Directive and intirect spech



New American connection book grammar

For Hewad students

Content

Direct and indirect speech 2

1: direct speech: 2

Rule of basic changes: 3

The rule of changing pronouns 4

The rule lf changing the tense: 5

Practice: 7

Reasons: 7

In the following cause the reporting speech will be in the future tense. 9

Passive voice 10

Intransitive verb: 11

Transitive and in transitive verb 11

Basic rules of changing active voice into passive voice 12

Usage of Passive voice in tenses 12

The past prefect tens 13

The usages of the past prefect tense: 14

The present perfect continues tense 15

The past perfect continuous tense 17

Usage of past perfect continuous tense: 18

Conditional sentences 19

There are five kinds of conditional sentence / if sentence: 19

Used to 20

Affirmative formula 20

Interrogative formula 21

Direct and indirect speech

1: direct speech:

In direct speech we convey the message of speaker in his own actual words with out any change to an others person.

2: indirect speech:

In indirect speech/narration, we convey the message of speaker in our words to other person.

|Direct speech |Indirect speech |

|He says “ I shall go with |He says that he will go with you. |

|You”. | |

|She says, ”I could not work “. |She says that she could not work. |

|Ali says, “I am sick”. |Ali says that he is sick. |

|She will say, “I am your cousin” |She will say that she is my cousin. |

Note: this “,” sing is called comma and these (‘‘/” “) are called inverted comma.

Note: the part of a sentence which is between inverted comma is called reported speech and the part of sentence which is not between inverted comma is called reporting speech.

He says to me ” I am sick”

Reporting speech reported speech

Assad says to Him “I am working hard”

Reporting speech reported speech

She says to me. “I am cheating him”

Reporting speech reported speech

Rule of basic changes:

If we change direct speech into indirect speech we act upon the following basic change:

1: remover comma and inverted comma.

2: put”that” between reporting and reported speech.

3: change the capital letter of reported speech into small letter.

4: change the verb and Helping verb of the reported speech according change of pronoun.

|Direct speech |Indirect speech |

|She says, “I am brave “. |She says that she is brave. |

|He says, “I am working hard “. |He says that he is working hard. |

|He says, “I am joking”. |He says that he is joking. |

|He says, “he is good person”. |He says that he is a good person. |

The rule of changing pronouns

If we change direct speech into indirect speech the pronoun will change in the following rule way.

1: the first person of reported speech change according to the subject of reporting speech

2: the second person of reported speech change according to the object of reporting speech.

3: the third person of reported speech doesn’t change.

|Direct speech |Indirect speech |

|She says “I can work”. |She says that she can work. |

|He says, “my brother studies in Hewad. |He says that his brother studies in Hewad. |

|They say,” we will defeat them”. |They say that they will defeat them. |

|You say, “my father is a teacher”. |You say that Your father is a teacher. |

|I say, “I have finished my work”. |I say that I have finished my work. |

|He says to her, “I am Your father”. |He says to her the he is her father. |

|They say to us, “we are your friends”. |They say to us that they are our friend. |

|She says to him,”you cannot do work”. |She says to him that he cannot do work |

|We say to them, “your brother is naughty”. |We say to them that their brother is naughty. |

|They say to me, “you are not teaching us”. |They say to me that I am not teaching them. |

Note: when there is second person in the reported speech and there is not object in reporting speech, the second person of reported speech will change according to situation to first person, second person or third person.

Ex:

He said “you are wasting my time (direct speech)

He said that I was wasting his time.

He said that you were wasting his time.

He said that he was wasting his time.

Note 2:

If there is first person plural in reported speech and the subject of reporting speech is 3rd person singular the first person plural of reported speech will change into third person plural.

Ex:

He says, “We are working hard”. Direct

He says that they are working hard indirect.

The rule lf changing the tense:

If we change direct speech into indirect speech we will change into following ways.

1: if the reporting speech is in the present or the future, the reported speech doesn’t change, it can be in the present, past or future tenses.

If the reporting speech is in the pass the reported speech will change into following tense.

1: the present tense into past.

2: the present continuous change into past continuous tense.

3: the present prefect tense change into past prefect tense.

4: the present prefect continuous tense change into the past prefect continuous tense.

5: past tense change into the past prefect tense.

6: the past continuous tens change into the past prefect continuous 7; tense, the past perfect and the past prefect continuous tenses don’t change.

8: In all future tenses,” shall” changes into should and “will” change into would.

|Direct speech |Indirect speech |

|He says “don’t work with them” |He says that he does not work with them |

|She will say, “I have waited for them” |She will say that she has waited for them. |

|You said, “I play very well”. |You said that you played very well. |

|They said, “we are playing with out teacher”, |They said that they were playing with their teacher. |

|She said, “my sister has gone to Kabul” |She said that her sister had gone to Kabul. |

|Nadir said, “I have been playing since morning”. |Nadir said that he had been playing since morning. |

|He said, “I was working with my brother”. |He said that he had been working with his brother. |

|You said, “ I went to bazaar with my father. |You said that you had gone to bazaar with your father. |

|She said, “I had already cleaned the room”. |She said that she had already cleaned the room. |

|They said, “ we had been working for two hours”, |They said that they had been working for two hours |

|He said, “my mother will go with me to Kabul”, |He said his mother would go with him to Kabul |

|I said, “they will not come again”. |I said that they would not come again. |

|She said, “I will be sleeping”. |She said that she would be sleeping |

|He said, “I would have been reading for two hours”. |He said that he would have been reading for two hours. |

|Qari said, “god is kind and merciful”. |Qari said that God is kind and merciful. |

Practice:

Change the following direct sentence into indirect

She said, “I go to school every day”, he says, “ I work hard”, they said, “we are playing football”, they will say “we are playing”, he said, “ I have bought a car”, she said, “ I wend to college “ you said, “we were helping them”, you say “ we were helping them”, the said “we defeated them when he came”. She said to him “you will not pass” the said to me “ you will be the chief quest” she said to him, “ you father will be sleeping” he said to him, “ you will have eaten the food before I come” she said to me , we have ,already defeated them”, they said to me, “you deceived تیرایستل us, he said to her, “you were not working hared that is why you failed”, you said to me “ I will buy you a car’. You said to him, “ I am joking with you” she said to us “ you teased my friend”, they said to us, “ we have sent you a card”. He said me I have finished my work”.

