THE ERA OF TRANSFORMATION: OTTOMAN REFORMS IN …



The Era of Transformation: Ottoman Reforms in the 19th Century

Outline

Reasserting the power of central government

The Tanzimat reforms

The Land Code of 1858

The Young Ottomans

The constitution of 1876

Abdulhamid, Islamism and totalitarianism in the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman state at the turn of 18th c.

Gradual transfer of power from the central government to provincial elites – ayans (escalating in last quarter)

Spheres of power mutually complementary

Genesis of Ottoman middle class – mostly non-Muslims

Gradual loss of international prestige (escalating in last quarter)

However, territorial losses still not significant

Fiscal reorganization, mechanisms established to increase state revenues even from diminished resources

Life long lease of taxfarms

Big farms (Chiftliks) – private ventures…… on state land

Expropriation of waqfs (trusts)

Idea of reforms western type catching up

19th century consolidation of power

1813, fiscal monopoly of Karaosmanoglu family in western Anatolia broken

1815, most prominent ayans physically eliminated

1828, the army mobilized for the war with Russia used against the remaining ayans

1831, the timar system abolished

2,500 sipahi given pensions and their lands leased out as tax-farms

Reform implemented on stages until 1844

The claims of the great landlords wrecked

Government preserves de jure control of the land

However, attempts to replace tax-farming by direct collection of salaried employees unsuccessful

even in the early 20th century 95% of all revenues still collected through tax-farming

The nature of Ottoman reforms

Western Europe’ unique secular and scientific development proved almost invincible

Russia made conscious effort to adapt those models

Eventually ensured its position as “European” Great Power

Only Ottoman society managed to preserve independent cultural existence despite immense imperialist and nationalist pressures

It did so by making adaptations – styled as “reforms”

Sought to both adapt and retain Islamic cultural identity

Adaptations – halfhearted and partially effective

However, the “reforms” succeeded in preserving the empire into the early 20th century

Early adaptive efforts

Ahmed III – European military advisors – deposed

Selim III – the “New order” troops

1799, successfully repelled Napoleon’s invasion of Palestine

1807, deposed

Mahmud II

modernized the artillery corps instead of creating a new troops

1826, annihilated the Janissaries, established control over the military, deprived conservatives of armed support

Thereafter Ottoman military played a leading role in all reforms

New secondary schools for military officers and government officials – few, no threat to traditional education

No changes however in economic life, non-military technologies and politics

Opposition/challenges

Military forces without any structure

Military defeats- Russia (1829-30), Greek uprising, Mehmed Ali

Prejudice, reluctance to accept new ways among the military

Bosnia – a hotbed of conservatism – suppression of ayans ended in the 1850s

Successes

Western-style pyramidal command structure and unit organization, Standing and reserve forces

Conscription enacted (but volunteers accepted)

Recruitment of military advisors (mostly Russian)

Administrative structure of government – departments, officials paid salaries, cabinet

Language training in French mostly), German, English

N.B., not all reforms functioned effectively or fully implemented

The Tanzimat Period

Carried out by the generation of Mahmud’s reforms

The Men of the Tanzimat (men who give order to things)– Mustafa Reshid Pasha

The challenges

The Ottoman state manipulated by the Great Powers

Western-inspired nationalism taking away the Balkan territories

The goal – to adapt European models while preserving the essence of traditional Islamic society

1839, The Hatti Humayun (imperial edict) of Gulhane

Efficiency to central government, stability to the provinces

All subjects have the rights to life, honor and wealth

New penal code, new council to frame those rights

Equitable conscription (restricted to Muslim subjects)

Role of traditional Islamic state – defense, protecting religious beliefs, civil order

The 1939 edict– education free of religious leadership, economy stimulation, state infrastructure

Difficult to implement

fear of conservative backlash kept pace of reforms slow

Successes

in government administration - specialized training of officials, Council of ministers, responsible directly to the sultan

