meCursing & swearing eg damnMost frequent irrational verbalisations:Most frequent rational verbalisations:regular gamblersMost frequent irrational verbalisations:Most frequent rational verbalisations:Irregular gamblersWhat did Griffith conclude?Time to evaluate the study…..Weaknesses of the method:P: The validity of the ‘thinking aloud’ technique can be questionedE: C:. P: The inter-rater reliability was lowE: C: Strength of the method:P: The ecological validity of the study was very high.E:C:P: There was high validity in the studyE: A number of techniques were used to understand the cognitive processes of gamblersC: Such as….SampleP: The sample was biasE:C:DataP: Both quantitative and qualitative data was collected. E:C: Usefulness:P: This study is useful in order to E:C:Section A questions…test your knowledge by answering these short answer questions;1a) Explain one of the four hypotheses in Griffiths study(2 marks)b) Explain how evidence was collected to support this hypothesis(2 marks)2a) Explain what a heuristic is(2 marks).b) Describe one of the heuristics that might explain gambling behaviour.(2 marks)3. In Griffiths’ study of gambling describe one similarity and one difference that were found between regular and non-regular gamblers.(4 marks)4. Griffith used a method called ‘thinking aloud’ to gain insight into gamblers behaviour.a) Briefly outline what this method involved.(2 marks)b) Give one weakness of using this method to assess gambling.(2 marks)5a) Identify two dependent variables used to objectively measure skill.(2 marks)b) For one of these variables state the associated finding.(2 marks)SECTION B QUESTIONWhat was the aim of Griffiths study?(2 marks)Describe the sample used in the Griffiths study and give one limitation of it.(6 marks)Describe how data was gathered in the Griffiths study.(6 marks)Give one advantage and one disadvantage of experimental studies.(6 marks)Suggest two changes to the Griffiths study and outline any methodological implications these changes may have.(8 marks)Outline the results of the Griffiths study.(8 marks)Ch … ch…ch… changes …You could be asked to make changes/improvements to the studies and to say what effect these changes might have on the result. Complete the following table:StudyWhat change would you makeWhat would be the effect of the change?GRIFFITHSROSENHANTHIGPEN & CLECKLEYIn the Core Studies exam, you could be asked a question on the Individual Differences approach in Psychology. The question could look something like this:-Outline one assumption of the individual differences approach in psychology.(2)Describe how the individual differences approach could explain gambling.(4)Describe one similarity and one difference between any two individual differences studies.(6)Discuss strengths and weaknesses of the individual differences approach using any examples from individual differences approach studies.(12)Task (a) – What are the assumptions of the individual differences approach?This approach assumes that:-That all human beings are uniqueThat human beings will be different in terms of intelligence, personality, lifestyles etcThese differences make it difficult to categorise our behaviourSome behaviour is normal and some abnormal and often this is difficult to defineAnswer part a here …________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Task (b) What behaviours does the individual differences approach explain?Rosenhan How difficult it is to define normal & abnormalTries to distinguish between sanity & insanityHighlights the dangers of ‘labelling’Thigpen & CleckleyCase studyProvides an insight into the abnormal mindPresents first case of MPD which is often written about but seldom documentedGriffithsTries to explain gambling behaviourExamines the different cognitive styles in gamblers and non-gamblersDescribe how the individual differences approach explains the difficulties in diagnosing abnormality.(4)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Describe how the individual differences approach explains multiple personality disorder.(4)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Describe how the individual differences approach explains gambling behaviour. (4)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Task (c) Similarities & Differences!!!SimilaritiesRosenhanThigpen & CleckleyGriffithsRosenhanSimilarities : SimilaritiesThigpen & CleckleyDifferences; SimilaritiesGriffithsDifferencesDifferences Describe one similarity and one difference between any two individual differences studies.(6)_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________rightbottom_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Task (d) – Strengths & Weaknesses of Individual Differences Approach …WeaknessesMay be subjectiveTests may have problems of reliability & validityCase studies are difficult to generalise fromRarity of cases makes it difficult to generalisePossibility of too much qualitative dataLack of objectivityStrengthsCase studies are useful in therapyPsychometric testing can allow comparisons between individualsQualitative data is rich & detailedResearch has many practical applicationsHelpful to focus on individual rather than general behavioursProvides a useful warning about generalising too much from behavioursDiscuss strengths and weaknesses of the individual differences approach using any examples from individual differences approach studies.(12)PointExampleCommentParagraph 1One strength is …Paragraph 2Another strength is …Paragraph 3One weakness is …Paragraph 4Another weakness is … ................
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