THE ERA OF TRANSFORMATION: OTTOMAN REFORMS IN …
The Era of Transformation: Ottoman Reforms in the 19th Century
Outline
Reasserting the power of central government
The Tanzimat reforms
The Land Code of 1858
The Young Ottomans
The constitution of 1876
Abdulhamid, Islamism and totalitarianism in the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman state at the turn of 18th c.
Gradual transfer of power from the central government to provincial elites – ayans (escalating in last quarter)
Spheres of power mutually complementary
Genesis of Ottoman middle class – mostly non-Muslims
Gradual loss of international prestige (escalating in last quarter)
However, territorial losses still not significant
Fiscal reorganization, mechanisms established to increase state revenues even from diminished resources
Life long lease of taxfarms
Big farms (Chiftliks) – private ventures…… on state land
Expropriation of waqfs (trusts)
Idea of reforms western type catching up
19th century consolidation of power
1813, fiscal monopoly of Karaosmanoglu family in western Anatolia broken
1815, most prominent ayans physically eliminated
1828, the army mobilized for the war with Russia used against the remaining ayans
1831, the timar system abolished
2,500 sipahi given pensions and their lands leased out as tax-farms
Reform implemented on stages until 1844
The claims of the great landlords wrecked
Government preserves de jure control of the land
However, attempts to replace tax-farming by direct collection of salaried employees unsuccessful
even in the early 20th century 95% of all revenues still collected through tax-farming
The nature of Ottoman reforms
Western Europe’ unique secular and scientific development proved almost invincible
Russia made conscious effort to adapt those models
Eventually ensured its position as “European” Great Power
Only Ottoman society managed to preserve independent cultural existence despite immense imperialist and nationalist pressures
It did so by making adaptations – styled as “reforms”
Sought to both adapt and retain Islamic cultural identity
Adaptations – halfhearted and partially effective
However, the “reforms” succeeded in preserving the empire into the early 20th century
Early adaptive efforts
Ahmed III – European military advisors – deposed
Selim III – the “New order” troops
1799, successfully repelled Napoleon’s invasion of Palestine
1807, deposed
Mahmud II
modernized the artillery corps instead of creating a new troops
1826, annihilated the Janissaries, established control over the military, deprived conservatives of armed support
Thereafter Ottoman military played a leading role in all reforms
New secondary schools for military officers and government officials – few, no threat to traditional education
No changes however in economic life, non-military technologies and politics
Opposition/challenges
Military forces without any structure
Military defeats- Russia (1829-30), Greek uprising, Mehmed Ali
Prejudice, reluctance to accept new ways among the military
Bosnia – a hotbed of conservatism – suppression of ayans ended in the 1850s
Successes
Western-style pyramidal command structure and unit organization, Standing and reserve forces
Conscription enacted (but volunteers accepted)
Recruitment of military advisors (mostly Russian)
Administrative structure of government – departments, officials paid salaries, cabinet
Language training in French mostly), German, English
N.B., not all reforms functioned effectively or fully implemented
The Tanzimat Period
Carried out by the generation of Mahmud’s reforms
The Men of the Tanzimat (men who give order to things)– Mustafa Reshid Pasha
The challenges
The Ottoman state manipulated by the Great Powers
Western-inspired nationalism taking away the Balkan territories
The goal – to adapt European models while preserving the essence of traditional Islamic society
1839, The Hatti Humayun (imperial edict) of Gulhane
Efficiency to central government, stability to the provinces
All subjects have the rights to life, honor and wealth
New penal code, new council to frame those rights
Equitable conscription (restricted to Muslim subjects)
Role of traditional Islamic state – defense, protecting religious beliefs, civil order
The 1939 edict– education free of religious leadership, economy stimulation, state infrastructure
Difficult to implement
fear of conservative backlash kept pace of reforms slow
Successes