Infrastructure - railroads, telegraph lines, postal system – more efficient central administration, new markets for the new middle class

Education - Technical schools expanded, new nongovernmental schools, teacher training schools, middle schools for religiously trained students in technical studies

Small educated elite - 3% attended by the end of 1860s

Failures of the Hatti Humayun

Despite increased effectiveness, government never ensured that population fully paid its taxes

Not enough government officials to replace tax farmers

“Capitulation” system eliminated Ottoman foreign trade

Equal rights in taxation, justice, education, public office holding proclaimed but ignored or poorly implemented

Only Muslims eligible for military service – stepping stone for advancement

Non-Muslims left at penal and judicial mercy of local authority

and effectively bared them from entering government service

Hatti Humayun of 1856

Beginning of direct impact

1856, Paris Peace conference - new Hatti Numayun

Reforms slow – danger of conservative reaction

Political vehicle for support of Ottoman reforms

Formal admission to European Great Powers (access to loans)

1858, Land code, new Penal code based on French law

Aimed at lessen inequities experienced by non-Muslims

Periodic inspections

Millet reorganization

1857, Abdulmecid ordered general council of the Orthodox church – took place in 1860-62

Three new millets created – Catholic, Protestant, and Armenian Catholic

The Land Law of 1858

Government’s reassertion of its fiscal domination or a catalyst in transforming state land into private property?

Purpose- political

All individuals possess title deed to have legal use of the land

Complete survey of land and registration

Government officials must record all land transfers – local notables eliminated

Few provisions favor large landholders

Those who lease land from title holder does not have any rights

An individual can acquire a title to a whole village

However, issue not of large vs. stall landholder but to maintain stability of tenure

Aggregation permitted to maintain production and tax levels

Government preferred small to the potentially dangerous large holders

Purpose- economic

Title deed given even to people illegally tilling state land

If not tilled for 3 years, land given to someone else

Maintenance and promotion of agricultural development

List of heirs expanded significantly, inheritance provisions resemble those of private property

Actually, nothing more than promotion of a greater stability of tenure

Purpose – fiscal

State granted title deeds neither to register actual cultivators, nor to promote agricultural development

Rather, to identify taxpayers

However, large landholders did not utilize direct exploitation

Sharecroppers, who were not title-holders paid the taxes

Provincial reforms

1864, the Vilayet law – greater administrative decentralization and local participation

Midhad Pasha - governor of the Danube province

Transformed the province into a model province

Building bridges, roads, schools

Agrarian bank

Banditry suppressed

Provincial laws published in both Bulgarian and Turkish

The first official Bulgarian-language printing press

Topal Osman Pasha – governor in Bosnia

Muslim and Christian schools,

Library, first public hospital, new courts, printing press

Joint Muslim-Christian advisory board

The weak link of provincial reforms–governor’s crucial role

The end of Tanzimat era

1871, Ali Pasha – last strong proponent of reforms dies

Sultan Abdulaziz reasserts supreme authority over the remaining Tanzimat group

Reforms had not decentralized ottoman government

No strong reform party leadership

Central power rested completely with the sultan

Contracting huge loans from European banks for reforms as well as lavish personal expenses

Economic reforms never produced the expected revenue to cover the debts

Abdulaziz continually defaulted on payments

With a bankruptcy coming no incentive to invest resources in additional reform measure

The Young Ottomans

Not a coherent organization – shared similar values

Dislike of the bureaucratic reformism of the Tanzimat

More democratic form of government

Incorporation of European political organization and retention of Islamic foundations of society

Islamic tradition of consultation

The concept of Ottomanism – Namik Kemal

All Ottomans share loyalties to the territorial entity – fatherland

Ottoman nationalism?