Note: because of some reasons “would” is used more than should even in the place of should “would” is preferred.

Reasons:

1: now days “will is preferred instead of “shall “with first person,

2: because of changing of first person into third of second person

|Direct speech |Indirect speech |

|I said, “ I will do this work”. |I said that I would do this work |

|He said, “I shall work here”. |He said that he would work her”. |

|You said, “I shall type this letter”. |You said that you would type that letter. |

Note: when there are two sentences combined with the help of a conjunction and both sentences have go different tense.

If change such kind of sentences from direct into indirect, we change the tenses or both sentences according to rule

Ex:

He said, “They have already slept when I reached there”.

He said that they had already slept when he had reached there.

She said, “He will have finished his work before we reached there”.

She said that he would have finished his work before they reached there.

Note: in the following cases the reporting speech will be in the present tense.

1: when the conversation is continued

ex: he says “I don like them”

he says that he does not like them.

2: when some one is talking by phone and whatever he is listening to he is reporting to another person .

ex:

he says “I will come tomorrow”

He says that he will come the next day.

3: if a person reports a statement time and again.

Ex:

He always says “ I will not leave him”

He says that he will not live him.

4: if some one is reading a letter for illiterate person.

Ex:

He has written in the letter “I will sent two thousand for her”

He writes that he has sent two thousand for her.

5: if some read the instructions of an institution or a department etc and reports it to anther person.

Ex

It says that students can not take part in politics.

6: for conveying message to another person.

Ex:

Father says that you should do that work first.

In the following cause the reporting speech will be in the future tense.

1: when some one predicts some thing about some one (it means when some one says some thing about some one that he/she will say like this)

ex:

he will say “ I don have money”

he will say that he doesn’t have money.

She will say “ I don’t like this place”

She will say that she don’t like that place.

They will say “ we are working”

They will say that they are working.

Note: if shall is being used as a suggestion or an offer to do some thing for some one “ shall” will change into “should”

Ex:

Direct: he said “ shall I close the door? “

Indirect: He asked if /whether he should close the door.

The rule of changing “here and now words”

If we change direct into indirect the following words are changed into the following ways.

1. “this” change in to that/the

2. “these” change into those

3. “now” …………………………then/right away

4. “tomorrow” the next day/ the following day/the coming day.

5. the day after tomorrow” in two days time

6. “yesterday: the previous day/ the last day/ the day before.

7. the day before yesterday. To days before.

8. to day that day.

9. to right that right

• last night that night

• here there

• hither thither

• come go

• go come

• ago before

• sir and madam respectfully good/morning/after noon/evening/ greeted

• good night /good bye/ fare well don’t change

• hello , hallo نمانحل, yes no alright are removed

• next (Sunday, months year etc) ……..the previous ( Sunday, months and etc)

Passive voice

When doer of work is the subject of the sentence that is called active voice.

When the affected person or thing is the subject of the sentence that sentence is called passive voice.

Ex:

|He is seeking them active |هغه په دوی پسی پلتنه کوی |

|They are being sought by him passive |په دوی پسی د هغه په زریعه پلتنه کیزی |

|She is praising you active |او شما را ستایش می کند |

|You are being praised by her |شما توسط او ستایش می شوید |

Before starting passive voice you need to know some verb’s rules:

Transitive verb can change from active voice into passive voice because it has object.

Like

He is eating an apple, active = an apple is being eaten by him. Passive

Intransitive verb: intransitive verb don’t change from active voice into passive voice in literary English because it doesn’t have object.

He is dying active = no passive

She is sleeping active = no passive

He is running active = no passive

But intransitive verb can be change from active voice into passive voice in colloquial English

|Active |Passive |

|She is sleeping |The action of sleeping is being done by her. |

|He is running |The action of running is being done by him. |

|They are coming. |The action of coming is being done by them |

|She is smiling |The action of smiling is being done by her. |

Transitive and in transitive verb: T AND IN some time change and some time don’t change to passive voice:

|Active |Passive |

|She is sweeping |No passive |

|She is sweeping the room |The room is being swept by her. |

Basic rules of changing active voice into passive voice

1. Subject is change into object.

2. Object is change into subject.

3. The first and the second form of the verb is change into the third form of the verb.

4. After third from of the word “by” is coming.

5. I is changed into “me”

6. he is changed into “him”

7. she is changed into “her”

8. they is change into “them”

9. we is changed into “ us”

10. You and it are not changed.

Usage of Passive voice in tenses

The present indefinite tense

To change the present indefinite tense from active voice into passive voice “ am is are “are used as helping verb.

|Active |Passive |

|He teaches her |She is taught by her. |

|S v o |S h.v v prep o |

|She helps me |I am helped by her. |

|S v o |S h.v v perp o |

|They invite us |We are invited by them. |

Different between active and passive

|Active |Passive |

|V = 1v |V = 3v |

|h.v = do, does |h.v = is am are |

Simple, negative, interrogative, and nag & int. sentence

|Active |Passive |

|They console him |He is consoled by them |

|Do they console him? |Is he consoled by them? |

|They don’t console him. |He is not consoled by them. |

|Do the no console him? |Is he not consoled by them? |

|Don’t they console him? |Isn’t he consoled by them? |

Practice:

Change the following active sentences to Passive sentence:

1: they repeat the exercise, 2: we play chess, 3: they forget us, 4: she teaches English, 5: he writes a story, 6: you save him, 7: I console them, 8: she sews a dress, 9: he pinches him, 10: bungles his car.

