Native Americans in pre-columbian north america



Princeton Review 2015 Version APUSH OutlineU.S. History Ap TestNative Americans in pre-columbian north americaNative Americans simply walked across a land bridge from Siberia to Alaska. Sea levels rose as the planet warmed and formed the Bering Strait.The early colonization of the new world (1491-1607)The Early Colonial Era: Spain Colonizes the New WorldColumbus arrived to New World in 1492 (his arrival was not the first, but marked the beginning of the contact period)Columbian Exchange – widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, diseases, etc.Spain established colonies in the New World. Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area’s wealth as possible. Encomienda system – protect natives and make them Catholic in exchange for labor (early form of slavery)Racial caste system – Europeans at top, Mestizos (mixed European and Native blood), Zambos (mixed African and Native American blood), pure blood Africans at the bottomSpanish Armada (Spain’s navy) kept other European powers from establishing a foothold in the New World until 1588 when the English navy defeated the Spanish ArmadaCompetition for Global DominanceMotivation to settle New World: Gold, Glory, GodInvention of sextant – measuring angular distances used especially for altitude and navigation – made sailing saferJoint Stock Companies – corporate businesses with shareholders whose goal was to settle and develop North American landsVirginia Company settled Jamestown in 1607Spanish mission system was particularly successful in converting Native Americans. Juan de Onate – determined to convert by any means necessary (extreme violence included)Africans brought with them religions such as voodoo and tribal animism that blended with ChristianityThe English ArriveRelationships with local Indians were strainedEnglish intermarriage with Natives and Africans was extremely rare - no new ethnic classes1578 – Roanoke aka the Lost Colony1607 – Jamestown – funded by joint stock company (Virginia Company)Fool’s gold, British were not well suited to survival in the New WorldCaptain John Smith – “he who shall not work shall not eat”Powhatan Confederacy stopped supplying Jamestown foodJohn Rolfe married Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas and pioneered the practice of growing tobaccoTobacco requires vast acreage and depletes the soil – further expansion – plantation slavery – entire area known as ChesapeakeNew World indentured servitude extremely commonHeadright system – means of attracting settlers to region – headright was a track of land granted to colonists and potential settlersWealthy investors could accumulate large tracts of land by paying the passage of an indentured servant in exchange for their headrightThese land grants infringed even more on Native lands1619 – Virginia House of Burgesses – any property holding white male could vote 1619 – introduction of slavery to coloniesFrench Colonization of North AmericaFrench Jesuit Priests were trying to convert native peoples to Roman Catholicism and spread diseases such as smallpoxFrench had lighter impact on the native people Edict of Nantes – 1598 – religious tolerance of Huguenots (French Protestants) who might have otherwise fled France because of religious persecutionFour Main Colonizing PowersSpain – conquered and enslaved Natives, made great efforts to convert Natives to Catholicism, overwhelmingly male colonists, many had children with native women (mestizos)France – friendlier relations with indigenous tribes, ally with natives, sparsely populated settlementsNetherlands – attempted to build great trading empire, settlements soon fell to England, one Dutch settlement was New Amsterdam which is now New York CityEngland – attempted to exclude Natives as much as possible, came with entire families, rarely intermarriage with Natives, wars of extermination against Natives ex: Powhatan Confederacy’s destructionPilgrims and the Massachusetts Bay Company16th Century – English Calvinists led Protestant movement called Puritanism in Englandname derived from adherent’s desire to purify the Anglican church of Roman Catholic practicesSeparatists – Puritan group – thought church was incapable of being reformed – 1620 they set sail for Virginia on the Mayflower and landed in modern day Massachusetts and settled there, calling the settlement PlymouthMayflower Compact – created legal authority and assembly, government’s power derives from the consent of the governed not God (which monarchists and Absolutists believed)Squanto – English speaking Native helped Pilgrims to plant in their new home1629 – Massachusetts Bay was established by Congregationalists (Puritans who wanted to reform the Anglican church from within)Great Puritan Migration led by Governor John Winthrop – “city upon a hill” = model for others to look up toAll Puritans believed they had a covenant with God, Separatists and Congregationalists did not tolerate religious freedom despite fleeing England because of religious persecutionMassachusetts Bay Colony settlers were strict CalvinistsRoger Williams taught controversial principles and was banished from his Salem Bay settlement – founded new colony on Rhode Island which allowed for free exercise of religionAnne Hutchinson was a prominent proponent of antinomianism (the belief that faith and God’s grace earn one a place among the “elect” and she was banishedPuritan immigration to New England stopped between 1649 and 1660 when Oliver Cromwell ruled and when he died, Puritans again began migrating to the New WorldNew England – families, moderate climate, no tobacco as cash crop, larger townsChesapeake – single males, smaller, more spread out farms, less religious than settlers in New England, slaveryOther Early ColoniesConnecticut was a proprietorship (land grant from King) – Fundamental Orders is usually considered the first written constitution in British North AmericaMaryland was another proprietorship granted to Lord Baltimore to become a safe haven for Catholics and soon it became a safe haven for all ChristiansAct of Toleration in 1649 - to protect religious freedom of most ChristiansNew York was a royal gift to James, the king’s brotherCharles II also gave New Jersey to a few friends who sold it to investors, mostly QuakersWilliam Penn, a Quaker, was a good friend of King Charles and granted Penn what is now PennsylvaniaCarolina was also a proprietary colony but in 1729 it split into North Carolina and South CarolinaEventually most of the proprietary colonies were converted to royal colonies (ownership taken over by the king)Conflicts with American IndiansPequot War (1636 – 1638)Massachusetts population grew and settlers wanted to settle in the Connecticut Valley, which was a fertile region. The area was already inhabited by the Pequots who resisted English incursions and attacked a settlement and killed 9 citizens. The Bay Colony retaliated and burned the main Pequot village, killing 400, many women and children.The Beaver Wars (1628 – 1701) The Iroquois Confederacy (with English allies) fought with the Algonquian Tribes (with French allies) over fishing and fur rights in the Great Lakes RegionBeavers in territory declined because of over-harvesting and territorial conflicts intensified. Considered the bloodiest in North American historyDecline of the Huron Confederacy (1634 – 1649)Primarily near Lake Ontario, the Huron once numbered about 40,000. Smallpox ravaged the tribes and they participated in the Beaver Wars. Numbers declined to around 12,000, they were allies with the French and fought with them in the French and Indian WarKing Philip’s War (1675 – 1678)Metacomet led the Wampanoag tribe in Rhode IslandThe tribe was surrounded by white settlements who were trying to convert themMetacomet led attacks on several white settlements in retaliation and allied with other tribes to destroy English settlementsMetacomet died, alliance fell apart, and colonists devastated the tribesKing Philip’s War marks the end of Native American presence among the New England coloniesThe Pueblo Revolt (1680) Spanish sought to maintain control of the SouthwestPueblo led a successful revolt against the Spanish… Spanish returned later and regained control of the territory. They were more accommodating to the Pueblo in fear of more conflict.The Chickasaw Wars (1721 – 1763)Chicasaw (allied with British) fought the Choctaw (allied with French) with control of land around the Mississippi RiverDeadlier than previous conflicts because the Natives were armed with European gunsEnded when the Treaty of Paris ended the French and Indian WarDecline of the Catawba Nation (1700s)Allied with the colonists and fought alongside them in the Revolutionary War. Engaged in constant warfare with other tribesNumbers also weakened by the smallpox epidemicTemporarily ceded land and tribal status after decimation from war and diseasethe age of salutary neglectThe age before the French and Indian War is called “salutary neglect.” England regulated trade and government but was not involved in colonial affairs. English Regulation of Colonial TradeMercantilism – economic power is rooted in the favorable balance of trade (import less than you export)Protective tariffs were placed on imports that might compete with English goodsNavigation Acts sought to establish wide-ranging English control over colonial commerceWool Act forbid the export of wool from the American colonies and the import of wool from other British coloniesMolasses Act imposed a large tax on the importation of sugarTo evade these taxes, colonists smuggled goods in and out of the colonies, so British cracked down on this by setting up vice-admiralty courts (defendants are not entitled to a jury) and the Boards of Trade to better regulate colonial commerce and review colonial legislation to revoke laws that conflict with British lawColonial GovernmentsEvery colony had a governor appointed by the King or proprietorGovernor’s power was similar to that of a king, except he was dependent on colonial legislatures for moneyPower of governor relied on cooperation of colonistsAll colonies had bicameral legislatures except Pennsylvania (unicameral)Members of both houses were white, male property holders who sought to protect the interests of the colonial landownersNew England Confederation offered advice to northeastern colonies when disputes arose among them – small effort towards a centralized governmentMajor Events of the PeriodBacon’s RebellionVirginia’s western frontier 1676Newcomers who sought land were forced into the backcountry, encroaching on