KEY WORDS/
| KEY WORDS/ |NOTES |
|QUESTIONS | |
|Diversity |There is a tremendous diversity of life on Earth today. Look at virtually any environment and you will discover an |
|Of |incredible variety of plants, animals and other living things of all shapes, sizes and lifestyles. This leads to a |
|Life: |causal question, |
| |CQ = How did all this diversity arise? |
|Theories on the origin of diversity: |Theories about the origin of diversity fall into three main categories: |
| |1- Spontaneous Generation, 2-Special Creation, |
| |3-Transmutation of Species = Evolution |
| | |
|Abiogenesis |Abiogenesis is also known as Spontaneous Generation. It means life emerging from non-living materials in a spontaneous |
| |manner. This was the ruling theory in Europe for over 1000 years. |
| | |
| |Some observations seemed consistent |
| |1. Maggots forming out of dead meat |
|Evidence |2. Tadpoles forming from pond scum. |
|For: |3. Microorganisms (or something) forming in broth solutions, stagnant water ( worms and algae |
| | |
| |Other observations supported the opposite: biogenesis (life from life) |
| |Chickens come from eggs, eggs come from chickens |
|Against: |Calves come from cows, cows come from calves |
| | |
| |Our observations and ability to observe limit our |
| |Ability to understand nature. |
| | |
| |Aristotle said that frogs and insects were generated by moist soil. Science like society was authority driven. |
|Note: | |
| | |
| | |
|Besides… | |
|Experiments |Redi (1600's) asked and attempted to answer the following causal question: |
|Redi |Where did these maggots in my meat come from? |
| | |
| |Possible explanations: |
| |a. Spontaneous generation =abiogenesis |
| |b. Biogenesis = life comes from preexisting life |
| |(1) We know the maggots turn into flies |
| |(2) Where must maggots have come from: flies |
| | |
| |Experiment to tell the difference between the two: |
| |Put piece of meat into two sets of jars, Draw |
| |covered 1 with cloth but not the other |
| |Predictions |
| |- under spontaneous generation: maggots in both |
| |- under biogenesis: no maggots in covered jar |
| |Results: maggots only in the uncovered |
| |Conclusions: Support biogenesis |
| |Reject: abiogenesis |
| | |
| |Similar experiments showed that many animals and plants come only from living ancestors |
|Advent of Microscope |Late 1600s Anton van Leewenhook - ground lenses, made microscope, found microbes in water, pond scum, even own body... |
|Leads to Discovery of |hypothesized that these too came from preexisting life. |
|New world | |
| | |
|Argument revisited: |1700s Needham vs Spallanzani |
| |Argument wouldn't die, spontaneous generation still felt to be true in some places. |
|Role of Hidden Agendae: | |
| |Many have too much invested (prestige and professional standing) in old paradigm to give it up. |
|Needham: | |
| |Needham: 1748 (English clergyman) |
| |Observation: broth spoils or "goes bad" |
| |Possible explanations: “vitalism” (life force) vs |
| |biogenesis |
| |Experiment: put mutton gravy in a corked |
| |container & boiled briefly. Draw |
| |Predictions: Vitalism: microbes and spoiling, |
| |Biogenesis: no microbes or spoiling |
| |Results: microbes and spoiling |
| |Conclusion: supports vitalism, rejects biogenesis |
| | |
|Spallanzani: |Said, “Wait a minute, you have problems”: |
| |You used a crudy old cork and you probably didn't boil it long enough. So he offers his own test: |
| | |
| |Same observation: thing go bad |
| |Possible explanation: same as above |
| |vitalism vs biogenesis |
| |Experiment: (Draw): |
| |prepared flasks of gravy, boiled for an hour then melted top to seal |
| |Predicitions: Vitalism: still spoil |
| |Biogenesis: not spoil |
| |Results: no microbes or spoiling unless opened |
| |Conclusion: rejects vitalism, supports biogenesis |
| | |
|Needham's reaction: |Did he roll over and play dead? No, remember hidden agenda. Instead he said that, “the life force in the air" was |
| |destroyed by sealing bottles. That life force needs “elastic air” to operate. |
| |Needham and Spallanzani argued about methods and the "elasticity of air" for years. |
|Final resolution: |Louis Pasteur 1862 – created "S" shaped open flasks (Draw) and partially filled with broth then boiled. The flasks did |
| |not spoil. In fact some were displayed for 80 years before finally being sealed. |
| | |
| |When flasks were tipped allowing some of the fluid into the trap and back: they quickly became infected became infected. |
| |This provided convincing evidence to reject abiogenesis once and for all. |
|Some concluding points: |1. Scientists don't always agree on everything. |
| |2. When they disagree, they often resort to arguing methods |
| |3. The role of biases |
|. |a. We usually have them |
| |b. In my work, I thought I saw one hypothesis |
| |which seemed more logical /explaining more |
| |c. What happens when special interests fund |
| |research (i.e. Tobacco Research Institute |