The past prefect tens

It describes and action completed in the past before a certain moment

POSITIVE SENTENCE

H.V = had

S+(H.V)+3V +O .

NEGATIVE

S+ H.V+3V+O+.

AFFIRMATIVE

(H.V)+ S +3V +O +.

Ex:

They had eaten the food دوی دودی خوړلی وه

She had gone to aHerat.

We had not gone to Herat.

Had you gone to Herat?

Had they not gone to Herat

The usages of the past prefect tense:

The past prefect tense performs the same function in the past as the present prefect tense does in the present.

|Present |Past |

|I haven’t seen him for long time |I hadn’t seen him for long time. |

|We haven’t heard any thing from him. |We hadn’t heard any thing form him. |

|They haven’t bought the house. |The had not bought the house. |

2: the present prefect tense express that an action completed in the past before an other action.

We had eaten food when they came.

The junior doctor had operated the patient when the senior doctor came.

The robber had robed the bank when the police came.

He had killed him when the nation arm arrived.

Note: the words ( when, before, because ) can work as a conjunction between the pas prefect and the past indefinite tense.

Ex:

Robber had robed the bank before police came.

They disconnected his line because he had not deposited the bill.

The present perfect continues tense

It denotes an action that started in the past and s still continuing

Usage of the present perfect continues tense

1:

the present perfect continues tense is used for the action which begins in the past and continue up to the time speaking in the present:

Note: we usually mention the point and the period of time with the help lf ’since’ and ’for’

EX:

T has been raining since morning.

They have been playing for two hours.

2:

the present prefect continues tense is used for the action which have been happening in the past and their signs of happing are presents in the presents at the time lf speaking :

EX:

Someone has been wearing my shoes.

Somebody has been using my shaving cream.

Somebody has been smoking my cigarettes.

3:

the present perfect continues tense is used for the actions which are changing or developing or increasing continuously

ex

The price of petrol has been increasing

Their problems have been increasing.

POSITIVE SENTENCE

H.V = have been/has been

S+(H.V)+V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.O

NEGATIVE

S+ HAVE/HAS +NOT +BEEN +V-ING +O- +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.O

AFFIRMATIVE

(H.V)+ S +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME- +E.P.O

EX:

The have been playing since morning.

She has been sleeping since yesterday

They have not been playing since morning

She has not been sleeping since yesterday

Have they been playing since morning?

Has she been sleeping since morning?

The past perfect continuous tense

It denotes an action that started at a particular time in the past and was still in progress.

Note:

We can mention the period of time or the point of time of an action with help of “since and “fore”

POSITIVE SENTENCE

H.V = had been

S+ (H.V) +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.O

NEGATIVE

S+ HAVE/HAS +NOT +BEEN +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.O

AFFIRMATIVE

(H.V)+ S +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.O

EX:

They had been playing since morning.

She had been sleeping since yesterday

They had not been playing since morning

She had not been sleeping since yesterday

Had they been playing since morning?

Had she been sleeping since morning?

Question: what is the different between the past continuous and past perfect continuous tense?

Answer: the first difference: we usually mention the period of time or the point of time in past perfect continuous tense with the help of since or for we can mention only common time or with out period of time or point of an action in past continues tens.

Ex:

|Past continues tense |Past perfect continues tense |

|They were fighting (yesterday) |They had been fighting since yesterday |

|I was waiting for you |I had been waiting for you for two hours. |

Usage of past perfect continuous tense:

1: the past perfect progressive is used for the action which was in progress since a specified point of or period of time in the past.

Ex:

We had been playing since morning.

They had been fighting for two hours.

2: the past perfect continuous tense is used for the actions which had been happening in the past.

Ex

I locked my shoes because some one has been using them.

I left keeping my cigarettes on the table because some had been stealing them.

3:

The past

The past perfect continuous tense for the action with stress/emphasis which was in progress before an others action or an other time in the past.

We had been going to their house until their father’s death.

He had been teaching us until we became teacher.

The had been waiting for him at four o’clock when he came at 7 o’clock.

Conditional sentences

Definition: there are two parts in conditional sentence, one is called if clause or conditional clause and the second is called main clause or result clause, in if clause/conditional clause we say a condition and the main/result clause we say the result of the said condition.

Ex:

|If clause |Main clause |

|If Hassina works hard |She will pass the exam. |

|If they had played well. |They would have won the match |

There are five kinds of conditional sentence / if sentence:

1: type 1/ fist conditional/ the will condition.

2: type 2:/ second conditional/ the would conditional

3: type 3: third conditional. / The would have condition.

4: mixed conditional sentence.

5: zero conditional.

Type 1/ first conditional

1 : in type 1: we predict about the result of the action.

2: In type 1: we say such kind of conditions, which are probable, possible and expressed to happen and if the condition is fulfilled, the result will be expected to happen.

3: the tense if the if clause is present not future but the meaning is some time in the present and sometime in the future.

Formula:

If clause main clause

If + S + present indefinite tense +,+S+ future indefinite tense

Note: change are possible both in if and main clause

Here we predict about the result of a condition, we say that if this condition happens like this the result of it will be like this.