Native inhabited landsSettlers wanted to drive back Native tribes so they wouldn’t be subject to raidsNathaniel Bacon demanded that Governor William Berkeley grant him authority to raise a militia. Berkeley refused and Bacon and men lashed out on NativesRebels then sacked and burned down JamestownThe rebellion died when Bacon died, and a treaty with the natives averted the problemStono Rebellion (Cato Rebellion)First slave rebellion, 1739Approximately 20 slaves met outside of Charleston, stole guns and ammo, killed storekeepers and planters and freed many slavesNow about 100, they fled to Florida in hopes of the Spanish colonists granting them freedomColonial militia caught them and killed and captured the slaves who were later executedAs a result of this rebellion, colonies passed more restrictive laws to govern slaves Salem Witch Trials1692, more than 130 “witches” were jailed or executed in Salem when young girls accused some prominent citizens of consorting with the DevilMany factors contributed to the hysteria behind the Salem Witch Trials including religion, economy, and genderGreat AwakeningWave of religious revivalismCongregationalist minister Jonathan Edwards and Methodist preacher George Whitefield partly inspired the Great AwakeningEdwards preached strict Calvinism and Whitefield preached Christianity based on emotionalism and spirituality (now Southern evangelism)Response to Enlightenment – intellectual movement of rationalism over spiritualismEnlightenment ideals – Ben Franklin – Poor Richard’s AlmanackFranklin invented bifocals, the lightning rod, the Franklin stove, founded the first colonial fire department and public libraryLife in the Colonies Extreme rate of growth (population went from 250,000 in 1700 to 1,250,000 in 1750)Many different non-English European populationsSubstantial African-American populations in the South, sometimes outnumbering whitesMajority of colonists lived in rural areasGender roles, education secondary to work schedulesBlacks lived predominately on the countryside in the SouthCity conditions were worse than country conditions – work conditions were extremely poor and unsanitary, immigrants centered in the cities for workMost colleges established to train ministersNew England Society centered on trade, Boston = major port citySubsistence farmingRigid Puritanism Middle colonies = New York, Pennsylvania, New JerseyMore fertile land for farming – bread colonies = heavy export of grainNY and Philadelphia were major trade centerLower South (Carolinas)Cash crops (tobacco and rice)Slavery on plantations even though majority of Southern farmers were subsistence farmersChesapeake (Maryland and Virginia)Combined features of lower south and middle coloniesFarmed grain and had diverse economyDevelopment of cities unlike lower southConflict and American Independence (1754 – 1800)Albany Plan of Union Developed by Ben Franklin – provided for an intercolonial government and a system for collecting taxes for the colonies’ defenseAlso tried to negotiate treaty with the IroquoisFranklin’s efforts to unite the colonies failed because the colonists did not want to give up the right to tax themselves“Join or Die” cartoonThe Seven Year’s War (1754 – 1763)Lasted for 9 years, also called the French and Indian War (French and Indians fought on the same side)War was inevitable result of colonial expansion (and power struggles of European countries)English settlers moved into the Ohio Valley and the French tried to stop them by building fortified outposts at strategic entry spotsFrench were trying to protect their profitable fur trade and controlGeorge Washington colonial militia attacked a French outpost and lost badly1756, England officially declared war on FranceMost Native Americans chose the French to ally with because they were the nicest and would presumably win the warEventually English gained the upper hand and when the war was over, ENGLAND WAS THE UNDISPUTED COLONIAL POWER OF THE CONTINENTTreaty of Paris of 1763 gave English control of Canada and everything east of the Mississippi Valley – the French kept 2 profitable sugar islandsFirst seeds of anti-British sentiment took place in colonies when American and British soldiers were in contact during Seven Year’s WarIn aftermath of war, English raised prices of goods sold to Native Americans and ceased paying rent on their western frontsOttawa war chief Pontiac rallied tribes in the Ohio Valley to launch Pontiac’s Rebellion and in response, Paxton Boys (Scots-Irish frontiersmen) slaughtered several members of Susquehanook tribeUsed germ warfare to quell the rebellion (viruses on blankets)British government issued Proclamation of 1963 in response to initial attacks, forbidding settlement west of the Appalachian MountainsProclamation was too late, and it only agitated the settlers who regarded it as unwarranted British interferenceProclamation of 1963 marks the end of salutary neglectThe Sugar Act, the Currency Act, and the Stamp ActIn financing the Seven Year’s War, the British government had run up a lot of debtGeorge III and his prime minister thought that the colonists should help pay that debtSugar Act of 1764 – cut down on smuggling of goods – actually lowered duty on molasses coming into the colonies from the West Indies except it was more strictly enforcedIt was very difficult for colonial shippers to not violate the Sugar Act, and when they did, they were tried in vice-admiralty courts by a single judgeColonists thought that Parliament was severely overstepping its authorityCurrency Act – forbade the colonies to issue paper moneyThe Currency Act, Sugar Act, and Proclamation of 1963 ended British government’s period of salutary neglect and the colonists were lividThe Stamp Act was passed in 1765 – it was a tax specifically aimed in raising revenue, it took away self-taxation unjustly, it was a broad-based tax, covering all legal documents and licenses, and it affected everyone, especially those who were literate, persuasive, and argumentative, and it was a tax on goods produced within the coloniesThe Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved by James Otis laid out the colonist’s argument against taxes and became a bestseller“No taxation without representation”did not advocate for secessionVirtual representation – members of Parliament represented all British subjects regardless of who elected themPatrick Henry drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves which protested the tax and asserted the colonists’ rights to a large measure of self-governmentSons of Liberty – opposition very effective, 1766 – Parliament repealed Stamp ActKing George III replaced Prime Minister Grenville with Lord Rockingham who opposed the Stamp Act but instated the Declaratory Act, which asserted the British government’s right to tax and legislate in all cases anywhere in the coloniesTownshend ActsDominant figure in colonial affairs was Charles TownshendTownshend Acts taxed goods imported directly from Britain, some taxes were set aside for the paycheck of tax collectors, created more vice-admiralty courts, suspended New York’s legislature because it had refused to comply with a law requiring the colonists to supply British troops, instituted writs of assistance (license that gave Britain power to search any place suspected of hiding goods)Massachusetts Circular Letter, written by Samuel Adams, asking all other assemblies to protest new taxes in unisonColonial governors (king appointed) banned talking about the letterPeople talked about it moreColonial governors dissolved legislatures that talked about the letterIntimidating boycotts for the commonerAfter 2 years, Parliament repealed Townshend ActsQuartering Act of 1765 – made colonists responsible for the cost of feeding and housing British troopsSoldiers sought off-hour employment so they competed with colonists for jobsBoston Massacre – 5 were killedThe Calm, and then the StormCommittees of Correspondence set up when British implemented part of Townshend Acts which allowed colonial administrators to be paid from customs revenuesMercy Otis Watson published pamphlets calling for a Revolution “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania,” written by John Dickerson which united the colonists against the Townshend ActsBoston Tea PartyCoercive Acts (Intolerable Acts)Quebec Act – granted greater liberties to Catholics and extended the boundaries of the Quebec TerritoryFirst Constitutional Congress – 1774 – goal was to enumerate American grievances, to develop stratagem for addressing those grievances, and to formulate a colonial position of the proper relationship between colonial governments and the royal governmentPatrick HenryContinental Association – town enforcing boycotts on British goods until grievances were redressedThe Shot Heard ‘Round the WorldBritish underestimated the strength of the growing pro-revolutionary movementEnglish dispatched troops to confiscate weapons in ConcordApril 1775 – troops passed through Lexington where a “minutemen” fired (Battle of Lexington) – showed the power of colonial farmersLoyalists – those who remained loyal to the crown – generally government officials, devout Anglicans, merchants, and religious and ethnic minorities who feared persecution at the hands of the rebelsThe Second Continental CongressWeeks after the Battle of Lexington and ConcordEstablished Continental Army, printed money, created government officials to supervise policy to prepare for warGeorge Washington appointed to lead the armyOlive Branch Petition – John Dickinson pushed for reconciliation with BritainAfter Bunker Hill, Olive Branch Petition was last-resort attempt to avoid armed conflictKing George ignored petitionThe Declaration of IndependenceCommon Sense – pamphlet by Thomas Paine who advocated for colonial independence and republicanism over monarchy (pamphlet was written in plainspoken language, so it was extremely easy to understand)Congress commissioned Thomas Jefferson to write Declaration of Independence which was signed on July 4, 1776 – at this moment, war became for independenceAfter several years of fighting, the British surrendered at Yorktown in 1781Key things to remember about the Revolutionary War:Continental Army had trouble recruiting good soldiers and eventually turned to recruiting blacks in exchange for their freedomThe Franco-American Alliance brought the French into the war on the side of the colonists after the Battle of SaratogaTreaty of Paris of 1783 granted the United States independence and generous territorial rightsArticles of ConfederationIn 1777 (still during the American