Gifted Civics



PART IA. Shaping Public Opinion What is your opinion? You have probably been asked this question many times. Our opinions, those beliefs we hold to be true, are important to us. They can also influence what others believe or how they act. In the United States, the opinions of the people greatly influence government affairs. For example, an elected public official who ignores the opinions of the people is likely to lose the next election. But what are the opinions of the people? When do the opinions of individuals become public opinion? B. What is Public Opinion? We have all heard such statements as "Public opinion demands that something be done." People sometimes think that public opinion is one opinion shared by all Americans. There are, however, very few issues on which all Americans agree. On any particular issue, there are a number of opinions held by a number of separate groups. Each group is made up of people who share the same opinion. Each group, therefore, makes up a "public." Because each issue has many interested publics, public opinion is the total of the opinions held concerning a particular issue. Thus. public opinion really refers to many opinions. C. What Shapes Opinions? 1. Opinions are shaped by influences from many sources. a. The first influence on our opinions is our family. It is only natural for the ideas and beliefs of our family to become part of our own attitudes and values. Because we share so many of the same experiences with our family, we often have similar responses to many issues. As we grow older, other people and experiences also influence what we believe. Friends, teachers, and clubs play a major role in shaping our opinions. 2. Information is also important in shaping opinions. Much of the information we need to make wise decisions on public issues comes from the mass media. a. The mass media include newspapers, television, radio, films, books, magazines, and other forms of communication that transmit information to large numbers of people. (1) Media are the prime source of information we have about political candidates. How media portray candidates and political issues can elect or defeat leaders. Over history, new technologies have changed the way election campaigns are conducted and even how people vote. (2) Researchers in the 1940s found that the factors affecting voter choice (in order of importance) were: party affiliation, social group allegiance, the candidate's personality and consideration of the issues. (3) Today, this order has been reversed. Social science research indicates that the candidate's personality, their position on issues, party affiliation and group membership are now the deciding factors. Many scholars attribute this reversal to the influence of media that allow candidates to communicate directly with reports that concentrate on the candidates’ personalities over issues.3. Although it is not the only factor that influences voters, political advertising is also an important component of modern elections. Political advertising may sway voters in favor of one candidate or another. a. As of 1996, the average cost of winning an election was $3,765,000 for the Senate and $675,000 for the House of Representatives. Candidates of all stripes spend increasingly significant portions of their campaign budgets on advertising, ranging from bumper stickers and billboards to print and television ads. b. Political advertising allows candidates and their supporters to provide information, make arguments and raise issues relevant to their candidate and the election. Political advertising may not influence people with strong opinions for or against a candidate, but it can be a deciding factor among undecided voters. c. In presidential races where less than 1 % of the electorate can determine the outcome of elections, this influence can be significant. Political advertising may be even more significant in lower profile races, such as congressional or local elections, which garner far less mass media coverage. d. Having information, however, does not always mean being well-informed. Sometimes information is inaccurate or one-sided. A newspaper, for example, might give more favorable coverage to political candidates it supports and less favorable coverage to candidates it opposes. Magazine articles might express an opinion rather than simply report the facts. Effective citizenship requires us to think critically about what we see, hear, and read. It is essential to be able to recognize the difference between fact and opinion and to gather information from reliable sources. D. Propaganda and Public Opinion Many of the ideas in the mass media have been directed at us for a purpose. Someone or some group is urging us to do something-to buy something, to believe something, or to act in a certain way. Ideas used to influence people are called propaganda. It has been said that we live in the propaganda age. Propaganda is certainly nothing new, but it has become increasingly influential in recent years. One reason for this development is the tremendous growth of the mass media and advances in technology. Communications satellites, computer networks, and television broadcasts all help spread propaganda farther and faster than ever before. There are always many people, groups, and advertisers using propaganda to influence public opinion. Advertisers use propaganda to urge consumers to buy their products. Political candidates use propaganda toPeople often think of propaganda as negative. Under dictatorships and totalitarian governments, this is true. In these societies the government uses propaganda techniques to control people's actions and limit their freedoms. In contrast, in democratic societies many groups, not just the government, use propaganda. These groups compete to influence the public. The propaganda they use is mostly neutral neither good nor bad. It is simply a technique designed to sway people's attitudes, opinions, and behavior. E. Kinds of Propaganda Citizens must be alert to propaganda. They must be able to recognize