Ex:

If S. Mohammad runs fast, he will win the race.

If Najeeb works hard, he will pass the exam.

Used to

Used+1V:

Used+V1 is used for those past habits which we don’t used now

Note:

Pronunciation-’d’ of used to is silent it is pronounce “use to”

Affirmative formula

S + used to + 1V + o +.

Negative formula

s + didn’t + use to + 1V + o +.

Interrogative formula

Did + s + use to + 1V +o +?

Ex:

I used to play football.

I did not use to play football.

Or

I used not to play football

Did I use to play football?

Or

Used i to play football?

What did you used to play?

Where did you used to read?

How did you used to go to the school?

Used to + be

Used to is used for past condition or state of a person, a thing or a place.

Ghazni used to be a peaceful

Improved transition: تيريدنه،اوشتنه، ارونه

The charactersحيثيت او مقام ، كيفيت يا بنه in Book A face a moral dilemmaد اسي يو حالت چه يو سري مجبوروي ، مشكل انتخاب, a contestedمجادله كول ، مسابقه كول .

Examples of Transitions:

Illustration n, حركندونه، توضيح شرح

Thus, for example, for instance, namelyيعني ، په نامه, to illustrate, in other words, in particular, specifically, such as.

Contrastد پرتله كيدو له مخي د توپيرحركنديدل

On the contrary,په ضد يا خلاف contrarily, notwithstanding,سرله دي ، سربيره بردي but, howeverپه هر حال، خوبيا هم ، سرله دي, nevertheless,سره له دي in spite ofپه ضد , in contrast, yet, on one hand, on the other hand, rather, or, norاو نه هم , converselyپه مخالف دول, at the same time, while this may be true.

Addition

And, in addition to, furthermoreعلاوه پردي, moreoverبرسيره پردي ،‌بله داچي , besides, than, too, also, both-and, another, equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as, in the second place, next, likewiseهمدادول, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequentlyپه نتيجه كشي , in the same way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore, otherwise.

Time

After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime, immediately, eventually, concurrentlyهمزمان، په يووخت كشي پيشدل , simultaneously.جوخت، همزمان، غبرگ

Space

At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath, under, around, above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight, across, under, nearer, djacent, in the background.

Concessionاميتاز ، تيريدنه

Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of course.

Similarity or Comparison

Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to

Emphasis

Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides, also, furthermore, in addition.

Details

Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate,شميرل، گنل in detail, namelyيعني ، , including.

Examples

For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.

Consequenceپايله ، نتجه ، or Result

So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, so, because, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.

Summary

Therefore, finally, consequently, منتج thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result, accordingly

Suggestion

For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore:

Glossary of English Grammar Terms

This glossary of English grammar terms relates to the English language. Some terms here may have additional or extended meanings when applied to other languages. For example, "case" in some languages applies to pronouns and nouns. In English, nouns do not have case and therefore no reference to nouns is made in its definition here.

 

|Term |Definition |

|active voice |one of two voices in English; a direct form of expression where the subject |

| |performs or "acts" the verb; see also passive voice |

| |eg: "Many people eat rice" |

|adjective |part of speech that typically describes or "modifies" a noun |

| |eg: "It was a big dog." |

|adjective clause |seldom-used term for relative clause |

|Adjunct |Word or phrase that adds information to a sentence and that can be removed |

|مل: فرعي، مرستيال، ضميمه، ( ګر ) معترضه فقره، هغه |from the sentence without making the sentence ungrammatical |

|كلمه يا فقره چې په مبتدا او خبر كې زياتوالى راولي ( |eg: I met John at school. |

|منطق ) عرض: مل، صفت، الحاقي برخه. | |

| | |

|adverb |word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb |

| |eg: quickly, really, very |

|adverbial clause |dependent clause that acts like an adverb and indicates such things as time, |

| |place or reason |

| |eg: Although we are getting older, we grow more beautiful each day. |

|affirmative |statement that expresses (or claims to express) a truth or "yes" meaning; |

| |opposite of negative |

| |eg: The sun is hot. |

|affix |language unit (morpheme) that occurs before or after (or sometimes within) the|

| |root or stem of a word |

| |eg: un- in unhappy (prefix), -ness in happiness (suffix) |

|agreement |logical (in a grammatical sense) links between words based on tense, case or |

|(also known as "concord") |number |

| |eg: this phone, these phones |

|antecedent |word, phrase or clause that is replaced by a pronoun (or other substitute) |

| |when mentioned subsequently (in the same sentence or later) |

| |eg: "Emily is nice because she brings me flowers." |

|appositive |noun phrase that re-identifies or describes its neighboring noun |

| |eg: "Canada, a multicultural country, is recognized by its maple leaf flag." |

|article |determiner that introduces a noun phrase as definite (the) or indefinite |

| |(a/an) |

|aspect |feature of some verb forms that relates to duration or completion of time; |

| |verbs can have no aspect (simple), or can have continuous or progressive |

| |aspect (expressing duration), or have perfect or perfective aspect (expressing|

| |completion) |

|auxiliary verb |verb used with the main verb to help indicate something such as tense or voice|

|(also called "helping verb") |eg: I do not like you. She has finished. He can swim. |

|bare infinitive |unmarked form of the verb (no indication of tense, mood, person, or aspect) |

| |without the particle "to"; typically used after modal auxiliary verbs; see |

| |also infinitive |

| |eg: "He should come", "I can swim" |

|base form |basic form of a verb before conjugation into tenses etc |

| |eg: be, speak |

|case |form of a pronoun based on its relationship to other words in the sentence; |