Revolution), the Continental Congress sent the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution, to the colonies for ratificationLittle to no central government, national government has no power to tax, amendments required unanimous consent of all statesWartime government, unable to tax, had to print more money, causing wild inflationShay’s Rebellion – 1786-1787, army of 1500 farmers from Massachusetts marched on Springfield to protest unfair policies – armed and angry – brought about problem of putting down rebellion with a powerless national governmentNorthwest Ordinance of 1787 – contained a bill of rights guaranteeing a trial by jury, freedom of religion and freedom from excessive punishment – abolished slavery in Northwest territories and set up regulations concerning statehoodA New ConstitutionAlexander Hamilton was especially concerned that there was no uniform commercial policy and feared for survival of new republic – Annapolis Convention… only 5 delegates showed upConstitutional Convention – 178755 delegates, all white menNew Jersey Plan called for equal representation of statesVirginia Plan called for checks and balances, and representatives of each state by populationGreat Compromise mixed both the New Jersey Plan and Virginia Plan with a bicameral legislature and the Constitution3/5ths Compromise – each slave counted as 3/5ths of a person, and established 3 branches of governmentAnti-Federalists did not want to ratify the Constitution without a Bill of RightsFederalist Papers written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay circulated through New York and swayed public opinion Constitution went into effect in 1789 and a Bill of Rights was added in 1791The Washington PresidencyElectoral college unanimously chose George WashingtonWashington created a cabinetThomas Jefferson as secretary of stateAlexander Hamilton as secretary of treasuryHamilton proposed a National Bank, which was not specifically forbidden by the ConstitutionStrict constitutionalism – stick strictly to what is written in the constitutionLoose interpretation of constitution – implied powers and stretching the words of the constitution, not specifically forbiddenHamilton did a good job of handling national debt that was acquired during the warWashington D.C. became capital in 1800French Revolution took place during the Washington administrationThomas Jefferson supported the revolutionAlexander Hamilton did not support the revolutionBritish were America’s primary trading partner so this nudged America towards neutralityNeutrality Proclamation – U.S. intention to remain impartial towards the belligerent powersHamilton’s financial program instigated the Whiskey Rebellion – Pennsylvania farmers resisted an excise tax on whiskey – Washington dispatched militia to disperse the rebels (demonstrated lasting tensions between inland farmers and coastal elites)After the Battle of Fallen Timbers – 1794 – Washington sent John Jay to New England to negotiate a treaty about the evacuation of the British from the Northwest TerritoryJay’s Treaty prevented war with Britain again, but Jay made many concessionsWashington sent Thomas Pinckney to Spain to negotiate the use of the Mississippi River, duty-free and to negotiate the removal of remaining Spanish forts on American soil – Pinckney’s Treaty/ Treaty of San Lorenzo – Spain promised to prevent attacks on Western settlers from Native Americans – high point of Washington’s presidencyFarewell Address – steer clear of permanent alliances, neutralityRepublican MotherhoodWomen should teach men to be good citizens through romance and motherhoodWomen should entertain their male counterparts with good morals, providing incentive for males to be more ethicalThe Adams PresidencyElectoral college selected John Adams – FederalistAdam’s vice president was Thomas Jefferson – Democratic-RepublicanAvoided war with France when French began seizing American ships on the open seas after the signing of Jay’s Treaty with Britain… sent 3 diplomats to Paris where French officials demanded a huge bribe before they would even begin negotiatingDiplomats returned home and Adams published their report in the newspapers replacing the French officials’ names with X, Y, and Z and the incident became known as the XYZ AffairPopular sentiment became Anti-FrenchAlien and Sedition Acts allowed government to forcibly expel foreigners and jail newspapers for freedom of speechVP Thomas Jefferson and James Madison drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions which argued that the states had the right to judge the constitutionality of federal laws (protesting Alien and Sedition Acts)In Virginia and Kentucky, the Alien and Sedition Acts were declared void through nullificationbeginnings of modern day american democracy (1800 – 1848)The “Revolution of 1800” Federalist party was split clearing the way to the presidency for a Democratic-Republican: Thomas Jefferson or Aaron Burr1804 – 12th Amendment – allowed electors to vote for a party ticket (electing a president and vice president)Election of Jefferson was significant because it was the first shift in power between Federalists to an Anti-FederalistThe Jeffersonian Republic (1800 – 1823)Jefferson’s First TermAdams made midnight appointments before he left office, filling government positions with as many Federalists as he couldJefferson refused to recognize these appointmentsMarbury v. Madison reached Supreme Court in 1803William Marbury was a last minute appointee of Adams, and sued Secretary of State, James Madison, for refusing to certify his appointmentChief Justice John Marshall was a Federalist and he was on the side of Marbury, however, this wasn’t constitutional. This is when judicial review was established, the responsibility for reviewing the constitutionality of congressional acts.Louisiana Purchase – Jefferson sent James Monroe to France to buy New Orleans for $2 million and the French offered to sell the whole Louisiana territory for $15 millionWhile Jefferson had a strict interpretation of the constitution, the Louisiana Purchase went against these idealsRepublicans led by John Randolph criticized Jefferson for violating Republican principles… this group became known as QuidsJefferson sent Lewis and Clark among other explorers to investigate the western territories1804 – Jefferson won re-electionAt the same time, Aaron Burr ran for New York governor against Alexander Hamilton and when Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotage and killed him in a duelJefferson’s Second Term1805 – British and French were at war and at a stalemateEach side began to blockade each other’s trade routes, which greatly affected the United States who needed the trade from both countriesBritish began stopping American ships and impressing sailors (declaring with little to no evidence that those sailors had strayed from the British navy and they were forced back into it)Tensions boiled when British frigate attacked American ship in American watersJefferson responded with a boycottBritish and French continued to harass American ships, so Jefferson passed the Embargo Act of 1807 which shut down America’s import and export business (disastrous results, and smuggling became an issue)Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 reopened trade with most nations but still banned trade with Britain and FranceMadison’s Presidency and the War of 1812Macon’s Bill No. 2 was a bill that reopened trade with both France and EnglandIf either country renounced its interference with American trade, Madison would cut off trade with the other oneBritish were angry about Macon’s Bill and continued attacking American ships, increasing pro-war sentiments War Hawks – south and west, saw war as opportunity to grab new territories west and southwest – led by Henry Clay and John C. CalhounDeclared war 1812Native Americans took the side of the BritishChief Tecumseh unified area tribes to stop American expansion before and during the warAmericans were ill-prepared for the warBritish captured Washington, D.C. in 1814 and the set the White House on fireWhen English-French hostilities ended with Napoleon’s defeat and the war evaporated when British soon negotiated peaceTreaty of GhentHartford Convention – Federalists who opposed the war met in Connecticut to consider a massive overhaul of the ConstitutionFederalists were seen as traitors and the political party dissolved soon after the Hartford ConventionSpurred American manufacturing – states became more self-sufficient by necessityMadison stayed true to his Democratic-Republican principles throughout the remainder of his presidencyAmerican SystemImproved and expanded the National Road from Maryland to OhioRechartered the National BankLobbied for by Henry ClayMonroe’s PresidencyEra of Good Feelings – demise of the Federalists, only one political party – ignored increasing sectionalism and tensionsMcCulloch v. Maryland – states could not tax the National Bank – set precedence of national law over state lawPanic of 1819 – financial scare which threw American economy into turmoilPost War of 1812, new wave of westward expansionJohn Quincy Adams, secretary of state negotiated treaties that fixed U.S. borders and opened new territoriesAdams-Onis Treaty, 1819 – United States acquired Florida from the SpanishMonroe Doctrine – policy of mutual noninterference – only worked because British were on the American sideNew period of expansion resulted in the national debate over slaveryHenry Clay’s Missouri Compromise:Admitted Missouri as a slave stateCarved a piece of Massachusetts as Maine and Maine was admitted as a free stateDrew the 3630’ parallel across the Louisiana territoryEstablished the southern border of Missouri as the northernmost point at which slavery would then be allowed in the western territories of the United States, except MissouriPolitical events and social developmentsThe Election of 1824 and John Quincy Adam’s PresidencyElection of 1824 marked turning point in presidential elections because states allowed voters to choose their presidential electors directlyPreviously, congressional caucuses had chosen party nomineesCorrupt BargainJackson won most popular votes and electoral votes, however, it was not the majority among the 4 candidates, so the decision went to the House of Representatives where the Speaker of the House, Henry Clay, handed John Quincy Adams the presidency. Clay became Adam’s Secretary of State.Adam’s presidency was impeded by Congress, who had wanted Jackson as presidentJackson’s supporters favored states’ rightsThe Jackson Presidency and Jacksonian