Class, Race, and Gender



Class, Race, and Gender

Structured Inequalities

Class, race, and gender organize society as a whole and create a variety of contexts for family living through their unequal distribution of social opportunities.

They are forms of stratification that foster group-based inequalities.

They distribute social resources and opportunities differently.

Life chances

They are relational systems of power and subordination.

They are interconnected systems of inequality.

Matrix of domination

Families can be a place to resist inequality

Social stratification: structured (socially patterned) inequality

Groups are socially defined & treated unequally

Class

Persons occupying the same relative economic rank form a social class.

Striking differences in income; growing gap between top 1/5 & bottom 1/5

Occupation is the most frequently used indicator of class.

Determines income, opportunity, lifestyle

Cultural explanations of class

Each class is viewed as having a distinctive culture.

Comparisons between the classes usually turn out to be “deficit” accounts of lower-status families.

Culture of poverty, underclass

Cultural explanations obscure or ignore the social and material realities of class.

Rodman: “lower class family traits” are actually solutions to problems faced by lower class people

Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID): families experience short-term spells of poverty as result of dramatic changes (divorce, sudden unemployment, serious illness)

Structural Explanations of Class

Examine the ways in which social class shapes the networks of relationships between families, individuals, and institutions.

Focus on relationships of power between class groups

The key to social class is not occupation, but the control one has in one’s work, the work of others, decision making, & investments.

Different connections with society’s opportunity structure produce & require unique family adaptations

Class privileges (advantages, prerogatives, options available to middle & upper classes) shape family relationships

Class structure organizes families differently

Poverty, wage earning, affluent salaries, & inherited wealth create different material advantages, differences in the amount of control over others, and class differences in how families are shaped & how they operate

Gender cuts across class & race racial divisions

Class-Based Family Differences

Families in Poverty (Lower Class)

Lack of opportunities make nuclear family difficult to sustain: poor are more likely to expand family boundaries, use larger network of kin than nonpoor

Poverty reduces the likelihood of marriage: undermines the availability of economically secure partners

Blue-Collar Families (Working Class)

Largest single group of families

Economic changes, increased vulnerability move these families farther from idealized nuclear family model: pioneers of contemporary family patterns

Interact more with kin than middle class families do

Middle Class Families

Idealized family form

Many sustain middle class status through wives’ employment

Able to rely on non-familial institutions (rather than kin) such as medical coverage, credit at banks

Families of Professionals (Upper Middle Class)

Likely to merge spheres of work & family: leisure activities revolve around occupational concerns & associates, family life often subordinate to husband-father’s occupation

Autonomy of nuclear family is strengthened by economic resources & built-in ties with supportive institutions

Wealthy Families (Upper Class)

Economic power based on wealth (not income) provides opportunities not available to other families: ability to generate additional resources

Family lifestyles made possible by control over labor of others

Family boundaries are more open than those of middle class: includes extended family, kin-based family form serves to preserve inherited wealth

Class boundaries are more rigidly drawn: marriage market restricted to small (but national) pool of eligible partners linked by exclusive schools, colleges, clubs, resorts

Marriage is more than legal-emotional commitment; it is a means for concentrating capital & maintaining in-group solidarity

Gendered division of labor maintains class solidarity: women’s philanthropic work serves “gate-keeping” function, preserves institutions that benefit family & class

Race

Race is a socially defined reality, not a biological reality.

DNA evidence from Human Genome Project

Racial categories are the basis for allocating social resources & differential distribution of power, privilege, and prestige.

Racial formation: society is continually creating & transforming racial categories (Mexican American > Hispanic, Japanese American > Asian American)

Race is used for socially identifying groups based on physical differences

Ethnicity identifies distinctive national origin, language, religion, culture (social differences)

Racial-ethnic groups are socially subordinated & remain culturally distinct within the U.S.

Macro Structural Inequalities and Racial-Ethnic Families

Racial stratification produces different opportunity structures that shape families in a variety of ways.

Segregation, employment problems, poverty are barriers to family well-being & family formation which result in racial-ethnic family arrangements (& even their definitions of what families are) which differ from the idealized family

Extended kinship systems, “fictive kin”, & informal support networks spread across multiple households are produced by racial & economic conditions that fail to meet family needs

Racism results in limited economic resources and inferior living conditions for many racial-ethnic families.

Great disparity in income level have persisted over time

Even wider gap in wealth

Poverty rate for African American & Latino families 3x that of White families

African American Families

Over the last 40 years, increases in female-headed households, marital disruptions, out-of-wedlock births, & % of children living in poverty have resulted in African American families being less conventional & more diverse in their structure & composition than White families

Social, demographic, and economic factors underlie the lower marriage rates and higher divorce rates of blacks.

Gender ratio: women outnumber men in the 20-49 age range

High unemployment, low wages & little job security for men

Economic conditions make marriage less important than kinship

Blacks are more likely than whites to reside in extended family households.

“Othermothers”

Underclass debate

Single parent families are the cause of poverty vs. single parent families are the consequence of economic deprivation

Two parent family is no guarantee against poverty for minorities

Latino Families

Poverty rates for Hispanics have risen in the past decade.

Highest among Mexicans and Puerto Ricans

Causes of poverty across Latino communities differ

Extended kinship systems in Chicano families

Familism refers to an obligation to, and an orientation toward, one’s nuclear and extended families.

Develops as a strategy for surviving difficult economic circumstances

Four components: demographic, structural, normative, behavioral

Compadrazgo system includes two sets of “fictive kin”

Among immigrants, family extension is a classic adaptation

Mexican extended families in U.S. become stronger & more extensive through successive generations & socioeconomic mobility

Human Agency and Family Formation

People of color have acclimated to difficult circumstances by adapting their household structures (compadrazgo, othermothers, household augmentation).

Gender

Gender, like race and class, is a basic organizing principle of society.

Social & cultural definitions of masculinity & femininity are the basis for treating men & women differently: dividing labor, assigning roles, allocating social rewards

Gender system denies both women and men the full range of human & social possibilities

Two Ways of Thinking about Gender

The Traditional Gender Roles Approach

Biology, history, and the needs of society naturally separate women and men into distinctive roles.

Gender inequality is a consequence of behavior learned by individual women & men.

This perspective ignores what is most important about roles—that they are unequal in power, resources, and opportunities.

The Family as a Gendered Institution

The gendered institution perspective holds that gender is a factor in the assumptions, practices, and power dynamics of U.S. institutions.

Patriarchy (forms of social organization in which men are dominant over women) shapes families along with other social institutions.

Private, public, capitalist patriarchy

Structured gender inequality interacts with other inequalities such as race, class, & sexuality to sort women & men differently.

These inequalities also work together to produce differences among women & differences among men

In general, men gain privileges at the expense of women

Domestic division of labor (kind & amount of work done in the home) limits women’s occupational opportunities

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