| |case can be subjective, objective or possessive |

| |eg: "I love this dog", "This dog loves me", "This is my dog" |

|causative verb |verb that causes things to happen such as "make", "get" and "have"; the |

| |subject does not perform the action but is indirectly responsible for it |

| |eg: "She made me go to school", "I had my nails painted" |

|clause |group of words containing a subject and its verb |

| |eg: "It was late when he arrived" |

|comparative, |form of an adjective or adverb made with "-er" or "more" that is used to show |

|comparative adjective |differences or similarities between two things (not three or more things) |

| |eg: colder, more quickly |

|complement |part of a sentence that completes or adds meaning to the predicate |

| |eg: Mary did not say where she was going. |

|compound noun |noun that is made up of more than one word; can be one word, or hyphenated, or|

| |separated by a space |

| |eg: toothbrush, mother-in-law, Christmas Day |

|compound sentence |sentence with at least two independent clauses; usually joined by a |

| |conjunction |

| |eg: "You can have something healthy but you can't have more junk food." |

|concord |another term for agreement |

|conditional |structure in English where one action depends on another ("if-then" or |

| |"then-if" structure); most common are 1st, 2nd, and 3rd conditionals |

| |eg: "If I win I will be happy", "I would be happy if I won" |

|conjugate |to show the different forms of a verb according to voice, mood, tense, number |

| |and person; conjugation is quite simple in English compared to many other |

| |languages |

| |eg: I walk, you walk, he/she/it walks, we walk, they walk; I walked, you |

| |walked, he/she/it walked, we walked, they walked |

|conjunction |word that joins or connects two parts of a sentence |

| |eg: Ram likes tea and coffee. Anthony went swimming although it was raining. |

|content word |word that has meaning in a sentence, such as a verb or noun (as opposed to a |

| |structure word, such as pronoun or auxiliary verb); content words are stressed|

| |in speech |

| |eg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME" |

|continuous |verb form (specifically an aspect) indicating actions that are in progress or |

|(also called "progressive") |continuing over a given time period (can be past, present or future); formed |

| |with "BE" + "VERB-ing" |

| |eg: "They are watching TV." |

|contraction |shortening of two (or more) words into one |

| |eg: isn't (is not), we'd've (we would have) |

|countable noun |thing that you can count, such as apple, pen, tree (see uncountable noun) |

| |eg: one apple, three pens, ten trees |

|dangling participle |illogical structure that occurs in a sentence when a writer intends to modify |

| |one thing but the reader attaches it to another |

| |eg: "Running to the bus, the flowers were blooming." (In the example sentence |

| |it seems that the flowers were running.) |

|declarative sentence |sentence type typically used to make a statement (as opposed to a question or |

| |command) |

| |eg: "Tara works hard", "It wasn't funny" |

|defining relative clause |relative clause that contains information required for the understanding of |

|(also called "restrictive relative clause") |the sentence; not set off with commas; see also non-defining clause |

| |eg: "The boy who was wearing a blue shirt was the winner" |

|demonstrative pronoun |pronoun or determiner that indicates closeness to (this/these) or distance |

|demonstrative adjective |from (that/those) the speaker |

| |eg: "This is a nice car", "Can you see those cars?" |

|dependent clause |part of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb but does not form a |

| |complete thought and cannot stand on its own; see also independent clause |

| |eg: "When the water came out of the tap..." |

|determiner |word such as an article or a possessive adjective or other adjective that |

| |typically comes at the beginning of noun phrases |

| |eg: "It was an excellent film", "Do you like my new shirt?", "Let's buy some |

| |eggs" |

|direct speech |saying what someone said by using their exact words; see also indirect speech |

| |eg: "Lucy said: 'I am tired.'" |

|direct object |noun phrase in a sentence that directly receives the action of the verb; see |

| |also indirect object |

| |eg: "Joey bought the car", "I like it", "Can you see the man wearing a pink |

| |shirt and waving a gun in the air?" |

|embedded question |question that is not in normal question form with a question mark; it occurs |

| |within another statement or question and generally follows statement structure|

| |eg: "I don't know where he went," "Can you tell me where it is before you |

| |go?", "They haven't decided whether they should come" |

|finite verb |verb form that has a specific tense, number and person |

| |eg: I work, he works, we learned, they ran |

|first conditional |"if-then" conditional structure used for future actions or events that are |

| |seen as realistic possibilities |

| |eg: "If we win the lottery we will buy a car" |

|fragment |incomplete piece of a sentence used alone as a complete sentence; a fragment |

| |does not contain a complete thought; fragments are common in normal speech but|

| |unusual (inappropriate) in formal writing |

| |eg: "When's her birthday? - In December", "Will they come? - Probably not" |

|function |purpose or "job" of a word form or element in a sentence |

| |eg: The function of a subject is to perform the action. One function of an |

| |adjective is to describe a noun. The function of a noun is to name things. |

|future continuous |tense* used to describe things that will happen in the future at a particular |

|(also called "future progressive") |time; formed with WILL + BE + VERB-ing |

| |eg: "I will be graduating in September." |

|future perfect |tense* used to express the past in the future; formed with WILL HAVE + VERB-ed|

| |eg: "I will have graduated by then" |

|future perfect continuous |tense* used to show that something will be ongoing until a certain time in the|

| |future; formed with WILL HAVE BEEN + VERB-ing |

| |eg: "We will have been living there for three months by the time the baby is |

| |born" |

|future simple |tense* used to describe something that hasn't happened yet such as a |

| |prediction or a sudden decision; formed with WILL + BASE VERB |

| |eg: "He will be late", "I will answer the phone" |

|genitive case |case expressing relationship between nouns (possession, origin, composition |