DemocracyPresent day Democratic PartyDirty election – mudslinging, accusationsCoffin Handbill accused Jackson of murdering his enlisted men during the Indian Wars1828 – Jackson won electionSeen as the epitome of a self-made man with the interests of the West in his mindSpoils system – trading jobs for political favorsJacksonian Democracy – government is only as large as necessary to provide an acceptable level of servicesUniversal white manhood suffrage, not just property owning white malesIndian Removal Act – Jackson ignored Supreme Court rulings in Worchester v. Georgia and Cherokee Nation v. GeorgiaTrail of TearsNullification holds that individual states have the right to disobey federal laws if they find them to be unconstitutionalTariff of Abominations was passed during the Adams administration but turned into a national crisis during Jackson’s administrationJohn C. Calhoun, South Carolinian and Jackson’s VP, argued that states who 50% felt that the tariff was unfairly high could nullify the lawTariff of 1832 failed to lower the taxes to an acceptable levelJackson had Congress authorize a Force Bill which threatened to send troops to enforce the tariff, but a compromise was brokered behind the scenesJackson fought against reform and saw to it that the Second Bank of the United States failedSpecie Circular ended the policy of selling government land on credit and caused a money shortage which triggered the Panic of 1837Slavery became an even more controversial issue during Jacksonian DemocracyNat Turner’s Rebellion – Nat Turner rallied a gang that killed 60 whites… in retaliation, 200 slaves were executed – Black codes were passed, preventing blacks from congregating and learning to readThe Election of 1836 and the Rise of the WhigsWhigs were formed when the Democrats could not represent the interests of all of its constituentsWhigs believed in government activism, especially in the case of social issues… but the defining aspect of a Whig was that he opposed DemocratsMartin Van Buren entered presidency right before Panic of 1837 and the panic lasted throughout his entire presidencyWilliam Henry Harrison became the first Whig president, but died in officeHarrison’s VP, John Tyler, a former Democrat, assumed he presidency and began championing states’ rights contrary to his own party’s viewsEconomic History (1800 – 1860)Beginnings of a Market EconomyMarket economy – people trade goods or labor for cash which they then use to buy other people’s labor or goodsBoom and bust cycles – period of prosperity rotating with throws in the economy (Panic of 1819 and 1837)Cotton gin – Eli Whitney – revolutionized Southern agriculture by making it much easier to remove the seeds from the cotton plants Interchangeable parts – Eli Whitney – mass production led to machine-tool industry and assembly line productionThe North and the Textile IndustryPower loom – 1813 – more efficient production of thread and fabricSamuel Slater designed first American textile millsLowell system/ Waltham system – worker-enticement programs guaranteeing employees housing, cash wages, and participation in events organized by the millClothing manufactures transformed textiles into finished products, retailers sold the clothing, brokers acted as middle men, and commercial banks lent money to everyoneThe transportation industry grew as a result of the need to ship products around the United States and worldTransportation: Canals, Railroads, Highways, and SteamshipsErie Canal – 1825 – linked Great Lakes region to New York and thus to European shipping routes, making the Northeast a center of commerceMany canals were constructed to piggyback off of the Erie Canal’s successCanal era ended in 1850Invention of the steam engine allowed for steamships to transport people and goods faster than beforeRailroads were built during the 1830s and development was slow because of the inconsistencies in width, gauge, and length of the railroads, therefore they were incompatible with one anotherSouthern railroad development was slow and the North had superior rails, giving them an exceptional advantage during the Civil WarInvention of the telegraph – allowed immediate long-distance communication for the first time through Morse codeDevelopments in transportation and communication revolutionized American commerce and culture but favored the Northeast and WestFarmingAgriculture was still the source of livelihood throughout the United StatesMechanization revolutionized farmingThe growth of the market economy changed farming Farming continued in the northeast but the soil was growing poor and the region was unable to compete with the Midwest (grain)Midwest became America’s chief source of grains, wheat, and cornSouthern plantations focused primarily on cotton and tobacco (most white farmers did not own slaves, only the wealthy upper-class)Westward ExpansionManifest Destiny – God-given right to Western territoriesWestern Settlement was dangerous – terrain and climate were unforgiving and unknown and belonged to Native Americans and MexicansTexas – Mexican government established liberal land policies to entice settlers and many Americans flooded to the regionIn return for the land, settlers were supposed to become Mexican citizens and abide by Mexican law, which they didn’t. Battle of the Alamo – 1836 Texas was its own country for a while, called “The Republic of Texas”Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845Oregon Territory and Oregon Trail goers had a new destination of California – Gold RushEconomic Reasons for Regional DifferencesSectional strifeNorthIndustrializedTechnological advances in communications, transportation, industry, bankingLegal slavery became increasingly uncommonSouthAgrarianTobacco and cottonConstantly looking west for more landAnxious to protect slaveryWestVaried economic interests – mostly commercial farming, fur-trapping, real-estateAvoid involvement with slavery issueSocial History (1800 – 1860)The North and American CitiesNation’s industrial and commercial centerCities = JobsGreat disparity in distribution of wealthCult of domesticity – men should work while women stay home and take care of childrenMasses of poverty… most were recent immigrants from Ireland and Germany (1st wave of immigration from North and West Europe, 2nd wave from South and East Europe)The South and Rural LifeFew major urban centersDid not develop a strong market economy or great infrastructure because of sparse populationAristocracy of wealthy plantation ownersCotton was grown in the deep South and tobacco in the Middle Atlantic alongside survival foods for the familySouthern Paternalism – blacks are childlike and unable to take care of themselvesSlaves survived the physical and psychological degradation of slavery by developing a unique culture that tended to blend aspects of their African roots with elements of ChristianityThe West and Frontier LivingFrontier was constantly changing as America expanded westwardSquatters ignored the requirement to buy land and simply moved onto and appropriated an unoccupied tract as their ownMidwest became known as the nation’s “breadbasket”Fur trading, cattle ranching, miningLife was rugged and settlers constantly struggled against climate, elements, and Native AmericansReligious and Social MovementsSecond Great Awakening was a period of religious revival among Methodists, Presbyterians, and BaptistsBegan in the “burned-over district” of New York and spread throughout the countryCharles G. Finny – “Father of Modern Revivalism”Temperance societies encouraged people to not drink and pushed for the 18th Amendment“Female Moral Reform Society” protested against prostitutionThe Abolition MovementAntislavery whites believed that slaves should be returned back to AfricaReligious and moral fervor of the Second Great Awakening persuaded more and more whites that slavery was a great evilImmediatists wanted emancipation at onceWilliam Lloyd Garrison wrote the Liberator and helped found the American Anti-Slavery SocietyGag rule – Congress adopted this to suppress the discussion of slavery and along with Southern restrictions on free speech, many northerners were convinced to join the abolitionist movementFrederick DouglassHarriet Tubman and the underground railroadSojourner TruthToward the civil war and reconstruction (1844 – 1877): political and judicial activity before the waRWhigs stood for a policy of internal improvementsDemocrats were generally expansionistsThe Polk PresidencyDemocratOregon Treaty signed with Great Britain in 1846 allowed the United States to acquire peacefully what is now Oregon, Washington, and parts of Idaho, Wyoming and MontanaPolk concentrated on efforts to claim the Southwest from MexicoTried to buy territory but failed and then challenged Mexican authorities on the border of Texas provoking a Mexican attack on American troopsDeclaration of war against Mexico and Mexican-American War began in 1846Mexican-American War did not have universal support from the American publicWilmot Proviso – congressional bill prohibiting the extension of slavery into any territory gained from MexicoVote for Wilmot Proviso fell along Northern and Southern state lines rather than by partyFree-Soil Party – regional, single-issue party devoted to the goals of the Wilmot ProvisoWhen United States successfully invaded Mexico City, the war was over and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) ended itMexico handed over almost all of modern Southwest – Mexican CessionU.S. in return, paid $15 million for the landPopular sovereignty – people in the territories would decide by vote whether to allow slaveryCompromise of 1850Stephen Douglas and Henry Clay hammered out the Compromise as a solution to the sectional strifeThe Compromise was broken down into several bills to get passed in Congress Stronger fugitive slave lawCalifornia admitted as a free statePopular sovereignty of New Mexico and Utah territoriesAbolished slave trade, but not slavery1852 – Uncle Tom’s Cabin – propaganda in the North that turned many northerners into abolitionistsThe Kansas-Nebraska Act and “Bleeding Kansas”Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 – popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska territoriesRepealed the Missouri CompromisePersonal liberty laws in the North weakened fugitive slave laws, giving runaway slaves right to a trial by jury with rights to a lawyerAnti-slavery Whigs joined Northern Democrats and former Free-Soilers and formed a new party – RepublicansAmerican Party/Know-Nothing Party rallied around nativismViolence erupted in Kansas – radical