Ken Barger: Anthropology IUPUI



Dr. Ken Barger

IUPUI, Anthropology

© 2003

A104 Cultural Anthropology

Class Notes on

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

1. Social Organization: The behavioral patterns and structures in a group

that regulate how its members relate to each other

A major focus of many anthropological studies

Humans are social animals - we need each other

Vast majority of our behavior is social in nature

2. Kinship

a. Kinship: The relationships between people who have blood and marriage ties with each other

Also a universal component in human cultures

Emphasized in anthropological research

Usually very important in social behavior and relationships

Much moreso than we experience (re ethnocentric "blindness")

Involves complex means of social organization

Particular kinship systems vary

Kinship is particularly important in human relations

[pic] Primary relations in life

Most intense relations are with family and kinsmen

Make us the happiest and saddest

! Kinship involves cultural organization of biological relations

! Kin relations are usually morally binding rights and obligations

Reciprocal obligations/responsibilities and rights/benefits

The greatest ties and investments

Also involve the greatest social problems - because are so close

(1) Genealogical Diagrams:

EGO (male) ? = ? (female)

|

___________ _______________ (line of decent)

| | |

? (1 Son) ? (2 Daughter) ? (3 Son) = ? (Daughter-in-law)

(2) Types of Relatives

Sanguine (blood): Related by genetic descent lines

Affinal: Related by marriage

Fictive: Relationships that incur kinship roles

Often ceremonial

b. Marriage

Marriage: Socially recognized sexual cohabitation as a life association

A universal social bond in all cultures

(1) Marriage Boundaries

Inclusive/exclusive rules for regulating marriage partners

Universal prohibitions against incest in basic reproductive unit

Nuclear family

Additional prohibitions vary with the particular culture

Also preferred/ideal views in selecting a spouse

! Individual choice in selection of spouse varies

Individual preference important where monogamy and nuclear family

Arranged marriages common - mostly for socioeconomic ties

But strong preference pro/con usually seriously considered

Future of families' investments can be jeopardized

Most arranged marriages work well

! Most societies allow options - a safety valve

Elopement - often an option

Divorce - socially recognized severing of marriage bonds

(2) Types of Marriage Systems

Monogamy: Only one spouse permitted (24% of societies)

Polygamy: Multiple spouses permitted (45% of societies)

Polygyny: Multiple wives permitted for a man

Where permitted usually not frequent

Polyandry: Multiple husbands permitted for a woman

Serial: More than one spouse permitted but only one at a time

! Status of females

Matrilineal groups

Patrilineal peasant agricultural groups

Industrializing groups

Industrialized groups

(3) Residence Patterns

Living arrangements for newly married couple vary widely

Couple established own household (neolocal)

Couple can live with one of spouse's [extended] families

c. Family and Household

Family: A married couple and close relations who share a household

A universal basic social unit in all cultures

Involves important social functions and investments

Household: Those who share a dwelling and living arrangements

Normally will use interchangeably with "family"

Two overlapping units:

Family of origin - unit into which a person is born

Family of procreation - unit established for own children

Types of families:

Nuclear: Spouses and their offspring

Extended: Spouses, their children, and other close relations - usually overlapping nuclear families

Composite: Polygynous groups where are separate households for each wife and her children

d. Descent Rules

Descent: Tracing consanguineal/blood relations across generations

Very important in how people relate to others

Involves obligations and expectations

Patterns for identifying relatives:

Types of descent systems:

Bilateral: Tracing descent through both Fa and Mo genealogical lines

Unilineal: Tracing descent through one genealogical line (80% cults)

Emphasis on responsibility to corporate group

Individual strongly identifies self in terms of group

Patrilineal: Tracing descent through Fa/male genealogical line

Matrilineal: Tracing descent through Mo/female genealogical line

Strong ties between F relatives, Mo and Bro, Mo and Son

Fa's obligations often economic/teacher/friend

MoBr responsible for discipline and ritual incorporation

Double Descent has also been posed for some groups

Not a common form - actual structures are still debated

e. Kinship Units

Kinship can be structured at different levels

Kindred: All of a person's kinship relations

Can vary from individual to individual

Family: A married couple and close relations who share a household

Unilineal units can include ever-widening sets of kinsmen:

Lineage: Unilineal group of descendants of a known ancestor

Usually a corporate group with shared subsistence functions

Clan: A unilineal group of all descendants of an ancient ancestor

Usually related lineages, exogamous, dispersed throughout society

Often includes membership based on mythical/totemic ancestor

Not Scottish or other political "clans" - local political units

MultiClan units

Moiety: A unilineage of related clans composing half a society

Usually involves exogamy and specific societal functions

Phratry - 3 or more multi-clan groupings (same as moiety idea)

Usually involves societal functions

3. Social Structure

Social relations are important in human behavior

How do people organize their relations?