it and be aware of the various methods used by propagandists. When propaganda is presented as being factual and its sources are kept secret, it is called concealed propaganda. Concealed propaganda is used to fool people without letting them know its purpose is to influence them. Sometimes concealed propaganda is relatively harmless. For example, press agents may make up interesting stories about television actors to give these actors publicity. At other times, concealed propaganda may be used to create a harmful impression. A photograph may be taken in a certain way or may be retouched to portray a political candidate in a negative light. False rumors may be spread to harm someone or to mislead people about a proposed program or policy. Revealed propaganda is much more common in the United States and in other democracies. Revealed propaganda makes readers or listeners aware that someone is trying to influence them. Almost all advertising is revealed propaganda. You know when you see most advertisements that somebody wants you to buy something or to believe something. Television and radio commercials are direct appeals to the public to buy products. In an election campaign, political parties often run commercials in an effort to get voters to support their candidates. These commercials must be clearly labeled as paid advertisements. F. Propaganda Techniques Some propaganda techniques are difficult to spot. Others can be easily recognized by people who carefully examine what they read and hear. What are some propaganda techniques? 1. Name-calling Another propaganda technique is name-calling, or using an unpleasant label or description to harm a person, group, or product. During an election campaign, both sides often use name-calling. For example, you may hear that some candidate favors "reckless spending" or that another is "opposed to progress." You must ask yourself, What proof is given? Are the charges supported by any facts? 2. Glittering Generalities Another technique used to influence people's thinking is the glittering generality. This technique uses words that sound good but have little real meaning. Many advertising slogans are glittering generalities. For example, statements such as "It contains a miracle ingredient!" or "It's new and improved to be better than ever!" tell nothing about the product or its ingredients. Political candidates often use vague statements with which everyone can agree. These glittering generalities tell voters nothing about what a candidate really believes. This type of propaganda often uses words such as home, country, freedom, patriotism, and American. These words are chosen because they spark positive images with which most people in the nation identify. 3. Transfer The use of positive or patriotic symbols, like the American flag) to change the emotions of people and gain their approval.4. Testimonials Political candidates and advertisers often seek endorsements from famous people. Advertisers know, for instance, that people admire sports heroes. Therefore, they pay famous athletes to say they use and like their products. Advertisers know that if a football hero says he drives a certain automobile, many people will believe the automobile must be good. Because these people admire the football hero, they trust his judgment. People who think for themselves, however, know that this testimonial by a famous athlete proves little. A football player may be a good quarterback, but this talent on the field does not make him an expert on automobiles. 5. Plain-folks Appeal During election campaigns, many candidates describe themselves as plain, hardworking citizens. They stress that they understand the problems of average Americans. This plain-folks appeal is designed to show people that, as one of them, the candidate can best represent the interests of the average citizen.6. Card Stacking This technique uses facts in a way that favors a particular product, idea, or candidate. This is done by selecting the facts and also omitting, distorting the information from the people. Newspapers, for example, may give front-page attention to the activities of the candidates they favor. The other political party and its candidates may be given smaller headlines or be reported only on the inside pages. 7. Bandwagon People who write propaganda know that if you say something often enough and loud enough, many people will believe it. If you can win some people over to your ideas, eventually more and more people will come over to your side. This is known as the bandwagon technique. "Everybody's do;ng it! Jump on the bandwagon!" This method of propaganda appeals to people's desire to do what their friends and neighbors are doing. It takes advantage of the "peer pressure" factor. 8. Mudslinging – Much like how it sounds, this technique is used to cast the opponent in an unflattering way.?Name-calling, accusations, and groundless assertions are common when this technique is applied.G. Measuring Public Opinion Government officials are responsible for carrying out the wishes of the people. How do government officials find out what the public wants? The most obvious test of public opinion is an election. Another way to measure public opinion is to conduct a public opinion poll, or survey. Polls are used to find out what people think about specific issues and about politicians and their policies. A poll attempts to measure public opinion by asking the opinions of a sample, or portion, of the public. PART IIA. Interest Groups Americans have many ways to express their opinions to government officials. As you know, they can write or call their government representatives. One of the most effective ways to express an opinion is by becoming part of an interest group. B. What is an Interest Group? Many Americans are members of one or more interest groups. These are organizations of people with a common interest who try to influence government policies and decisions. An interest group is also known as a pressure group or lobby. A person who is paid by a lobby or interest group to represent that group's interest is called a lobbyist. 