abolitionist John Brown – more than 200 people died – Bleeding KansasPro-slavery Senator Andrew Butler beat abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner over the head with a caneCrisis destroyed Franklin Pierce’s political career and Democrats chose James Buchanan for election of 1856Buchanan, Dred Scott, and the Election of 1860Buchanan tried to maintain peace before the Civil WarDred Scott v. SandfordScott lost in Supreme Court because slaves were property, not citizens and therefore could not sue in the first place. Chief Justice Taney delivered decision.Also ruled that Congress could not regulate slavery in the territoriesLincoln-Douglas debates for Illinois Senate seatDouglas= leading DemocratLincoln=leading RepublicanFreeport Doctrine – Douglas’ attempt to defend popular sovereigntyJohn Brown’s raid on Harper’s Ferry – hope to spark a slave revolt – executed and became a martyr for the NorthLincoln’s election caused Southern legislatures to propose bills of secession1860 – 3 months before Lincoln’s inauguration – South Caroline seceded 6 other states joined to form the Confederate States of AmericaJefferson Davis was President of ConfederacyFort Sumter – April 12, 1861 – beginning of Civil WarThe Civil war and reconstruction (1860 – 1877)The Civil War and the ConfederacyJefferson Davis forced the South to compensate quickly for what it had lost when it cut itself off from the Union – federal government commanding a lot of powerDavis tried to quickly modernize and industrialize the Southern economy however this brought rapid inflation to accompany the rapid economic growthConfederacy imposed conscription in 1862 – military draftSuspended writ of habeas corpusThe Civil War and the UnionBoosted economy from war manufacturingWar profiteering – overcharging government for war-time goodsWidespread corruptionInflation but not nearly as bad as southern inflationLabor unions – job security with mechanization of industry and decline in wagesRepublican party – little regulation of businessesLincoln oversaw increase in central government power during the warSuspended writ of habeas corpus in border statesInitiated printing of national currencyEmancipation of the SlavesRadical Republicans wanted immediate emancipationConfiscation Acts – seize slaves, liberate slaves – Lincoln refused to enforceBattle of Antietam – Union victory – Lincoln issued Emancipation ProclamationFreed slaves only in southern states in rebellion, not border states13th Amendment – freed all slaves – tried to let Southern states reenter the Union and vote, but they were bent on independenceElection of 1864 and the End of the Civil WarCopperheads – accused Lincoln of instigating a national social revolution and criticized his administration’s policiesFreedman’s Bureau helped newly liberated blacks establish a place in postwar society – could be seen as the first federal social welfare program in U.S. historySherman’s March – Union Army burned everything in its wake from Atlanta to the sea (destroy Confederate morale and deplete the South’s natural resources)Reconstruction and Johnson’s Impeachment1865 – 1877Ten-Percent Plan – 10% of those voters who had voted in the 1860 election swear oath of allegiance to the Union and accept emancipation through the 13th Amendment, then they would reorganize and reapply for admission to the Union – Lincoln’s planRadical Republicans argued that the South was conquered territory and under jurisdiction of Congress not the PresidentLincoln’s plan was too lenientWade-Davis Bill of 1864States be ruled by a military governor50% of electorate to swear an oath of allegiance to the Unionstate convention to repeal ordinance of secession and abolish slaveryLincoln assassinated, Andrew Johnson assumes presidencyJohnson’s Reconstruction PlanCalled for provisional military governments to run the states until they were readmitted to the UnionALL southern citizens to swear a loyalty oath before receiving amnestyBarred many southern elites to even take the oath, thus prohibiting their participation in the new governmentsJohnson pardoned many of the Southern eliteSpecial Field Order No. 15 – land seized from confederates was to be redistributed among freedman – “40 acres and a mule” but Johnson rescinded orderRepublicans thought that Johnson’s Reconstruction needed modification, Johnson refused to compromise and declared Reconstruction over, vetoing a compromise packageCongressional Reconstruction14th AmendmentMilitary Reconstruction Act of 1867Imposed martial law on the SouthNew state constitutional conventions (and forced states to allow blacks to vote for delegates)Forced ratification of the 14th AmendmentJohnson did everything in his power to counteract every congressional plan and was impeached for violating the Tenure of Office ActAcquitted by one vote in the SenateUlysses S. Grant – 15th Amendment – passed only because southern states were required to ratify it as a condition of reentry to the UnionThe Failure of ReconstructionScalawags – cooperative southernersCarpetbaggers – northerners who came to the south to steal wealth and leaveGrant’s presidency was characterized by many scandals which diverted the public’s attention away from ReconstructionKu Klux Klan – murdering freedmenWhite League – murdering republicansRedeemers – Southern Democrats who regained control of the southern state legislaturesCompromise of 1877 – Rutherford B. HayesWhen Reconstruction ended, many blacks anticipated the fate that awaited them in the South and moved to the Norththe industrial revolution: The Age of invention and economic growth (Gilded age)Industrialization, Corporate Consolidation, and the Gospel of WealthInventions such as Thomas Edison’s light bulb – extended working daysMass productionEconomies of scale – more raw product = cheaper supplies, more machines = less labor, lower costs = cheaper products, cheaper products = more soldAssembly line production – interchangeable parts (Eli Whitney) – reached a whole new level in Ford’s plants – employees had to work as efficiently and repetitively as machinesCorporate consolidation – pro-business, no government restraint, greater economies of scale = larger and larger businessesHolding company – owned enough stock in various companies to control interest in the production of raw materials, transportation, the factory, and the distribution of the product – logically became monopoliesHorizontal integration and vertical integration practiced by robber barons and captains of industryJohn D. Rockefeller – Standard Oil Co. – horizontal integration – monopolies of entire industryVertical integration is one company buying out all the factors of production but still competes with othersSherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 – loopholes allowed businesses to get aroundU.S. v. E.C. Knight Co. – E.C. Knight Co. did not violate Sherman Anti-Trust Act because local manufacturing was not subject to congressional regulation of interstate commerceLoopholes closed with Clayton Anti-Trust Act – allowed collective bargainingSocial Darwinism – promoted by Andrew CarnegieGospel of Wealth – also promoted by Andrew Carnegie (steel)Factories and City LifeManufacturers cut costs and maximized profits in every way they couldHiring women and children Hiring newly arrived immigrantsAdvances in mass transportation allowed middle class to live in nicer neighborhoodsEthnic neighborhoods and tenements Political bosses – helped find the poor homes and jobs, apply for citizenship and voting rightsIn return they expected community members to vote as they were instructedOrganizations called political machines – rendered services that communities otherwise wouldn’t receiveCriminal means to accomplish goals“Boss” Tweed of Tammany HallLabor UnionsKnights of LaborOrganized skilled and unskilled workersWanted an 8-hour workdayEqual pay for men and womenChild labor lawsSafety and sanitary codesFederal income taxGovernment ownership of railroads and telegraph linesBecame increasingly violent in efforts to achieve goalsTerence Powderly – leader of many strikes (unsuccessful)Haymarket Square Riot – bomb went off and Knights were blamed even though no one knew who set off the bombAmerican Federation of LaborLed by Samuel GompersBread and butter issues – higher wages, shorter workdaysExcluded unskilled workersConfederation of trade unions (unions made of exclusively workers within a single trade)Settlement houses – Jane Addams, Hull HousePublic began to read novels and newspapersJoseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst“yellow journalism” – lurid tales of scandal (like magazines in grocery store aisles today)Jim Crow Laws and Other Developments in the SouthVast majority of southerners remained farmersSharecropping – poor whites and blacksMethod by which they rented land was the crop lien system – designed to keep the poor in constant debtJim Crow lawsPlessy v. Ferguson – separate but equal – 1896Set back civil rights gains made during ReconstructionBooker T. WashingtonEconomic independence before rightsAccommodationistW.E.B. DuBoisCivil rights nowImmediatistThe Railroads and Developments in the WestRanching and mining were growing industriesLincoln had issued a challenge to America for the transcontinental railroad1862 – 1869, transcontinental railroad happenedRailroad was privately ownedRailroad companies organized hunts for buffalo (considered a nuisance) and hunted them to near extinctionLittle Big Horn – George Custer met his deathRailroad = faster communication, accelerated Industrial Revolution, gave nation standard telling of time and the adoption of time zones1890 – territories achieving statehood, frontier = closed according to Frederick Jackson TurnerFrontier Thesis/ Turner ThesisShaped American characterDefined American spiritFostered democracyProviding a safety valve for economic distress in urban centersHomestead Act – 160 acres, cultivate for 5 yearsMorrill Land Grant Act – set aside land and provided money for agricultural colleges U.S. Fish Commission created to study, monitor, and preserve wild fisheriesSierra Club – created by John Muir – club dedicated to conservationTheodore Roosevelt furthered environmental preservation of the west through National ParksNative Americans were the big losers in the expansionist era(After Civil War (late 1800s) = Gilded Age, Industrial Revolution, and Expansionist Era)A Century of Dishonor – Helen Hunt Jackson – detailed the injustices of the reservation systemDawes Act – 1887 – broke up reservations and distributed some of the land to the head of each Native American family (160 acres