Have looked at kinship - closest relations

Will now look at broaden social factors that influence behavior

a. Social Structure

Social Structure: The distribution of roles and groupings that directs how people interact with each other

Includes the social categories, positions, and roles in a group

All groups must organize its members so can interact productively

Social structure is affected by demographic factors

Population SIZE/DENSITY challenge a society's internal cohesion

Complexity of social interactions

b. Social Roles

Social Role: A behavioral category defined by a social system which directs how a person interacts with others

(1) Role Characteristics

Role aspects: the rights and obligations associated with a role

The privileges a person can assume in interacting with others

The responsibilities a person has towards others

Role attributes: the behavior appropriate for particular roles

(2) Types of social roles:

Ascribed: roles that are pre-defined for the individual

Achieved: roles that are assumed on the individual's initiative

Professional training - socialization

Roles may have aspects of both

Social roles are based on a variety cultural criteria

Sex and age roles are universals in human societies

Aspects are often similar - M=heavy labor vs. F=domestic

Primary characteristics - pregnancy and nursing keep local

But attributes of roles can vary widely

Others include roles based on kinship, ethnicity, occupation, etc.

Everyone incorporates many social roles

c. Associations (Organizations)

Associations: A formally defined social grouping with shared roles and functions

Members identified as a distinct group with specific purpose

Look at Textbook

d. Social Status

Status: The relative influence/privilege assigned to social roles

Types of status:

Prestige: social honor/esteem

Wealth: accumulated material resources

Power: the persuasive ability to influence others' behavior

Authority: legitimate coercive power invested in designated roles

Status is an important influence in human behavior

Is based on many different ethnic principles

Relative emphasis and types of status vary from group to group

Be able to identify examples of prestige, wealth, power/authority

And to assign aspect names (matching questions)

e. Social Stratification

Social stratification: the hierarchal distribution of prestige, wealth, and power in groups within a society

Stratification of societies:

Egalitarian societies: all members are considered of equal worth

Social distinctions based on nontransferable individual achievement

Most H/G societies

Stratified societies: structured status differences between groups

Class societies: open status ranking of social groups

Ranked social roles - individuals achieve role (in theory)

Social mobility is open

Subcultural behavioral patterns associated with classes

Caste societies: endogamous groups with hereditary status

Often partially occupational status

f. Social Pluralism

Social pluralism: Multiple ethnic/social groupings within a society

Every nation in the world

"MultiCulturalism" and "Cultural Diversity" a major issue

Education, Nursing, Social Work, Business (diverse work force)

The "melting pot" is a false concept

"Stew" is a better concept

Incorporation of diverse ethnic groups within a society:

Lateral: each group ideally equal

Hierarchal: dominance of some groups by others

Most nations have both

Anthropology has a long record of addressing social diversity (since 1800s)

Basic concepts of culture and ethnocentrism developed in the context of pluralism

Diversity is ?

Why is diversity adaptive ??

Issue: Discrimination

Denies people fulfilling their potentials

For them and for us all

Examples of how ethnic groups have contributed to all Americans ?

The challenge:

How to maintain adaptive diversity

And also achieve social cohesiveness

g. Political Structure

Political Structure: The distribution of power and authority in the governing of a society's activities and relations

Types of Political Structures:

Also see text

Band: a small, mobile, and independent group where activities and relations are based on egalitarian

values and mutually supportive social bonds

Mostly H/G subsistence

Extended family as the basic social unit

Egalitarian norms

Informal achieved leadership

Consensus decision-making process

Informal sanctions

Tribe: a territorial and egalitarian group with formal but decentralized regulation of group affairs

Horticultural and pastoral subsistence

Unilineal descent

Multicentric/diffuse authority

Representative governing council - kin/religious leaders, etc.

