Summaries of Learning Theories and Models

Summaries of Learning Theories and Models

Theories and Models of Learning for Educational Research and Practice. This

knowledge base features learning theories and models that address how people learn. A

resource useful for scholars of various fields, including educational psychology, instructional

design, and human-computer interaction. Below is the index of learning theories, grouped

into categories. Note that this website is an iterative project and these entries are a work in

progress; please leave comments with suggestions, corrections, and additional references.

Paradigms:

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Behaviorism

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Cognitivism

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Constructivism

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Design-Based

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Humanism

Behaviorist Theories:


Behaviorism Overview


Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)


GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)


Operant Conditioning (Skinner)


Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Behaviorism

Summary: Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of ¡°stimulus-response.¡±

All behavior caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained

without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.

Originators and important contributors: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, E. L.

Thorndike (connectionism), Bandura, Tolman (moving toward cognitivism)

Keywords: Classical conditioning (Pavlov), Operant conditioning (Skinner), Stimulusresponse (S-R)

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to

environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is

shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Both positive

reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent

behavior will happen again. In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases

the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive indicates the

application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is

therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was

done with animals (e.g. Pavlov¡¯s dogs) and generalized to humans.

Behaviorism precedes the cognitivist worldview. It rejects structuralism and is an extension

of Logical Positivism.

Radical behaviorism

Developed by BF Skinner, Radical Behaviorism describes a particular school that emerged

during the reign of behaviorism. It is distinct from other schools of behaviorism, with major

differences in the acceptance of mediating structures, the role of emotions, etc.

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Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Summary: Bandura¡¯s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via

observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between

behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and

motivation.

Originator: Albert Bandura

Key Terms: Modeling, reciprocal determinism

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Summary: Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a

stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another

stimulus.

Originators and Key Contributors: First described by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian

physiologist, in 1903, and studied in infants by John B. Watson (1878-1958).

Keywords: stimulus-response, psychic reflexes, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned

response, respondent conditioning

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a

new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative

learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov¡¯s experiments with dogs) and

operant conditioning.

Pavlov¡¯s Dogs

In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning

work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs¡¯ digestive processes, he stumbled

upon a phenomenon he labeled ¡°psychic reflexes.¡± While an accidental discovery, he had the

foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov¡¯s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber,

were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically

implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation

before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or

merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.

Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the

ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together

several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov¡¯s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to

the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell

itself did not produce the dogs¡¯ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus

that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the

salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which

some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the

rest of his career further exploring this finding.

In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the

dog¡¯s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the

dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)

which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between

the bell and food.

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John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans

John B. Watson further extended Pavlov¡¯s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921,

Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition

Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise

(UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the

rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could

be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson¡¯s

experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.

GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)

Summary: The GOMS Model is a human information processing model that predicts what

skilled users will do in seemingly unpredictable situations.

Originators and proponents: Card, Moran and Newell in 1983; Bonnie John et al.

Keywords: Goals, operators, methods, selection rules

GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)

This model is the general term for a family of human information processing techniques that

attempt to model and predict user behavior. Typically used by software designers, a person¡¯s

behavior is analyzed in terms of four components:

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Goals ¨C something that the person wants to accomplish. Can be high level (e.g.

WRITE-PAPER) to low level (e.g. DELETE CHARACTER)

Operators ¨C basic perceptual, cognitive, or motor actions used to accomplish goals, or

actions that the software allows user to make (e.g. PRESS-ENTER-KEY or CLICKMOUSE)

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Methods ¨C procedures (sequences) of subgoals and operators that can accomplish a

goal

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Selection rules ¨C personal rules users follow in deciding what method to use in a

circumstance

One of the most validated methods in Human Computer Interaction (HCI), the GOMS model

assumes expert user and well-defined tasks. It should be noted that there are various

limitations to this technique, e.g.:

1. Task in question must be usefully analyzed in terms of the procedural (how to do it)

knowledge.

2. Represents only skilled behavior. Not useful for ill-defined problem solving,

exploration, etc. Cognitive walkthrough is useful for exploratory behavior by novices.

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3. Need to start with a list of top-level tasks or user goals. List must be provided outside

of GOMS.

GOMS is useful for uncovering a frequent goal supported by a very inefficient method

thereby informing a design change to include a more efficient method.

Variations include:

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Keystroke Level Model (KLM) by Stuart Card: The first, simplest form of GOMS

consisting of the sum of subtasks and required overhead. That is, the sum of the time

of P ¨C pointing, H ¨C homing, D ¨C drawing, M ¨C mental operator, R ¨C waiting for

system response.

Card Moran Newell (CMN)-GOMS: A serial stage model of GOMS.

Critical Path Method (also known as Cognitive Perceptual Motor or CPM-GOMS): A

parallel stage model (for users with highest level of skill) critical-path-method or

cognitive-perceptual-motor analysis of activity ¨C perceptual, cognitive, motor

operators can be performed in parallel as the task demands.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Summary: A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are

reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end.

Originators and Key Contributors: B. F. Skinner, built upon Ivan Pavlov¡¯s theories of

classical conditioning.

Keywords: response-stimulus, voluntary response, reinforcer

Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)

Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through

the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual

makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence.

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Example 1: Parents rewarding a child¡¯s excellent grades with candy or some other

prize.

Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm

and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become

quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points.

Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time

the animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever.

The term ¡°operant conditioning¡± originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed

that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to

unpack the internal thoughts and motivations)

Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative.

Positive and negative reinforcers

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Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual

after the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc.

Negative reinforcers typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or

unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as

something considered negative is removed.

The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.

Positive and negative punishment

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Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a

decrease in the behavior that follows.

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Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in order to

weaken the response that follows.

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Negative punishment is characterized by when an favorable event or outcome is

removed after a undesired behavior occurs.

The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease.

What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant

conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way,

the voluntary response (e.g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the

individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an

involuntary response.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

People learn through observing others¡¯ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors.

¡°Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others,

one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded

information serves as a guide for action.¡± (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human

behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and

environmental influences.

Necessary conditions for effective modeling:

1. Attention ¡ª various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid.

Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value.

One¡¯s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past

reinforcement) affect attention.

2. Retention ¡ª remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding,

mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal

3. Reproduction ¡ª reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and selfobservation of reproduction.

4. Motivation ¡ª having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as? past (i.e.

traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and

recalling the reinforced model)

Bandura believed in ¡°reciprocal determinism¡±, that is, the world and a person¡¯s behavior

cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one¡¯s environment causes one¡¯s

behavior, Bandura, who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so

in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon

considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment,

behavior, and one¡¯s psychological processes (one¡¯s ability to entertain images in minds and

language).

Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive

learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. The theory is

related to Vygotsky¡¯s Social Development Theory and Lave¡¯s Situated Learning, which also

emphasize the importance of social learning.

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