of land, family must live on land for 25 years to get U.S. citizenship)Ghost Dance Movement – displaced Indians turned to religion for comfortNational PoliticsGilded AgeAmerica looked like it was entering a time of peace and prosperity, but the affluence of some was built on the poverty of the majorityCorruptionBenjamin Harrison’s activism, “Billion-Dollar Congress” led to the public’s discomfort and the reelection of Grover ClevelandRailroad regulationsMunn v. Illinois – states have the power to regulate private industry that serves the “public interest” – established precedentInterstate Commerce Act (ICC) – supervise railroad activities and regulate unfair and unethical practicesWomen’s SuffrageSusan B. AnthonyAmerican Suffrage AssociationWomen gained right to vote in 1920 by the 19th AmendmentThe Silver Issue and the Populist MovementFarmers supported more generous money supply – cause inflation making debts worth lessSilver versus gold backing of currencyGrange Movement – farmers together reaping benefits of economies of scale – farmers in market onlyFarmers’ Alliances grew into the People’s Party which grew into the Populist PartySilver coinageGovernment ownership of railroads and telegraphsGraduated income taxDirect election of senatorsShorter workdaysSocialists – led by Eugene Debs gained support – radicalism as an answer to hard economic timesPopulists backed Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan against William McKinleyBryan’s campaign called for “free silver” – Cross of Gold speechEasy money supply, through inflation, would loosen control of Northern banking interests on the countryBryan lost to McKinley and the Populist movement was overForeign Policy: The Tariff and Imperialism1890, Congress enacted McKinley Tariff, which raised the level of duties on imported goods almost 50%Wilson-Gorman Tariff strengthened McKinley TariffImpacted foreign relations tremendously and is usually considered one of the causes of the Spanish-American WarOpportunities for American expansionism Hawaii – weakened exports with high tariffs and overthrew native government, eventually annexedSpanish-American WarCuba – instigated by the tampering of Cuban economy with tariffs, U.S.S. Maine exploded in harbor, violent Cuban civil warUnited States drove Spain out of Cuba and sent a fleet to Spanish-controlled Philippines and drove the Spanish out of there tooTreaty of Paris, 1898 – Spain granted Cuba independence and ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United StatesPlatt Amendment – provisions to Cuba for American troops to leaveNot permitted to sign treaties with another country without the consent of U.S.U.S. could intervene in Cuban domestic and foreign affairsU.S. would grant land on which to build a naval base and coaling stationControl of Philippines – moral obligation to Christianize and civilize the Filipinos (white man’s burden)Senate voted to annex Philippines, but Filipinos waged war against United States and eventually granted independence in 1946Spanish-American War established America as a world superpower and imperialistic countryOpen Door Policy under McKinleyAmerica wanted to gain entry to Asian marketsWanted Western nations to keep up trade with Asiathe progressive era and world war I (1900 – 1920)While Populists were mainly farmers who advocated radical reforms, the Progressives were urban, middle-class reformers who wanted to increase the role of government while maintaining a capitalist economyThe Progressive MovementMuckrakers – revealed widespread corruption in urban managementThe Shame of the Cities – Lincoln SteffensHistory of Standard Oil – Ida TarbellThe Jungle – Upton SinclairHow the Other Half Lives – Jacob RiisNational Association for the Advancement of Colored PeopleW.E.B. DuBoisWomen’s RightsMargaret Sanger – birth control19th Amendment – women’s suffrageInitiative, Referendum, RecallVoters could propose new lawsPublic could vote on new lawsVoters could remove officials from officePresident Theodore RooseveltUsed Sherman Anti-Trust Act against monopolies (broke up Standard Oil Co.)“Trustbuster”Tightened food and drug regulationsCreated National ParksBroadened government’s power to protect land from overdevelopmentPresident William Howard Taft“dollar diplomacy” – attempt to secure favorable relationships with Latin American and East Asian countries by providing monetary loansNew Nationalism2 constitutional amendments – 16th and 17th16th Amendment – instituted a national income tax17th Amendment - amendment allowed the direct election of senatorPresident Woodrow Wilson New Freedom – federal government had to assume greater control over business to protect man’s freedomFederal Trade CommissionClayton Antitrust Act of 1914 – got rid of loopholes in Sherman Antitrust ActFederal Reserve System – gave government greater control over the nation’s financesProgressivism lasted until the end of WW1“Red Scare” heightened by the Russian Revolution split the Progressive coalitionForeign Policy and the U.S. Entry into World War IPanama Canal under RooseveltBig Stick Policy under Roosevelt – Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine – assertion that Latin American domestic instability constituted a threat to American securityNeutrality at the beginning of World War IEngland had a strategic blockade on shipments headed for Germany and confiscated American ships. They then paid for cargo, reducing the pressure that American merchants would have to put on the U.S. government to take action against the blockade.Germany attempted to counter the blockades with U-Boats and submarines… they sunk the Lusitania, a British passenger boat with 128 Americans onboard.Germans ceased submarine warfare for a while and then started back up again. Popular support for entry into the war began to grow.Zimmermann telegram – within a month, U.S. declared war on GermanyWorld War I and its AftermathWar Industry Board (WIB) – created to coordinate all facets of industrial and agricultural production Espionage Act and Sedition ActSchenck v. United States“clear and present danger”“FIRE” in a crowded theater when there is no fireSelective Service Act of 1917Paranoia heightened during the Russian Revolution – fear of a communist takeoverFederal Bureau of Investigation created to prevent radicals from taking over – J. Edgar HooverPalmer Raids – government raided residences, union halls, etc. and arrested 4000 suspected radicalsCommittee on Public Information – wartime propaganda armPersecution of German-AmericansWartime opportunities for women opened and closed at the beginning and end of WWIWartime manufacturing jobs to big cities by Southern blacks – Great Migration America’s entry to the war tipped the balance in the Allies’ favorWilson’s Fourteen PointsFree trade – lower tariffs and freedom of seasReduction of armsPromotion of self-determination (end of colonialism)Creation of the League of NationsTreaty of VersaillesGermany was forced to cede colonial territories to the AlliesDisarmPay reparationsAdmit total fault for the warLeague of Nations created, but Congress did not allow the United States to enter leagueHenry Cabot Lodge – political nemesis of Wilson and intellectual rivalAmerica receded into period of isolationismThe Jazz Age and the Great Depression (1920 – 1933)Pro-Business Republican AdministrationsGovernment grew to be more pro-businessWarren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert HooverHarding – Teapot Dome Scandal – oil companies bribed secretary of interior in order to drill on public landsPro-business = decline of labor unionsWelfare capitalism – businesses offering more benefits to workers in hopes that they wouldn’t ask for moreModern CultureAutomobile allowed transfer from suburbs to city centersRadio and advertising industry boomedConsumerismFlappers MoviesSports – Babe RuthLost Generation – F. Scott Fitsgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Eugene O’NeillHarlem RenaissanceLangston Hughes, Countee Cullen, Zora Neale HurstonJazz Age – Louis ArmstrongBacklash Against Modern CultureRenewed nativism, rise of the Ku Klux KlanSacco and Vanzetti – Italian immigrant anarchists arrested on charges of murder and they were executedEmergency Quota Act of 1924Scopes Monkey TrialIt is illegal to teach evolutionProhibition – banned sale, manufacture, and transport of alcoholic beverages – 18th AmendmentOrganized crime“gangster era”Repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933Herbert Hoover and the Beginning of the Great Depression October 1929 – stock market crash and beginning of Great DepressionMargin-buying was a contributing factorBankruptcy, prices fall, little-demand, loss of jobs, deflation, business failuresSupply exceeding demand – after WWI, European nations went into small depression, U.S. wasn’t affected because of mass consumerism until nowHoovervillesDust Bowl – agrarian unrest – Farmers’ Holiday Association (organized demonstrations and threatened a nationwide walkout by farmers in order to raise pricesHoover passed the Hawley-Smoot Tariff, thinking that it would heighten the economyBonus Expeditionary Force – Bonus March – federal troops used excessive force to expel marchers, 100 people diedElection of FDRThe New deal and world war II (1934 – 1945)The First New DealEmergency Banking Relief Bill – put poorly managed banks under the control of the Treasury Department and granted government licenses to those that were solventFireside chats – personal Banking Act of 1933 – created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation – guaranteed bank depositsAgricultural Adjustment Act – payment for cut in productionFarm Credit Act – loans to farmers in danger of foreclosureNational Industrial Recovery Act – consolidated businesses and coordinated their activities to eliminate overproduction Public Works Administration – created jobsCivilian Conservation Corps – grants to states to do PWA projectsTennessee Valley Authority – government took it over to lead to the economic recovery of the regionNational Labor Relations BoardSecurities and Exchange Commission – regulated stock marketThe Second New DealDeficit spendingLeftists – Henry Long – opposed the New DealSocialists gained popularitySupreme Court cut down on some New Deal agency’s powersCourt-packing scheme was rejected by Congress (9 justices to 15 justices)Works Progress Administration – short term jobsSocial Security Administration – provided retirement benefits for many workers – increased taxes on wealthier individualsNew Deal Coalition – union members, urbanities, underclass, blacks (turned Democrat from previously