| |claimed for thirty years that “cigarettes don’t |
| |cause cancer” |
| | |
|So where does this leave us? |4. Scientific fraud, is always a possibility unless proper procedures are followed (peer review) |
| | |
| |Abiogenisis is a rejected theory, but is still a theory |
|Back to the other two: |since it attempts to explain the origins of diversity. |
| | |
| |Religion caveate - there is a difference between scientific and religious hypotheses and theories. |
| |Religious theories rely on faith for acceptance. |
| |Scientific theories rely on scientific testing and falsifiability for acceptance. |
| | |
| |If a religious theory is not testable & falsifiable, it is not scientific. That does not necessarily mean it is wrong…..|
| | |
| | |
| |Teaching religious theories in public school is a violation of the establishment clause of the U.S. Constitution… We will|
| |not be discussing Special creation, at least not directly. |
|Observation: | |
|Causal Question: |There is diversity…. Why? |
|Explantion: |Transmutation / Evolution |
| | |
|Experiment: |Experiment? Hmm. Maybe we can infer using |
| |study of relationships between species |
|Evidence from Taxonomy: |1. Not all individuals within a species look the same (there is variance) |
| |2. Between species, we often find intermediates |
| |a. Rattlesnakes, Elapids, rear fanged colubrids |
| |Draw on back |
| |b. lizards- legless lizards/boas-snake |
|Conclusion: |c. peripatus - annelids / arthropods |
| |d. Archaeopteryx – reptile to birds |
|Note: |Doesn't necessarily reject all alternatives, BUT |
| |It is consistant with evolution. |
| |Variation within a species says something about transmutability or the ability to evolve. |
|Evidence from Embryology: | |
| |Embryology = the study of the development of organisms from zygote to adult. |
| | |
| |“Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” claim was that organisms went through all the body forms of their ancestors as they |
| |developed. |
| |Not true, actually organisms go through similar larval stages as their close (evolutionary) relatives. |
| |The more closely related two organisms are, the longer they resemble each other. |
|Evidence from Anatomy: |Homologies – homologous organs in two different species are derived a common ancestor. |
| | |
|Homologies and Vestigial organs |Many times these organs are no longer useful and said to be vestigial. Examples include the hip and thigh bones in |
| |snakes and whales and the tail bone and appendix in man. |
| | |
| |How are these useful to other organisms? |
| |Appendix of man = blind end pouch full of bacteria which can become infected. Appendix of Gorilla used to help digest |
| |leafy vegetarian diet. |
| | |
|Analogies |– analogous organs have similar form and function but were derived from different ancestors. |
| | |
| |These organs serve a useful purpose. Examples include the fluke of a whale and the tail of a fish, penguin “wings” and |
| |fish fins, wing of a bat / wing of a bird vs insect wing. |
| | |
| |In each case, we find different organs adapted to similar jobs. This results in convergent evolution – similar answers |
| |to similar problems. |
|Convergent evolution: |Doesn't necessarily reject all alternatives, BUT |
| |It is clearly consistent with evolution |
|Conclusion: | |
| |The closer related taxonomically (phylogenetically) two organisms are, the closer their chemistry & DNA are. |
| |We've been transmutating species for at least 10,000 yrs. |
|Evidence from biochemistry: |1. Prehistoric dairy farmer |
| |a. Can maintain five cows |
|Evidence from genetics and agriculture: |b. If they all have calves, how many will he have? |
| |c. Only some should be permitted to reproduce |
| |d. Alternatively, you eat some and keep others |
| |Which calves do they keep? |
| | |
| |2. Darwin called this "Artificial" selection. I like |
|Note: |"Human directed" better |
| |3. Darwin cited many examples with pigeons. |
| |4. Man has done this repeatedly with dogs, cats, |
| |cattle, horses etc. |
| |5. Cabbage, cauliflower, brussel sprouts all started |
| |out as same plant. |
|Conclusion: |Again demonstrates transmutability. |
| |Doesn't necessarily reject all alternatives, BUT |
| |clearly supports evolution |
| | |
|Fossil evidence: |Fossil record: Draw how fossils are formed etc |
| |NOTE, there are no gaps that we wouldn't expect to find due to need for specimens to be rapidly buried in sediment |
| |plus soft tissues are poorly preserved |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|Grand Canyon fossil record: |Natural laboratory to test evolution. |
| |Draw on board. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|Predictions | |
|for Evolution: | |
| |We should find a slow gradual increase in complexity and diversity. |
|for Abiogenesis: | |
| |There should be no real pattern in complexity and diversity. Species should appear and disappear at random. |
| | |
