HOW CAMPAIGNS ARE CONDUCTED



HOW CAMPAIGNS ARE CONDUCTED*

Modern political campaigning includes four basic elements: (1) professional public relations, (2) polling, (3) the broadcast media, and (4) direct mail. These elements all make use of techniques drawn from the worlds of marketing and advertising to mobilize voter support.

1 Professional Public Relations  

Hired campaign consultants typically direct modern political campaigns. These individuals have taken the place of the political bosses and party chiefs who masterminded campaigns during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Most campaign consultants now specialize in politics, although some also come from the ranks of corporate advertising and public relations. Campaign consultants conduct public opinion polls, produce television commercials, organize direct-mail campaigns, and develop the issues and advertising messages the candidate will use to mobilize support.

2 Polling  

Surveys of voter opinion provide the raw material of modern political campaigns. Political consultants use this information to run campaigns that closely resemble the efforts of businesses to market products. Polling data help candidates and their staffs to select issues, assess their own strengths and weaknesses as well as those of the opposition, and measure the responsiveness of constituent groups to campaign appeals.

3 The Broadcast Media  

As in any well-formulated advertising campaign, political candidates use the media to increase their exposure to the public. In the modern campaign, extensive use of radio and television have supplanted direct appearances on the campaign trail. The most commonly used broadcast technique is the television spot advertisement. Spot ads, which may last from 15 to 60 seconds, emphasize issues and personal qualities that appear important in the poll data. These ads attempt to establish candidate name identification, create a favorable image of the candidate and a negative image of the opponent, link the candidate with desirable groups in the community, and communicate the candidate's stands on selected issues. Spot ads often make use of "sound bites," short, punchy statements from the candidate designed for voters to remember. Spot ads also may have a negative slant, seeking mainly to criticize the opponent. Well-known examples of successful negative ads include the 1988 "Willie Horton" ad of George Bush, accusing Bush's opponent, Michael Dukakis, of coddling criminals, and the 1964 ad of Lyndon Johnson that suggested his opponent, Barry Goldwater, would lead the United States into nuclear war. Candidates sometimes use staggering numbers of spot ads in the course of a campaign. During a single week in the 1996 Republican Party primary season, for example, candidate Steve Forbes televised 526 commercials in Iowa and 639 in New Hampshire.

Presidential campaigns in the 1990s introduced four new media venues for candidates: the talk show interview, the "electronic town hall meeting," the "infomercial," and the Internet website. Television and radio talk shows enable candidates to address a vast audience without the presence of journalists or commentators who might criticize or question their assertions. Maverick presidential candidates Ross Perot and Pat Buchanan have favored this setting in their campaigns. In 1992, for example, Perot announced his candidacy for the presidency to the nation on the cable television talk show "Larry King Live." Similarly, the televised town meeting format allows candidates to appear in a hall and interact directly with ordinary citizens, thus underscoring their concern for the views and needs of voters, while simultaneously reaching viewers across the nation. In the 1992 presidential campaign, the ability of Bill Clinton to connect empathetically with citizens enabled him to make effective use of the nationally televised town meeting.

The infomercial is a lengthy televised broadcast, often lasting 30 minutes. Although designed to have the appearance of a news program, it is actually a presentation of the candidate's views. Ross Perot and Steve Forbes, both wealthy businessmen, purchased air time for infomercials in their election campaigns. The enormous growth of the Internet has provided a new forum in political campaigns. Candidates now routinely design elaborate sites on the Internet that offer detailed information about their experience and qualifications, their political views, and the progress of their campaigns.

Despite the proliferation of electronic forums for candidates in an election, the most dramatic use of the broadcast media in contemporary politics remains the televised debate. Televised presidential debates began with the 1960 clash between Democratic Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard M. Nixon. Kennedy's strong performance in the debate contributed directly to his victory over Nixon, who had been a clear favorite to win the election. Today, presidential and vice-presidential candidates hold debates, as do candidates for statewide and even local office. Televised debates, which sometimes command the attention of millions of viewers, can increase the visibility of lesser-known candidates and allow candidates to reach voters who have not fully made up their minds about the election.

4 Direct Mail  Candidates also make extensive use of direct-mail campaigns as a way both to raise funds and to communicate with voters. Campaigns use advanced database technologies to target mailings at voters who seem likely to support a candidate because of their party ties, interests, or ideology. Candidates purchase or rent computerized mailing lists of voters and send pamphlets, letters, and brochures to people on the list, describing their views and appealing for funds. National, state, and local candidates raise tens of millions of dollars each year through direct-mail solicitations. Individual donations in these campaigns typically average from $25 to $50. Republican Party candidates have been especially effective in their use of direct mail both to mobilize support and to raise funds from voters.

*Excerpted from Microsoft Encarta 2000

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