being generally Republican)Roosevelt’s Troubled Second TermJudicial Reorganization Bill – defeated in Congress – packing the courts1937 – economy went into recession – decreasing output, cut back of New Deal, tightening of Federal Reserve BoardFair Labor Standards Act – set minimum wage and established a 40-hour work weekNew Deal did not benefit all equally – actually hurt blacks and tenant farmers, were still segregatedForeign Policy Leading up to World War II“independent internationalism” instead of “isolationism”Washington Conference reaffirmed the Open Door Policy and set a limit on stockpiling armaments62 nations signed Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928 condemned war as a foreign policy and not a means to work out disagreementsno enforcement clausesUnited States tried to back away from interventionist policy and replace it with the Good Neighbor PolicyDespite the name, used to promote United States’ interests rather than those who live therePlatt Amendment repealedProtectionism – U.S. government keeping the tariffs highReciprocal Trade Agreements Act – allowed president to reduce tariff if it would achieve foreign policy goalsMost favored nation (MFN) trade status – lowest tariff rates for those countriesNye Commission – discontent with results of WWI and isolationist sentimentIn response, Congress passed neutrality actsProhibited sale of arms to either belligerent in warBanned loans to belligerentsRoosevelt was still pouring money into military in the event that we did go to warLend-Lease Act permitted the United States to “lend” armaments to EnglandAtlantic Charter Conference – Winston ChurchillDisarmament, self-determination, freedom of the seas, guarantees of each nation’s securityTripartite Pact – Italy, Germany, and JapanUnited States cut off trade with JapanPearl Harbor – December 7, 1941 – U.S. participation beganWorld War IIMeeting of the big 3 (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) took place in Tehran in 1943. Here they planned D-Day, the Normandy invasion and to divide a defeated Germany into occupation zones after warRationing was imposedLabor Disputes Act of 1943 – allowed the government to takeover businesses deemed necessary to national securityHollywood created propaganda films to encourage supportSelective Training and Service Act of 1940 – created the first peacetime draft in U.S. history and gave birth to the current incarnation of the Selective Service SystemRosie the RiveterAfrican Americans fought in the war in segregated unitsInternment of Japanese Americans (Korematsu v. United States) after Pearl Harbor“clear and present danger”The End of the WarAllied leaders met at Yalta and redrew the world map basicallySoviet wanted to create a “buffer zone” between Soviet Union and Western EuropeIron Curtain (Winston Churchill term) – symbolic division of Eastern and Western EuropeEstablishment of soviet satellitesUnited Nations – created to mediate further international disputes (kind of like League of Nations)Allies met again in Potsdam to decide how to implement agreements at YaltaWith Harry S. Truman representing the United States (Roosevelt = deceased)U.S. dropped 2 atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki… the Japanese surrendered soon afterThe postwar period and the COld war (1945 – 1980)Truman and the Beginning of the Cold War (1945 – 1953)United States and Soviet Union didn’t enter combat in the Cold WarUnited States fought “proxy” wars in Korea and VietnamPostwar economies in shambles… need for exportsTruman and Foreign PolicyTruman Doctrine – “containment,” financial aid to Turkey and Greece to resist communismContainment – Long Telegram from George Kennan to Washington – not fighting the Soviet Union, but helping other countries to resist communismMarshall Plan gave money to Western Europe to rebuild economy, become American allies, and resist communismNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization – mutual defense alliance with Western Europe and CanadaBlockade on Berlin when Western Allies planned to merge their sectors into one country and bring the country into the Western economy – Berlin AirliftNational Security Counsel – group of foreign affairs advisers who work for the president) – created when Soviets detonated their first atomic bombCentral Intelligence Agency – United States’ spy networkJapan – reconstruction under the command of General Douglas MacArthur – democratic constitution, demilitarized, and remarkable economic revivalNot as successful in China – Mao Zedong’s Communist Insurgents overthrew the NationalistsMcCarthyismParanoiaAlger Hiss, formers State Department Official, found guilty of consorting with communist spiesJoseph McCarthy claimed to have a list of more than 200 known communists working for the State DepartmentBlacklists – prohibited the accused from workingEdward R. Murrow’s television show and the Army-McCarthy hearings showed the McCarthy was full of crap and the public turned their backs on him 2nd Red ScareTruman’s Domestic Policy and the Election of 1948Wartime production came to an endAnother wave of consumerism Coal miners’ strike by the United Mine Workers cut off energy supplies to other industriesGovernment seizure of the minesTruman alienated laborPresident’s Committee on Civil Rights – 1948 issued a report calling for an end to segregation, poll taxes, and for more aggressive enforcement of anti-lynching lawsJackie RobinsonTaft-Hartley Act – passed over Truman’s vetoprohibited union only work environmentsprohibited the use of union funds for political purposesrestricted the right to strikegovernment intervention in strikesThe Korean WarCommunist North Korea invaded U.S.-backed South Korea China ultimately entered the war, pushing American and South Korean troops back near the original borderU.S. commander Douglas MacArthur recommended all out confrontation with ChinaTruman decided against MacArthur, and MacArthur started to openly criticize TrumanTruman fired him for insubordinationDwight D. Eisenhower chosen for election of 1952The Eisenhower Years (1953 – 1961) 1950s = time of conformityconsensus of values reignedconsumerismG.I. Bill of Rights – June 1944 – provided an allowance for educational and living expenses for returning soldiers and veterans who wished to earn their high school diploma or attend collegeHelped also to stimulate post-war economic growthBeat poetry and novels, teen movies, rock ‘n’ rollDomestic policies in the 1950sReduced military spending by reducing troops and buying powerful weapons systems (New Look Army) – not enough to eliminate deficit spendingInterstate Highway System – easier to move soldiers and nuclear weapons around the countryPromoted tourism and development of suburbs (white flight)Termination – liquidate reservations, end reservations, subject Natives to state lawBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson in education (separate but equal)Montgomery Bus BoycottMartin Luther King Jr. – civil disobedience (Henry David Thoreau, Gandhi)Greensboro sit insAmerica vs. the CommunistsEisenhower’s Secretary of State – John Foster DullesPolicy of containment – liberationUnited States would eventually free Eastern Europe from Soviet control“massive retaliation”Deterrence – prevent Soviets from challenging U.S. to a nuclear arms raceMutually assured destruction (MAD)Brinksmanship – allowing confrontations to escalate towards warDomino theory of communism – spread of communism needed to be checked in Southeast AsiaUSSR launched Sputnik, motivating the United States to start NASAThird World PoliticsTried to unsuccessfully assassinate Fidel Castro, communist leader of Cuba1960 Presidential Electionmilitary-industrial complex – new coalition that had grown up around the Cold WarThe Turbulent SixtiesNew Frontier – conquer poverty, racism, and other contemporary domestic woesKennedy and Foreign PolicyCuba overthrown by Fidel CastroEisenhower had broken diplomatic relations with Cuba and Cuba turned to the Soviet Union for financial and military aidBay of Pigs InvasionSend CIA trained Cuban exiles to invade CubaArmy of exiles would win a few battles and the Cuban people would rise up in support and overthrow CastroInvasion failed and antagonized the SovietsFailure diminished America’s stature with its alliesBerlin Wall – divided East and West Germany – more symbolic than effective1962 – Cuban Missile CrisisAmerican spy planes detected missile sites in CubaPolicy of brinkmanship to remove the missiles at all costsImposed naval quarantine on Cuba and went on television, demanding that the Soviets withdraw their missilesKennedy backed Soviet into a cornerFor removal of Cuban missiles, Soviet demanded that the U.S. never again invade Cuba and that the U.S. remove its missiles from TurketKennedy did not accept the second conditionPolicy of containment motivated programs such as the Peace CorpsProvide teachers and specialists in agriculture, health care, transportation, and communications to the Third World“nation-building”Kennedy and Domestic PolicyNew FrontierIncreased unemployment benefitsExpanded Social SecurityBumped up minimum wageAided distressed farmersWomen’s rightsEqual Pay Act of 1963Civil RightsDied when implementing civil rights reformLBJ passed Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) – freedom ridesStudent Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) – sit insSouthern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)Bloody Sunday – Edmund Pettus bridge – television = publicity = bad national reputation = need for legislationLyndon Johnson’s Social AgendaEarly commitment to the civil rights movementGreat SocietyCivil Rights Act of 1964Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce the employment clause of the Civil Rights ActVoting Rights Act of 1965Economic Opportunity Act – nearly one billion dollars towards poverty relief“war on poverty”Project Head Start – prepared underprivileged children for early schooling (Upward Bound for high school students)Job Corps – trained unskilled so they could get better jobsVolunteers in Service to America – acted as a domestic Peace CorpsDepartment of Housing and Urban Development – increased federal aid to low income apartment renters, and built more federal housing projectsTaxpayers did not feel much painThe Civil Rights MovementWarren Court was extremely liberalGideon v. Wainwright – defendant in felony trial must be provided a lawyer for free if he/she cannot afford oneMiranda v. Arizona – suspect must be informed of his/her rightsKu Klux KlanMickey Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, James