| |Most convincing support for evolution yet. Clearly rejects leading alternatives. |
|Conclusion: | |
|KEY WORDS/ |NOTES |
|QUESTIONS | |
|Darwin’s conceptual framework: |1. Malthus essay on population – gave Darwin idea of Biotic Potential = ability of organisms to produce more offspring |
| |than environment can support. This leads to a struggle for survival |
| | |
| |2. Geology – Theory of Gradualism (Hutton 1795), Form of Earth due to slow gradual change, not through a few |
| |catastrophies. |
| | |
| |3. Uniformitarianism (Lyell 1830) same processes that work |
| |today worked in past |
| |4. Lamark 1809, theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics (i.e giraffe’s neck) |
| |5. Voyage of Beagle (1831-1836) |
| |Darwin was the ships “naturalist” |
| |6. Darwin writes of transmutation 1837 |
| |Informal notes to friends |
| |7. Wallace writes to Darwin (1858) and publishes |
| |essay on natural selection. |
| |8. Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, 1859 |
| | |
| |9. 1866, Mendel publishes his Theory of Particulate |
| |Inheritance |
|Summary of Natural selection: |1. Organisms alive today are the result of evolution |
| |not special creation |
| |2. More organisms are produced than can survive = |
| |Biotic potential. Resources are limited, leads to |
| |a struggle for survival “survival of the fittest” |
| |3. Characteristics vary and can be inherited. |
| | |
| |4. Some traits are better adapted and leave |
| |more offspring. |
|Biological Species: |5. Over long periods of time natural selection can |
| |both change existing species and create new ones. |
| | |
| |A natural population or group of interbreeding individuals which produce fertile offspring and are |
| |reproductively isolated. |
|Biological Significance: |Since evolution from a shared ancestors has shaped organs and physiology from worms to humans we can learn about |
| |ourselves by studying bacteria, dogs, rats..... also.... since ecological assembleges of plants and animals have |
| |evolved together over time, many features of their physiology are intimately interconnected in ways that we do not yet |
| |understand and ignore at our own peril!! |
| | |
| |Convergent evolution (analogous structures) = similar answers to similar problems |
| | |
|Important terms and concepts… |Evolutionary arms race ie. parasitism, predation, |
| |herbivory drive evolution |
| |Evolutionary fitness determined by the size of an organisms reproductive output |
| | |
| |Evolutionary adaptation = a form of a trait increases fitness, can be physical, chemical or behavioral |
| | |
| |Stabilizing selection - keeps phenotypic values steady, usually around median |
| | |
| |Directional selection - shoves average value towards one extreme or other. |
| | |
| |Disruptive selection - shoves values away from mean towards extremes, can lead to speciation |
|Types of Selection: |Adaptive radiation = the evolution of a number of |
| |diverse species specialized for survival in diverse environments (niches) |
| | |
| |Evolution won't occur if: |
| |1. chance events do not effect gene frequency in a |
|Adaptive radiation: |population |
| |2. mutations don't occur or balance each other out |
| |3. all genotypes have equal reproductive success; |
|Hardy Weinberg: |ie. no natural selection is operating on population |
| |4. no net flow of alleles (genes) in or out of pop |
| |(no migration or imigration) |
| |5. all mating in population is at random |
| | |
| | |
| |a chance events that effect genetic frequencies (founder effect or log falls in the forest) |
| | |
|Genetic drift: |macroevolution due to reproductive isolating Mechanisms. |
| | |
| |May be prezygotic (mechanical, temporal, ecological isolation, behavioral, chemical) also known as allopatry, or |
|Speciation: |postzygotic (hybrid inviability = liger or mule). |
|Chemosynthesis theory |Inorganic molecules reacted with energy input from lightning etc. forming simple organic compounds (sugar, amino acids, |
| |nitrogenous bases, fatty acids). These then combined to form complex carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. |
| |When these complex molecules were concentrated in pools they combined to form simple cells. |
| | |
| |Chemosynthesis theory is not part of evolution. Evolution starts with life which is then shaped and diversified by |
| |natural selection. |
|Note | |
| |Darwin said it took millions of years for one organism to evolve into another. The Cambrian fossil record shows that |
| |evolution may have long periods of relatively no change followed by periods of rapid speciation triggered by drastic |
| |climatic change |
|Gradualism | |
|Vs |Occurs when a population is drastically reduced and continues on from a few ancestors |
|Punctated Equilibrium | |
| |Occurs when a few individuals (not very diverse) give rise to a population …..Amish etc. |
| | |
|Bottleneck | |
| | |
| | |
|Founder effect | |
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