| |etc) |

| |eg: "John's dog", "door of the car", "children's songs", "pile of sand" |

|gerund |noun form of a verb, formed with VERB-ing |

| |eg: "Walking is great exercise" |

|gradable adjective |adjective that can vary in intensity or grade when paired with a grading |

| |adverb ; see also non-gradable adjective |

| |eg: quite hot, very tall |

|grading adverb |adverb that can modify the intensity or grade of a gradable adjective |

| |eg: quite hot, very tall |

|hanging participle |another term for dangling participle |

|helping verb |another term for auxiliary verb |

|imperative |form of verb used when giving a command; formed with BASE VERB only |

| |eg: "Brush your teeth!" |

|indefinite pronoun |pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague |

| |and "not definite". |

| |eg: anything, each, many, somebody |

|independent clause |group of words that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a |

|(also called "main clause") |sentence; see also dependent clause |

| |eg: "Tara is eating curry.", "Tara likes oranges and Joe likes apples." |

|indirect object |noun phrase representing the person or thing indirectly affected by the action|

| |of the verb; see also direct object |

| |eg: "She showed me her book collection", "Joey bought his wife a new car" |

|indirect question |another term for embedded question |

|indirect speech |saying what someone said without using their exact words; see direct speech |

|(also called "reported speech") |eg: "Lucy said that she was tired" |

|infinitive |base form of a verb preceded by "to"**; see also bare infinitive |

| |eg: "You need to study harder", "To be, or not to be: that is the question" |

|inflection |change in word form to indicate grammatical meaning |

| |eg: dog, dogs (two inflections); take, takes, took, taking, taken (five |

| |inflections) |

|interjection |common word that expresses emotion but has no grammatical value; can often be |

| |used alone and is often followed by an exclamation mark |

| |eg: "Hi!", "er", "Ouch!", "Dammit!" |

|interrogative |(formal) sentence type (typically inverted) normally used when asking a |

| |question |

| |eg: "Are you eating?", "What are you eating?" |

|interrogative pronoun |pronoun that asks a question. |

| |eg: who, whom, which |

|intransitive verb |verb that does not take a direct object; see also transitive verb |

| |e.g. "He is working hard", "Where do you live?" |

|inversion |any reversal of the normal word order, especially placing the auxiliary verb |

| |before the subject; used in a variety of ways, as in question formation, |

| |conditional clauses and agreement or disagreement |

| |eg: "Where are your keys?","Had we watched the weather report, we wouldn't |

| |have gone to the beach", "So did he", "Neither did she" |

|irregular verb |verb that has a different ending for past tense and past participle forms than|

|see irregular verbs list |the regular "-ed"; see also regular verb |

| |eg: buy, bought, bought; do, did, done |

|lexicon, lexis |all of the words and word forms in a language with meaning or function |

|lexical verb |another term for main verb |

|linking verb |verbs that connect the subject to more information (but do not indicate |

| |action), such as "be" or "seem" |

|main clause |another term for independent clause |

|main verb |any verb in a sentence that is not an auxiliary verb; a main verb has meaning |

|(also called "lexical verb") |on its own |

| |eg: "Does John like Mary?", "I will have arrived by 4pm" |

|modal verb |auxiliary verb such as can, could, must, should etc; paired with the bare |

|(also called "modal") |infinitive of a verb |

| |eg: "I should go for a jog" |

|modifier |word or phrase that modifies and limits the meaning of another word |

| |eg: the house => the white house, the house over there, the house we sold last|

| |year |

|mood |sentence type that indicates the speaker's view towards the degree of reality |

| |of what is being said, for example subjunctive, indicative, imperative |

|morpheme |unit of language with meaning; differs from "word" because some cannot stand |

| |alone |

| |e.g. un-, predict and -able in unpredictable |

|multi-word verb |verb that consists of a basic verb + another word or words (preposition and/or|

| |adverb) |

| |eg: get up (phrasal verb), believe in (prepositional verb), get on with |

| |(phrasal-prepositional verb) |

|negative |form which changes a "yes" meaning to a "no" meaning; opposite of affirmative |

| |eg: "She will not come", "I have never seen her" |

|nominative case |another term for subjective case |

|non-defining relative clause |relative clause that adds information but is not completely necessary; set off|

|(also called "non-restrictive relative clause") |from the sentence with a comma or commas; see defining relative clause |

| |eg: "The boy, who had a chocolate bar in his hand, was still hungry" |

|non-gradable adjective |adjective that has a fixed quality or intensity and cannot be paired with a |

| |grading adverb; see also gradable adjective |

| |eg: freezing, boiling, dead |

|non-restrictive relative clause |another term for non-defining relative clause |

|noun |part of speech that names a person, place, thing, quality, quantity or |

| |concept; see also proper noun and compound noun |

| |eg: "The man is waiting", "I was born in London", "Is that your car?", "Do you|

| |like music?" |

|noun clause |clause that takes the place of a noun and cannot stand on its own; often |

| |introduced with words such as "that, who or whoever" |

| |eg: "What the president said was surprising" |

|noun phrase (NP) |any word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun that can function in a |

| |sentence as a subject, object or prepositional object; can be one word or many|

| |words; can be very simple or very complex |

| |eg: "She is nice", "When is the meeting?", "The car over there beside the |

| |lampost is mine" |

|number |change of word form indicating one person or thing (singular) or more than one|

| |person or thing (plural) |

| |eg: one dog/three dogs, she/they |

|object |thing or person affected by the verb; see also direct object and indirect |

| |object |

| |eg: "The boy kicked the ball", "We chose the house with the red door" |

|objective case |case form of a pronoun indicating an object |

| |eg: "John married her", "I gave it to him" |

|part of speech |one of the classes into which words are divided according to their function in|

