CHAPTER 6 OBJECTIVES



CHAPTER 3 States of Consciousness

Waking Consciousness

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environments

Selective Attention

focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

at any moment, awareness focuses on limited aspect of experience; limits perception, as many stimuli pass by unnoticed.

This lack of awareness is evident in studies of inattentional blindness. Forms of this include change blindness, choice blindness, and choice-blindness blindness.

Conscious information processing-- exert voluntary control and communicate mental states to others. takes place in sequence, relatively slow, has limited capacity.

Beneath the surface, faster unconscious processing occurs simultaneously on many parallel tracks.

Sleep and Dreams

Circadian Rhythm: the biological clock

regular bodily rhythms, such as of wakefulness and body temperature, that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Sleep

periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness

Measuring sleep activity

electroencephalogram (EEG): A measurement of electrical activity within the brain

Brain Waves and Sleep Stages

stage 1 sleep: The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-voltage brain waves

stage 2 sleep: A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of “sleep spindles”

sleep spindles: Sharply pointed, spiky waves on an EEG, indicating stage 2 sleep

stage 3 sleep: A sleep characterized by slower brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern

stage 4 sleep: The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation

Alpha Waves

slow waves of a relaxed, awake brain

Delta Waves

large, slow waves of deep sleep

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: Sleep occupying around 20 percent of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming. vivid dreams

REM sleep: “paradoxical sleep” --- muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active

Four or five sleep cycles occur in a typical night’s sleep - less time is spent in slow-wave, more is spent in REM

rebound effect: An increase in REM sleep after one has been deprived of it

Upon reaching stage 4 and after about 80 to 100 minutes of total sleep time, sleep lightens, returns through stages 3 and 2

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences

Individual Differences in Sleep Drive

People differ in individual sleep requirements ---some individuals need more and some less than the typical 8 hours per night

newborns sleep twice as much as adults. Twin studies suggest differences may be partially genetic. Sleep patterns culturally influenced. People in modern industrialized nations get less sleep because of shift work and social diversions.

Sleep Deprivation

Hurts performance on simple, boring tasks more than challenging ones

Most reliable effect is sleepiness itself

Effects of Sleep Loss fatigue

Findings suggest that sleep deprivation puts people at risk for a depressed immune system; impaired concentration, creativity, and communication; irritability; and slowed performance with greater vulnerability to accidents.

Chronic sleep deprivation can alter metabolic and hormonal function, creating conditions that may contribute to obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment.

Functions of Sleep

Reasons for needing sleep:

protective role in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous times.

help us recuperate, restoring and repairing brain tissue.

restores and rebuilds fading memories of day’s experiences.

Sleep is linked with the release of pituitary growth hormone.

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia

persistent problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks

Sleep Apnea

temporary cessation of breathing during sleep; momentary reawakenings

Night Terrors and Nightmares

Night Terrors---occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 high arousal - appearance of being terrified seldom remembered

Nightmares—frightening dreams

Content of Dreams

dreams are mostly of ordinary events; they often relate to everyday experiences and more frequently involve anxiety or misfortune than triumphant achievement.

Five major perspectives on why we dream.

SIGMUND FREUD--THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS (1900) BELIEVED DREAMS ARE FORM OF WISH FULFILLMENT; DISCHARGE OTHERWISE UNACCEPTABLE FEELINGS

Manifest Content

remembered story line

Latent Content

underlying meaning

Information Processing: dreams help process information and fix it in memory.

helps facilitate memories

Physiological Function: periodic brain stimulation; REM-induced regular brain stimulation helps develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain.

Activation-synthesis model: REM sleep triggers impulses in brain areas that process visual images, but not the visual cortex area, evoking visual images that our brain weaves into a story line.

Brain-maturation/cognitive development perspective: dreams represent the dreamer’s level of development, knowledge, and understanding.

REM Rebound---REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation

REM sleep and its associated dreams serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM deprivation.

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

People who are highly hypnotizable--become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities andhave the ability to focus attention totally on a task

Posthypnotic Amnesia

supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis

induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

Posthypnotic Suggestion

suggestion to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized

used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Explaining Hypnosis

hypnosis produces a dissociation---hypnotized subjects sometimes carry out suggested behaviors on cue, even when they believe no one is watching them.

hypnosis accompanied by distinctive brain activity.

The divided-consciousness theory of hypnosis argues that hypnosis involves dissociation that is more extreme than the everyday dissociations that occur in our information processing.

Other psychologists:hypnosis is a by-product of normal social and cognitive processes; not a unique state of consciousness. social influence theory

Drugs and Consciousness

Psychoactive Drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

Dependence and Addiction

Physical Dependence

physiological need for a drug; marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

Psychological Dependence

a psychological need to use a drug; for example, to relieve negative emotions

An addiction--compulsive craving for substance despite negative consequences. often marked by physical symptoms such as aches, nausea, and distress following sudden withdrawal.

Drug researchers believe following three myths about addiction are false:

Medical drugs, for example, those used to control pain, are powerfully addictive;

Addictions cannot be overcome voluntarily but only through treatment; and

concept of addiction can be expanded to cover spectrum of repetitive, pleasure-seeking behaviors such as overeating, exercise, gambling, sex, and surfing the Internet.

Tolerance

diminishing effect with regular use

Withdrawal

discomfort and distress that follow discontinued use

Psychoactive Drugs

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity; slow body functions

alcohol, barbiturates, opiates

Alcohol

affects motor skills, judgment, and memory; reduces self awareness

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Opiates

opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin)

opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

highly addictive

Stimulants and how affect neural activity and behavior.

STIMULANTS---CAFFEINE, NICOTINE, THE AMPHETAMINES AND COCAINE, ECSTASY, AND METHAMPHETAMINE, EXCITE NEURAL ACTIVITY AND SPEED UP BODY FUNCTIONS.

Methamphetamine is highly addictive; over time, the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which in turn diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency.

Cocaine produces a euphoric rush that lasts 15 to 30 minutes and depletes the brain’s supply of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.

Ecstasy (MDMA) stimulant and mild hallucinogen.

By releasing serotonin and blocking its reuptake, it produces euphoria and feelings of intimacy. repeated use may suppress the immune system, destroy serotonin-producing neurons, and permanently damage mood and memory.

Hallucinogens distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

LSD -- hallucinations and emotions ranging from euphoria to panic.

Marijuana-- variety of effects---disinhibition, a euphoric high, feelings of relaxation, relief from pain, and intense sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. may increase anxiety or depression, impair motor coordination and reaction time, and disrupt memory formation.

Biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors that contribute to drug use.

Drug use among U.S. high school seniors declined from the late 1970s to 1992.

studies indicate that some are biologically more likely to become dependent on drugs. more common among people and animals predisposed to alcoholism-- genes may produce deficiencies in the brain’s natural dopamine reward system.

psychological factor contributes to drug use--feeling that one’s life is meaningless and directionless. Studies reveal that heavy drug users often have experienced significant stress or failure and are depressed.

Drug use can have social roots.

Peer pressure may lead people, especially teenagers, to experiment with—and become dependent on—drugs.

treatment and prevention involve education, boosting people’s self-esteem and purpose in life, and inoculation against peer pressure.

Why take drugs?

Perceived pleasure of experience; escape from pressure/stress; peer pressure; availability; thrill of trying something new

Trends in Drug Use

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