European nationalism – popular phenomenon

Ottomanism – to be imposed by the top

Modernization of language – Shinasi

The periodical press as new medium of communication

The Ottoman Constitution

The Young Ottomans – philosophers not politicians

Ideas carried out by top bureaucrats – Midhad Pasha

The crisis of 1875-78

financial crisis – bankruptcy of the Central Bank

Political crisis – the Istanbul conference

Abdulaziz deposed, Murad V, Abdulhamid

Commission to work on drafting constitution – Oct. 1876

Under the leadership of Midhad

28 members – 16 bureaucrats, 10 ulema, 2 military

Final draft – Dec. 1, held off until Dec. 19

Article 113 – sultan’s right to exile anyone he considers of danger to the state

Proclaimed on Dec. 23, 1876

The Sultanate

No diminution of the sovereign rights of the sultan

Included the supreme caliphate of Islam

No one responsible for his acts

Can appoint and dismiss ministers, parliament, issue laws, temporary suspend the guarantees of the constitution

The Parliament –avenue of popular input into laws

Chamber of deputies – 120, elected. Immunity

Chamber of notables – 40, appointed

Council of State – supreme court, to draft the laws

Elections in Nov. 1876

Christians overrepresentation – 1 for 107,000 males, Muslims – 1 for 133,000, Jews - 1 for 19,000

Parliament opened March 1878

44 Christians, 71 Muslims, 4 Jews; 26 upper chamber

Individual rights

Affirmed equality of all Ottoman subjects, however Islam remained official religion

No millets mentioned

Judicial system

Secular court system incorporated in the constitution

Judges appointed for life

Religious court to still serve religious communities

The Constitution – proclamation of Ottomanism and Ottoman patriotism

Contained in a form understandable to the West the provisions for human rights and basic institutions developed during the previous half-century Tanzimat

Faith of Ottoman Parliament

January 1877 – failure of the Istanbul conference

Midhad Pasha dismissed and exiled by Abdulhamid

Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78

Parliament approved expenditure of war, bestows a title of Gazi to the Sultan

Not involved in actual conduct of war

Ottoman defeat in the war

Deputies criticize government for conduct of war, call for return of Midhad Pasha

Abdulhamid consults with parliament for inviting the British fleet – insulted by a member of the parliament (Feb. 1878)

Abdulhamid dismissed the Parliament

Used power given to him by the Constitution

Abdulhamid (1876-1909)

Abdulhamid disappointed by Western style reforms

Stresses Islamic heritage – status of caliph

Pan-Islamism – rejection of Ottomanism

Abdulhamid – protector of Muslims around the world

Single Islamic umma under the leadership of one caliph

Instrument in diplomatic negotiations

Arab notable families and ulema enjoyed increased prestige

Hidjaz railway (Damascus to Mecca) – finance from private donations of Muslims around the world

Progress in education and transportation

Professional schools, teacher training schools expanded

The Civil Service School and University of Istanbul (1900)

1883, Istanbul – Vienna railway (Orient Express)

Berlin –Anatolia - Baghdad railway, German investment

Totalitarianism

Telegraph network

Tightened central government’s control over provinces

Increasing ties with Germany to reorganize the army

Total control over information available to his subjects

Censorship of press, school curricula

Public discussion of politics forbidden

Network of spies and informants – wave of exiles of Ottoman officials and intellectuals

Suppression of national movements

Armenian massacres of 1890s - ~ 300,000

Crete uprising and Ottoman – Greek war, Abdulhamid forced to accept autonomy of Crete by European powers

Increasingly isolated at the beginning of 20th c.

Pan-Islamism more popular abroad than in the country

Summary

Ottoman reforms aim at adaptation and preserving traditional Islamic values rather than radical change

Non-Muslims effectively barred from participation in the government

Tanzimat era contributed to formation of educated elite and strengthening of government apparatus

Land Reforms aimed at consolidating state’s power

Modernization of the land regime only superficial – state ownership of land reasserted

In reality, recognition of changes to the classical land regime during the seventeenth and eighteenth century

Peasants satisfied with ownership rights within the concept of state ownership

Eliminating provincial powers and more revenue

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