| |a sentence |

| |eg: verb, noun, adjective |

|participle |verb form that can be used as an adjective or a noun; see past participle, |

| |present participle |

|passive voice |one of two voices in English; an indirect form of expression in which the |

| |subject receives the action; see also active voice |

| |eg: "Rice is eaten by many people" |

|past tense |tense used to talk about an action, event or situation that occurred and was |

|(also called "simple past") |completed in the past |

| |eg: "I lived in Paris for 10 years", "Yesterday we saw a snake" |

|past continuous |tense often used to describe an interrupted action in the past; formed with |

| |WAS/WERE + VERB-ing |

| |eg: "I was reading when you called" |

|past perfect |tense that refers to the past in the past; formed with HAD + VERB-ed |

| |eg: "We had stopped the car" |

|past perfect continuous |tense that refers to action that happened in the past and continued to a |

| |certain point in the past; formed with HAD BEEN + VERB-ing |

| |eg: "I had been waiting for three hours when he arrived" |

|past participle |verb form (V3) - usually made by adding "-ed" to the base verb - typically |

| |used in perfect and passive tenses, and sometimes as an adjective |

| |eg: "I have finished", "It was seen by many people", "boiled eggs" |

|perfect |verb form (specifically an aspect); formed with HAVE/HAS + VERB-ed (present |

| |perfect) or HAD + VERB-ed (past perfect) |

|person |grammatical category that identifies people in a conversation; there are three|

| |persons: 1st person (pronouns I/me, we/us) is the speaker(s), 2nd person |

| |(pronoun you) is the listener(s), 3rd person (pronouns he/him, she/her, it, |

| |they/them) is everybody or everything else |

|personal pronoun |pronoun that indicates person |

| |eg: "He likes my dogs", "They like him" |

|phrasal verb |multi-word verb formed with a verb + adverb |

| |eg: break up, turn off (see phrasal verbs list) |

| |NB: many people and books call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs" (see |

| |multi-word verbs) |

|phrase |two or more words that have a single function and form part of a sentence; |

| |phrases can be noun, adjective, adverb, verb or prepositional |

|plural |of a noun or form indicating more than one person or thing; plural nouns are |

| |usually formed by adding "-s"; see also singular, number |

| |eg: bananas, spoons, trees |

|position |grammatically correct placement of a word form in a phrase or sentence in |

| |relation to other word forms |

| |eg: "The correct position for an article is at the beginning of the noun |

| |phrase that it describes" |

|positive |basic state of an adjective or adverb when it shows quality but not |

| |comparative or superlative |

| |eg: nice, kind, quickly |

|possessive adjective |adjective (also called "determiner") based on a pronoun: my, your, his, her, |

| |its, our, their |

| |eg: "I lost my keys", "She likes your car" |

|possessive case |case form of a pronoun indicating ownership or possession |

| |eg: "Mine are blue", "This car is hers" |

|possessive pronoun |pronoun that indicates ownership or possession |

| |eg: "Where is mine?", "These are yours" |

|predicate |one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the predicate|

| |is the part that is not the subject |

| |eg: "My brother is a doctor", "Who did you call?", "The woman wearing a blue |

| |dress helped me" |

|prefix |affix that occurs before the root or stem of a word |

| |eg: impossible, reload |

|preposition |part of speech that typically comes before a noun phrase and shows some type |

| |of relationship between that noun phrase and another element (including |

| |relationships of time, location, purpose etc) |

| |eg: "We sleep at night", "I live in London", "This is for digging" |

|prepositional verb |multi-word verb that is formed with verb + preposition |

| |eg: believe in, look after |

|present participle |-ing form of a verb (except when it is a gerund or verbal noun) |

| |eg: "We were eating", "The man shouting at the back is rude", "I saw Tara |

| |playing tennis" |

|present simple (also called "simple present") |tense usually used to describe states and actions that are general, habitual |

| |or (with the verb "to be") true right now; formed with the basic verb (+ s for|

| |3rd person singular) |

| |eg: "Canada sounds beautiful", "She walks to school", "I am very happy" |

|present continuous (also called "present |tense used to describe action that is in process now, or a plan for the |

|progressive") |future; formed with BE + VERB-ing |

| |eg: "We are watching TV", "I am moving to Canada next month" |

|present perfect |tense that connects the past and the present, typically used to express |

| |experience, change or a continuing situation; formed with HAVE + VERB-ed |

| |eg: "I have worked there", "John has broken his leg", "How long have you been |

| |in Canada?" |

|present perfect continuous |tense used to describe an action that has recently stopped or an action |

| |continuing up to now; formed with HAVE + BEEN + VERB-ing |

| |eg: "I'm tired because I've been running", "He has been living in Canada for |

| |two years" |

|progressive |another term for continuous |

|pronoun |word that replaces a noun or noun phrase; there are several types including |

| |personal pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns |

| |eg: you, he, him; who, which; somebody, anything |

|proper noun |noun that is capitalized at all times and is the name of a person, place or |

| |thing |

| |eg: Shakespeare, Tokyo, |

|punctuation |standard marks such as commas, periods and question marks within a sentence |

| |eg: , . ? ! - ; : |

|quantifier |determiner or pronoun that indicates quantity |

| |eg: some, many, all |

|question tag |final part of a tag question; mini-question at end of a tag question |

| |eg: "Snow isn't black, is it?" |

|question word |another term for WH-word |

|reciprocal pronoun |pronoun that indicates that two or more subjects are acting mutually; there |

