Monograph Series in

[Pages:625]Monograph Series in

UNDERWATER ACOUSTICS

Sponsored by Office of Naval Research

Editorial Board: Ralph R. Goodman, Ph.D., Chair Homer P. Bucker, Ph.D. Ira Dyer, Ph.D. Jeffrey A. Simmen, Ph.D.

Monograph Series in

UNDERWATER ACOUSTICS

In 2001 the Office of Naval Research began a program to publish a selected monograph series in the field of underwater acoustics. The series publishes in-depth reviews and analysis on the state of understanding of the physics of sound in selected areas of research.

The monograph series covers the most important topics in underwater sound in an in-depth, critical, scholarly, and comprehensive fashion. It is intended to provide researchers with an understanding of the physics of underwater sound, based on both theory and experiment. The discussion of important unanswered questions is encouraged. Topics of particular importance in the field are low-frequency sound in the deep ocean, shallow-water acoustics, and ambient noise.

Sponsored by:

Office of Naval Research One Liberty Center 875 North Randolph Street, Suite 1425 Arlington, VA 22203-1995 E-mail: onrpao@onr.navy.mil

Series Editors:

Ralph R. Goodman, Ph.D. Research Professor USM Department of Marine Science 1020 Balch Blvd Stennis Space Center, MS 39529 E-mail: ralph.goodman@usm.edu

Homer P. Bucker, Ph.D. 808 Moana Drive San Diego, CA 92106 E-mail: bucker@nosc.mil

Ira Dyer, Ph.D. Weber Shaughness Professor

of Ocean Engineering, Emeritus Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA 02139

Jeffrey A. Simmen, Ph.D. Applied Physics Laboratory University of Washington 1013 NE 40th Street Seattle, WA 98105-6698 E-mail: simmen@apl.washington.edu

Charles H. Sherman John L. Butler

Transducers and Arrays for Underwater Sound

With 388 Illustrations

ABC

Charles H. Sherman Principal Scientist Image Acoustics, Inc. 97 Elm Street Cohasset, MA 02025

John L. Butler Chief Scientist Image Acoustics, Inc. 97 Elm Street Cohasset, MA 02025

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006921991

ISBN-10: 0-387-32940-4 ISBN-13: 978-0387-32940-6

e-ISBN 0-387-33139-5

Printed on acid-free paper.

c 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Springer Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

987654321



To Elizabeth and Nancy

Series Preface

The efficacy of sound to penetrate the seas made acoustic systems in the past century the leading tools for sensing objects in and measuring properties of the seas. For over sixty years The United States Office of Naval Research (ONR) has been a major sponsor of undersea research and development at universities, national laboratories, and industrial organizations. Appropriately ONR is the sponsor of this monograph series.

The intent of the series is to summarize recent accomplishments in, and to outline perspectives for, underwater acoustics in specific fields of research. The general field has escalated in importance and spread broadly with richness and depth of understanding. It has also, quite naturally, become more specialized. The goal of this series is to present monographs that critically review both past and recent accomplishments in order to address the shortcomings in present understanding. In this way, these works will bridge the gaps in understanding among the specialists and favorably color the direction of new research and development. Each monograph is intended to be a stand-alone advanced contribution to the field. We trust that the reader will also find that each is a critical introduction to related specialized topics of interest as well.

ONR has sponsored the series through grants to the authors. Authors are selected by ONR based on the quality and relevance of each proposal and the author's experience in the field. The Editorial Board, selected by ONR, has, at times, provided independent views to ONR in this process. Its sole official role, however, is to judge the manuscripts before publication and to assist each author at his request through the process with suggestions and broad encouragement.

Ralph R. Goodman, Ph.D. Ira Dyer, Ph.D.

Homer P. Bucker, Ph.D. Jeffrey A. Simmen, Ph.D.

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Preface

We have written this book as part of the underwater acoustics monograph series initiated by the Office of Naval Research (ONR), Department of the Navy of the United States. The ONR objective for this series is publication of in-depth reviews and analyses of the state of understanding of the physics of sound in selected areas of undersea research. This monograph presents the theory and practice of underwater electroacoustic transducers and arrays as developed during the last half of the twentieth century and into the initial part of the twenty-first century.

We have attempted to present a comprehensive coverage of the subject of transducers and arrays for underwater sound starting with a brief historical review and a survey of some of the many modern applications. Descriptions of the six major types of electroacoustic transducers are presented in a unified way that facilitates their comparison and explains why some types are better suited than others for producing and receiving sound in the water. The characteristics of transducers used as both projectors and hydrophones, and the methods available for predicting and measuring transducer performance, are presented in detail. The reasons for combining large numbers of transducers in arrays are explained, and the special problems that must be considered in such arrays are analyzed. The nonlinear mechanisms that exist in all transducers are described, and analyses of some of their most important effects are given. Many different acoustical quantities play essential roles in the design and performance of electroacoustic transducers and arrays, and the methods for determining these quantities are presented. Analytical modeling and understanding is emphasized throughout the book, but it is also made clear that numerical modeling is now an essential part of transducer and array design. Non-electroacoustic types of transducers that are used in certain underwater applications, such as explosive sources, spark sources, hydroacoustic sources, and optical hydrophones, are not included in this book.

The monograph is organized in a manner that brings the reader quickly to the main body of results on current transducers and arrays in the first six chapters with a minimum of background material. The most important basic concepts of electroacoustic transduction are introduced in Chapter 1, after a brief historical review and a survey of some of the many applications of transducers and arrays. Chapter 2 describes and compares the six major types of electroacoustic

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