in government administration - specialized training of officials, Council of ministers, responsible directly to the sultan
Infrastructure - railroads, telegraph lines, postal system – more efficient central administration, new markets for the new middle class
Education - Technical schools expanded, new nongovernmental schools, teacher training schools, middle schools for religiously trained students in technical studies
Small educated elite - 3% attended by the end of 1860s
Failures of the Hatti Humayun
Despite increased effectiveness, government never ensured that population fully paid its taxes
Not enough government officials to replace tax farmers
“Capitulation” system eliminated Ottoman foreign trade
Equal rights in taxation, justice, education, public office holding proclaimed but ignored or poorly implemented
Only Muslims eligible for military service – stepping stone for advancement
Non-Muslims left at penal and judicial mercy of local authority
and effectively bared them from entering government service
Hatti Humayun of 1856
Beginning of direct impact
1856, Paris Peace conference - new Hatti Numayun
Reforms slow – danger of conservative reaction
Political vehicle for support of Ottoman reforms
Formal admission to European Great Powers (access to loans)
1858, Land code, new Penal code based on French law
Aimed at lessen inequities experienced by non-Muslims
Periodic inspections
Millet reorganization
1857, Abdulmecid ordered general council of the Orthodox church – took place in 1860-62
Three new millets created – Catholic, Protestant, and Armenian Catholic
The Land Law of 1858
Government’s reassertion of its fiscal domination or a catalyst in transforming state land into private property?
Purpose- political
All individuals possess title deed to have legal use of the land
Complete survey of land and registration
Government officials must record all land transfers – local notables eliminated
Few provisions favor large landholders
Those who lease land from title holder does not have any rights
An individual can acquire a title to a whole village
However, issue not of large vs. stall landholder but to maintain stability of tenure
Aggregation permitted to maintain production and tax levels
Government preferred small to the potentially dangerous large holders
Purpose- economic
Title deed given even to people illegally tilling state land
If not tilled for 3 years, land given to someone else
Maintenance and promotion of agricultural development
List of heirs expanded significantly, inheritance provisions resemble those of private property
Actually, nothing more than promotion of a greater stability of tenure
Purpose – fiscal
State granted title deeds neither to register actual cultivators, nor to promote agricultural development
Rather, to identify taxpayers
However, large landholders did not utilize direct exploitation
Sharecroppers, who were not title-holders paid the taxes
Provincial reforms
1864, the Vilayet law – greater administrative decentralization and local participation
Midhad Pasha - governor of the Danube province
Transformed the province into a model province
Building bridges, roads, schools
Agrarian bank
Banditry suppressed
Provincial laws published in both Bulgarian and Turkish
The first official Bulgarian-language printing press
Topal Osman Pasha – governor in Bosnia
Muslim and Christian schools,
Library, first public hospital, new courts, printing press
Joint Muslim-Christian advisory board
The weak link of provincial reforms–governor’s crucial role
The end of Tanzimat era
1871, Ali Pasha – last strong proponent of reforms dies
Sultan Abdulaziz reasserts supreme authority over the remaining Tanzimat group
Reforms had not decentralized ottoman government
No strong reform party leadership
Central power rested completely with the sultan
Contracting huge loans from European banks for reforms as well as lavish personal expenses
Economic reforms never produced the expected revenue to cover the debts
Abdulaziz continually defaulted on payments
With a bankruptcy coming no incentive to invest resources in additional reform measure
The Young Ottomans
Not a coherent organization – shared similar values
Dislike of the bureaucratic reformism of the Tanzimat
More democratic form of government
Incorporation of European political organization and retention of Islamic foundations of society
Islamic tradition of consultation
The concept of Ottomanism – Namik Kemal
All Ottomans share loyalties to the territorial entity – fatherland
Ottoman nationalism?