Chaney murdered during Freedom SummerMLK Jr. – nonviolent protestRise in black power movement – Malcom X – Nation of IslamSNCC and CORE – black powerThe New Left, Feminism, and the CountercultureYoung people in general = rebellious1962 – SDS – Students for a Democratic SocietyPort Huron Statement – set tone for other progressive groups on college campusesCollectively became known as “New Left”Elimination of poverty and racismEnd to Cold War politicsFree speech movementThe Feminine Mystique – Betty Friedan – openly challenged people’s assumptions about women’s place in societyRestarted the women’s movementFounder of NOW – National Organization for WomenEqual Rights AmendmentStonewall Riots – gays fought back against police in New York CityRoe v. Wade (1973) – women have right to abortion in the first trimesterHippies, drug use, communal living, free love – counterculture Environmental activism – Rachel Carson – Silent SpringClean Air Act of 1955 – law to control the use of airborne contaminantsNew Left, feminists, counterculture, and others openly opposed American participation in the Vietnam WarAmerican Involvement in Vietnam, World War II – 1963Vietminh led by Ho Chi Minh – nationalist Vietnamese resistanceSelf-determination from Wilson’s Fourteen PointsJapan invaded Vietnam during WWI and ended French controlThe Vietnamese helped the Allies defeat JapanHo drafted Vietnamese Declaration of IndependenceUnited States did not recognize Vietnamese independence, not the legitimacy of Ho’s government (because he was a communist and because the French were our allies)United States recognized Bao Dai, French-installed governor.1954 – Geneva Accords – divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel with communist forces in the North and democratic forces in the Southelections would be held to determine who would rule unified Vietnam in 2 yearselections never happenedUnited States made an alliance with Ngo Dinh Diem, got rid of the weak Bao Dai, and helped to organize raids across the border to provoke a communist responseSEATO – Southeast Asian Treaty Organization created to provide for South Vietnam’s defense against Communist takeoverDiem was a very poor, violent leader that turned many South Vietnamese to join the North VietnameseCommunist South Vietnamese insurgents were called the VietcongAmerican Involvement in Vietnam (1964 – 1968)Johnson had the opportunity to withdraw American forces in a way that would not have embarrassed his administrationWanted “total victory”Gulf of TonkinNorth Vietnamese had fired on 2 ships in the Gulf of Tonkin after U.S. Army had bombed Laos (traded with North Vietnam)Gulf of Tonkin Resolution – president can take any measures to protect American interestsGave LBJ ability to escalate U.S. participation in the war“Americanization” of Vietnam War – America began to essentially fight for the South Vietnamese sideProtest rallies grew largerNorth Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive – inflicted heavy damage on American forces and nearly captured the American embassyTurning point against United StatesMy Lai MassacrePublicized, horrific events in small village in South VietnamU.S. soldiers abused, tortured, and murdered 300-500 innocent civilians including women, children, and the elderlyThe Summer of 1968 and the 1968 ElectionJohnson withdrew from the presidential race1968, white assassin killed MLK Jr.ignited riotsRobert Kennedy assassinated, frontrunner of Democratic nominationAmericans came to Chicago to protest and were broken up with tear gas, clubs, and riflesExtremely bad publicityRichard Nixon was elected presidentThe Counter Counter-CultureConservative resurgence began in the 1970sPhyllis Schlafly – lobbied against the Equal Rights Amendment to the ConstitutionRichard Nixon ran for office to appeal to the “Silent Majority” of Americans who did not fully embrace the cultural and political changes of the 1960s and 1970sNixon, “Vietnamization,” DétentePromised to end American involvement in Vietnam by turning over the war to the South VietnameseSecretary of State Henry Kissinger completed negotiations for a peace treaty with the North Vietnamese in 19731975 – Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese and Vietnam was united under communist ruleWar Powers Resolution – to prevent any future president from involving military in another undeclared war and requires that the president obtain congressional approval for any troop commitment lasting longer than 60 daysNixon opened up trade relations with USSR and ChinaUsed the friendship for one as leverage with the otherDétente – foreign policy of openness that calls for countries to respect each other’s differences and cooperate more closelyNixon Doctrine – announced that the United States would withdraw many of its overseas troop commitments, relying instead on alliances to check the spread of communismNixon’s Domestic PolicyStagflation – combined unemployment and inflationKent State and Jackson StateWatergate and Nixon’s ResignationPentagon Papers were published by 2 major newspapers“plumbers” undertook disgraceful projects to sabotage the campaigns of several Democratic hopefuls and then botched a burglary of the Watergate HotelWhite House began efforts to cover up the scandalNixon refused to turn over tapes to the SenateNixon v. United StatesRather than face impeachment, Nixon resignedGerald FordPardoned NixonReplaced Nixon’s first vice president, Spiro Agnew, who had resigned in the face of impending criminal chargesInflation and unemploymentOil Embargo by OPEC against the United States raised fuel pricesJimmy CarterDemocratInherited a weakening economy – great inflation and stagflationDepartment of Energy – to oversee efforts to research alternate sources of power since the oil embargo raised oil prices so greatlyPeace agreement between Israel and Egypt – Camp David AccordsEntering into the twenty-first century (1980 – present)Supply-Side Economics or ReaganomicsIf corporate taxes were reduced, those corporations would earn greater profits. They would then use those profits to hire more employees.“trickle down” coupled with large-scale deregulationacross the board tax cuts – hurt the poor, benefitted the middle class and the upper classRich got richer and poor got poorer… rather than the rich reinvesting in Reaganomics, they would buy luxury itemsMilitary Spending and Budget DeficitsSought to decrease the size of the federal governmentNew Federalism – goal was to shift power from the national government to the statesStates feared that the shift would greatly increase the cost of state governmentStrategic Defense Initiative (SDI) – Star WarsEscalated arms race with USSRTax cuts and increase in military spending brought about the escalation of the federal budget deficitForeign Policy Under ReaganSupported repressive regimes and right wing insurgents to oppose communismU.S. military invaded Grenada to topple communist governmentIran-Contra AffairNicaraguan insurgents – Contras – torturing and murdering civilians but opposed communistsGovernment secretly sold weapons to Iran to raise funds to buy guns for the ContrasMarines to Lebanon as peacekeeping force – suicide bomb killed 240 servicemenAmerican-Soviet relations were helped by Mikhail Gorbachev’s rise to power (economic perestroika – restructuring and social glasnost – openness)Reagan and Gorbachev negotiated withdrawal of nuclear warheads from EuropeGeorge H. W. Bush“Read my lips, no new taxes”conservatism – moral majority = traditional lifestyleend of Cold war (dismantling of the Berlin Wall)Persian Gulf War – Iraq invaded Kuwait and threatened world’s access to Middle East oilBush built consensus in Congress and assembled an international coalition against Iraq in the UNOperation Desert Storm – massive air strikes against strategic targetsPost – 1980 Society: Changing DemographicsHispanics and Asians – growing ethnic minoritiesImmigration Act of 1965 – set annual limits of immigration from Western Hemisphere, and relaxed restrictions on non-European immigrationRefugeesSparked debate on bilingual education and affirmative actionSimpson-Mazzoli Act – outlawed deliberate employment of illegal immigrants and granted legal status to some who entered the U.S. before 1982The Clinton Presidency (1993 – 2001)First democrat since Jimmy CarterVP was Al GoreNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)1994 Congressional ElectionSpeaker of the House Newt GingrichOutlined Republican Party laws to reduce taxes, consolidate government programs, and reform welfare programsMonica Lewinsky ScandalDubious real-estate dealings – WhitewaterImpeached Clinton for perjury, obstruction of justice, and abuse of powerFirst president to take office after the end of the Cold WarProtection of human rights1999 – Clinton supported a bombing campaign in former Yugoslavia where ethnic cleansing was happening against Balkan Muslims“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” – LGBT community could serve in military as long as it was undisclosedAppointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the Supreme CourtFailed proposal for national health care program and campaign finance reformThe 2000 ElectionAl Gore won popular voteFlorida voting mishapsSupreme Court prevented an official recount of votesBush won electionNeoconservatism – new conservatism – promoted spreading democracy worldwide and putting corporate interests first using military actionsGlobal trade and open immigrationAfrican Americans in Politics24th Amendment – prohibited use of poll taxes, literacy tests, and other methods of disenfranchisementVoting Rights Act of 1965 and Freedom Summer of 1964Shirley Chisholm – first African American woman elected to CongressReverend Jesse Jackson – ran for Democratic presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988Colin Powell and Condoleeza Rice – secretaries of state under George W. BushThurgood Marshall – first African American appointed to the Supreme CourtBarack Obama – first African American presidentUrban ProblemsWhite flight – whites to the suburbsBusinesses and industries moved (with their revenue) to the suburbsLeft inner cities with insufficient fundsbusingMiliken v. Bradley – interdistrict remedy for unconstitutional segregation exceeded scope of violationUrban RiotsConservative ResurgenceRight-wing evangelical ChristiansEvangelicalism – denounced moral relativism of liberals and believed in literal interpretations of the BibleNew Right MovementBilly Graham, Jerry Falwell, Pat Robertson ................
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