Informal sanctions

Chiefdom: a territorial, stratified group with centralized authority figures who manage group affairs

Pastoral and agricultural subsistence

Economic surpluses concentrated by few/rich

Lineages/families basic social unit

Ranked social system - rich, castes (chiefs, commoners)

Centralized authority invested in few - "chiefs"

State: a territorial, stratified group with a complex government which maintains and manages a concentrated population

Territorial subunits - cities/provinces

Intensive agricultural and industrial subsistence

Extensive trade and market exchange

Socioeconomic specialization

Socioeconomic stratification - rich, classes/castes

Centralized authority - including coercive power

Bureaucratic government - compartmentalized management/authority

See text - theories on the rise of state societies

h. Political Processes

Every group has to make decisions in directing group activities

Mobilize support and direct use of power

(1) Leadership

All societies have leaders who help direct the social process

Basis upon which leaders can act:

Persuasive power - influence based on proven ability, prestige

Coercive authority - influence based on ability to force others

Principles for designating leaders:

Achieved - power grows with proven ability

Ascribed - power inherent in social role

(2) Types of decision-making processes:

Consensus: informal consideration until all members agree

In arenas of egalitarian values

Discussion where all positions are expressed

Exists in all societies

Regulation: a formal rule issued by a legitimate authority

Enforcement often based on coercive power (within sphere of authority)

Exists in stratified societies

Legislation: a formal rule collectively issued by representatives of society's members

Ideals of egalitarianism but complex social structures

Exists in tribal and state societies

Leadership and decision-making are associated with subsistence

i. Social Control

Social Control: The regulation of individual/group conduct

All societies have to effectively maintain stability and cohesiveness

(1) Norms: rules of conduct

Standards that members of a group have to follow

Boundaries of acceptable behavior

Positive - have to do

Negative - cannot do

Law: A formalized norm enforced by legitimate coercive authority

In addition to more informal norms

(2) Deviancy: Violation of norms

Judgement - determination of guilt

Popular opinion - gossip, avoidance, etc.

Supernatural trial - including divination (signs), ordeals (poison, etc), oaths (perjury)

Secular court - evidence, judge (including chief, etc.)

(3) Sanctions: Controls imposed to regulate behavior

Can include positive rewards and negative punishments

Goals vary with cultural emphases

Types of Sanctions:

Internal: individual self-regulation

The basic process in every culture - internalization of values and norms in socialization

Positive standards of behavior and learned needs

Guilt - condemning self for having done wrong

Social: collective pressure of group on deviant

Also a basic means of social control in all societies - praise, gossip, ridicule, avoidance, etc.

Shame - impact of views of others with whom have intense relations and bonds

Supernatural: favors/punishment by spiritual forces

Principles vary with religious beliefs

Not in all societies - but most

Legal: legitimate secular authority

Based on formal laws/norms and coercive authority

More in stratified societies - though usually not found/invoked in face-to-face settings

Retaliation: institutionalized revenge

Usually by close kinsmen of victim

Means of social control are related to the scale of a society

Complexity of social sphere calls for different considerations

4. Functions of Social Organization

Biological?

Ecological?

Economic?

Social?

Psychological?

All societies face the challenge of effectively coordination of affairs

Support the well-being of its members

Maintaining cohesion among its members/subgroups

Maintaining a socioeconomic balance with other societies

re Adaptation ?

SUMMARY of Social Organization

Social Organization

Kinship

Types of relatives?

Marriage

Boundary rules

Types of marriage?

Residence patterns

Family/household

Types of family?

Descent rules

Kin units

Social structure

Social roles

Characteristics?

Types?

Associations

Status?

Prestige

Wealth

Power

Authority

Social stratification

Social pluralism

Diversity is? Why?

Challenge?

Types of political structures:?

Leadership

Types of decision-making process

Social Control

Social norms

Laws

Deviancy

Judgement

Sanctions

Types of sanctions

Conflict resolution

Functions of social organization?

Culture is an? Integrated whole

Adapt by? Culture

There is a tremendous range for being human - potentials great

The cultural context selects and molds certain behaviors

From among all those possible

Many valid ways of being human

Awareness of others can help us better understand ourselves

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download