European nationalism – popular phenomenon
Ottomanism – to be imposed by the top
Modernization of language – Shinasi
The periodical press as new medium of communication
The Ottoman Constitution
The Young Ottomans – philosophers not politicians
Ideas carried out by top bureaucrats – Midhad Pasha
The crisis of 1875-78
financial crisis – bankruptcy of the Central Bank
Political crisis – the Istanbul conference
Abdulaziz deposed, Murad V, Abdulhamid
Commission to work on drafting constitution – Oct. 1876
Under the leadership of Midhad
28 members – 16 bureaucrats, 10 ulema, 2 military
Final draft – Dec. 1, held off until Dec. 19
Article 113 – sultan’s right to exile anyone he considers of danger to the state
Proclaimed on Dec. 23, 1876
The Sultanate
No diminution of the sovereign rights of the sultan
Included the supreme caliphate of Islam
No one responsible for his acts
Can appoint and dismiss ministers, parliament, issue laws, temporary suspend the guarantees of the constitution
The Parliament –avenue of popular input into laws
Chamber of deputies – 120, elected. Immunity
Chamber of notables – 40, appointed
Council of State – supreme court, to draft the laws
Elections in Nov. 1876
Christians overrepresentation – 1 for 107,000 males, Muslims – 1 for 133,000, Jews - 1 for 19,000
Parliament opened March 1878
44 Christians, 71 Muslims, 4 Jews; 26 upper chamber
Individual rights
Affirmed equality of all Ottoman subjects, however Islam remained official religion
No millets mentioned
Judicial system
Secular court system incorporated in the constitution
Judges appointed for life
Religious court to still serve religious communities
The Constitution – proclamation of Ottomanism and Ottoman patriotism
Contained in a form understandable to the West the provisions for human rights and basic institutions developed during the previous half-century Tanzimat
Faith of Ottoman Parliament
January 1877 – failure of the Istanbul conference
Midhad Pasha dismissed and exiled by Abdulhamid
Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78
Parliament approved expenditure of war, bestows a title of Gazi to the Sultan
Not involved in actual conduct of war
Ottoman defeat in the war
Deputies criticize government for conduct of war, call for return of Midhad Pasha
Abdulhamid consults with parliament for inviting the British fleet – insulted by a member of the parliament (Feb. 1878)
Abdulhamid dismissed the Parliament
Used power given to him by the Constitution
Abdulhamid (1876-1909)
Abdulhamid disappointed by Western style reforms
Stresses Islamic heritage – status of caliph
Pan-Islamism – rejection of Ottomanism
Abdulhamid – protector of Muslims around the world
Single Islamic umma under the leadership of one caliph
Instrument in diplomatic negotiations
Arab notable families and ulema enjoyed increased prestige
Hidjaz railway (Damascus to Mecca) – finance from private donations of Muslims around the world
Progress in education and transportation
Professional schools, teacher training schools expanded
The Civil Service School and University of Istanbul (1900)
1883, Istanbul – Vienna railway (Orient Express)
Berlin –Anatolia - Baghdad railway, German investment
Totalitarianism
Telegraph network
Tightened central government’s control over provinces
Increasing ties with Germany to reorganize the army
Total control over information available to his subjects
Censorship of press, school curricula
Public discussion of politics forbidden
Network of spies and informants – wave of exiles of Ottoman officials and intellectuals
Suppression of national movements
Armenian massacres of 1890s - ~ 300,000
Crete uprising and Ottoman – Greek war, Abdulhamid forced to accept autonomy of Crete by European powers
Increasingly isolated at the beginning of 20th c.
Pan-Islamism more popular abroad than in the country
Summary
Ottoman reforms aim at adaptation and preserving traditional Islamic values rather than radical change
Non-Muslims effectively barred from participation in the government
Tanzimat era contributed to formation of educated elite and strengthening of government apparatus
Land Reforms aimed at consolidating state’s power
Modernization of the land regime only superficial – state ownership of land reasserted
In reality, recognition of changes to the classical land regime during the seventeenth and eighteenth century
Peasants satisfied with ownership rights within the concept of state ownership
Eliminating provincial powers and more revenue
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