| |are two in English - each other, one another |

| |eg: "John and Mary were shouting at each other", "The students accused one |

| |another of cheating" |

|reduced relative clause |construction similar to a relative clause, but containing a participle instead|

|(also called "participial relative clause") |of a finite verb; this construction is possible only under certain |

| |circumstances |

| |eg: "The woman sitting on the bench is my sister", "The people arrested by the|

| |police have been released" |

|reflexive pronoun |pronoun ending in -self or -selves, used when the subject and object are the |

| |same, or when the subject needs emphasis |

| |eg: "She drove herself", "I'll phone her myself" |

|regular verb |verb that has "-ed" as the ending for past tense and past participle forms; |

|see regular verbs list |see also irregular verb |

| |eg: work, worked, worked |

|relative adverb |adverb that introduces a relative clause; there are four in English: where, |

| |when, wherever, whenever; see also relative pronoun |

|relative clause |dependent clause that usually starts with a relative pronoun such as who or |

| |which, or relative adverb such as where |

| |eg: "The person who finishes first can leave early" (defining), "Texas, where |

| |my brother lives, is big" (non-defining) |

|relative pronoun |pronoun that starts a relative clause; there are five in English: who, whom, |

| |whose, which, that; see also relative adverb |

|reported speech |another term for indirect speech |

|restrictive relative clause |another term for defining relative clause |

|second conditional |"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about an unlikely possibility in |

| |the future |

| |eg: "If we won the lottery we would buy a car" |

|sentence |largest grammatical unit; a sentence must always include a subject (except for|

| |imperatives) and predicate; a written sentence starts with a capital letter |

| |and ends with a full stop/period (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark |

| |(!); a sentence contains a complete thought such as a statement, question, |

| |request or command |

| |eg: "Stop!", "Do you like coffee?", "I work." |

|series |list of items in a sentence |

| |eg: "The children ate popsicles, popcorn and chips" |

|singular |of a noun or form indicating exactly one person or thing; singular nouns are |

| |usually the simplest form of the noun (as found in a dictionary); see also |

| |plural, number |

| |eg: banana, spoon, tree |

|split infinitive |situation where a word or phrase comes between the particle "to" and the verb |

| |in an infinitive; considered poor construction by some |

| |eg: "He promised to never lie again" |

|Standard English (S.E.) |"normal" spelling, pronunciation and grammar that is used by educated native |

| |speakers of English |

|structure word |word that has no real meaning in a sentence, such as a pronoun or auxiliary |

| |verb (as opposed to a content word, such as verb or noun); structure words are|

| |not normally stressed in speech |

| |eg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME" |

|subject |one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the subject |

| |is the part that is not the predicate; typically, the subject is the first |

| |noun phrase in a sentence and is what the rest of the sentence "is about" |

| |eg: "The rain water was dirty", "Mary is beautiful", "Who saw you?" |

|subjective case |case form of a pronoun indicating a subject |

|also called "nominative" |eg: Did she tell you about her? |

|subjunctive |fairly rare verb form typically used to talk about events that are not certain|

| |to happen, usually something that someone wants, hopes or imagines will |

| |happen; formed with BARE INFINITIVE (except past of "be") |

| |eg: "The President requests that John attend the meeting" |

|subordinate clause |another term for dependent clause |

|suffix |affix that occurs after the root or stem of a word |

| |eg: happiness, quickly |

|superlative, superlative adjective |adjective or adverb that describes the extreme degree of something |

| |eg: happiest, most quickly |

|SVO |subject-verb-object; a common word order where the subject is followed by the |

| |verb and then the object |

| |eg: "The man crossed the street" |

|syntax |sentence structure; the rules about sentence structure |

|tag question |special construction with statement that ends in a mini-question; the whole |

| |sentence is a tag question; the mini-question is a question tag; usually used |

| |to obtain confirmation |

| |eg: "The Earth is round, isn't it?", "You don't eat meat, do you?" |

|tense |form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present |

| |or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the |

| |action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to |

| |talk about the present or the future. |

|third conditional |"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about a possible event in the |

| |past that did not happen (and is therefore now impossible) |

| |eg: "If we had won the lottery we would have bought a car" |

|transitive verb |action verb that has a direct object (receiver of the action); see also |

| |intransitive verb |

| |eg: "The kids always eat a snack while they watch TV" |

|uncountable nouns |thing that you cannot count, such as substances or concepts; see also |

|(also called "mass nouns" or "non-count") |countable nouns |

| |eg: water, furniture, music |

|usage |way in which words and constructions are normally used in any particular |

| |language |

|V1, V2, V3 |referring to Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3 - being the base, past and past participle|

| |that students typically learn for irregular verbs |

| |eg: speak, spoke, spoken |

|verb |word that describes the subject's action or state and that we can change or |

| |conjugate based on tense and person |

| |eg: (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin |

|voice |form of a verb that shows the relation of the subject to the action; there are|

| |two voices in English: active, passive |

|WH-question |question using a WH-word and expecting an answer that is not "yes" or "no"; |

| |WH-questions are "open" questions; see also yes-no question |

| |eg: Where are you going? |

|WH-word |word that asks a WH-question; there are 7 WH-words: who, what, where, when, |

|(also called "question word") |which, why, how |

|word order |order or sequence in which words occur within a sentence; basic word order for|

| |English is subject-verb-object or SVO |

|yes-no question |question to which the answer is yes or no; yes-no questions are "closed" |

| |questions; see also WH-question |

| |eg: "Do you like coffee?" |

|zero conditional |"if-then" conditional structure used when the result of the condition is |

| |always true (based on fact) |

| |eg: "If you dial O, the operator comes on" |

* note that technically English does not have a real future tense

** some authorities consider the base form of the verb without "to

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download