1. Interest groups differ from political parties. While both seek to influence government, interest groups are not primarily concerned with electing candidates to office. Although they often support particular candidates, their main interest lies in influencing public policies that affect their members. 2. Interest groups have existed throughout the nation's history. For example, people favoring the Constitution organized to work for its approval. Before the Civil War, people opposed to slavery organized to end it. Kinds of Interest Groups 3. There are many different kinds of interest groups. They include business associations, a. labor unions, farm organizations, older citizens' groups, veterans' organizations, teachers' associations, and consumer groups. Each group works to promote the interests of its members. 4. Many interest groups represent the economic interests of their members. a. These interest groups include the National Association of Manufacturers, the United Mine Workers, and the American Farm Bureau Federation. Members of these and other economic interest groups seek to influence government policies that affect them. b. For example, the American Farm Bureau Federation is a nationwide organization of farmers. It works to have bills passed that help farmers recover losses from natural disasters and falling crop prices. 5. Some interest groups consist of people whose concerns are issue-oriented. That is, they focus on a specific issue or cause. a. For example, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) works to promote racial equality. The National Organization for Women (NOW) seeks to protect the rights of women. 6. Other groups, referred to as public interest groups, seek to promote the interests of the general public rather than just part of it.a. These include groups working to protect consumers, wildlife, and the environmentC. How Interest Groups Work 1. Interest groups vary in size, goals, and budgets. Most, though, use similar methods to influence government decisions. They encourage members to write to the president or to their senators or representatives about specific bills. Many interest groups also hire lobbyists to speak for them and to represent their interests. Lobbyists work at all levels of government, although most are located in Washington, D.C. 2. Lobbyists get their name from the way they operated many years ago. In the past, they waited for lawmakers in the lobbies outside the legislatures' meeting rooms. There they talked to lawmakers and tried to influence their decisions on the issues of the day. 3. Most lobbyists are highly skilled people with a staff of research assistants. Some lobbyists are former members of the legislatures or public agencies they now seek to influence. Other lobbyists are lawyers, public relations experts, journalists, or specialists in particular fields. 4. Influencing Government Many of the nation's laws are the result of a struggle among various interest groups. a. One example is the minimum wage law. This law states that workers may not be paid less than a certain amount of money per hour. Labor groups often seek an increase in the minimum wage. Business groups generally oppose such an increase. Lobbyists for both interest groups present their arguments to Congress. After listening to both sides and considering all the facts, Congress makes its decision. The minimum wage has increased over the years. The amount of each increase, however, has been a compromise between those people who want a higher increase and those who want a smaller one. b. Lobbyists use a number of different methods to promote the action they seek. They argue in support of bills they favor and against bills they oppose. Sometimes lobbyists ask members of Congress to sponsor bills favored by members of the lobbyist's interest group. They supply facts for the bill and may help write the bill. Government officials often contact lobbyists to learn what interest groups think about issues affecting those groups. c. Lobbyists testify at committee hearings as well. In fact, lobbyists from different interest groups often present evidence on opposite sides of the issue. Each lobbyist comes to the hearings prepared with facts and well-developed arguments. Supplying information is one of a lobbyist's most important jobs. Members of Congress are faced with thousands of bills each year covering many different subjects. No lawmaker can be fully informed in all these areas. Lawmakers appreciate the help provided by lobbyists.5. Influencing Public Opinion Interest groups attempt to influence not only the government but pubic opinion as well. For example, interest groups place advertisements in the mass media in support of their positions. They often promise to help government officials in their next election campaigns by supplying workers and contributions. Sometimes lobbyists urge local groups and individuals to send letters and telegrams to public officials. They hope that public support will influence the lawmakers' decisions. D. Regulating Interest Groups Interest groups may use any legal means to influence public officials and the public itself. To keep the activities of lobbyists in the open, federal and state governments require lobbyists to register. They must indicate for whom they are working and how much money they spend in lobbying. In recent years, laws regulating lobbying have been made very strict. New laws have closed many loopholes, or ways of evading the laws. E. Role of Interest Groups Lobbyists once were viewed with suspicion because many of them worked in secret. Today, they are usually welcomed as sources of information and help by overworked lawmakers and government officials. Some people, however, are critical of interest groups and their lobbyists. They believe these groups play too great a role in the lawmaking process. Critics charge that too much attention is paid to the interest group that is best organized and has the most money. As a result, important interests -such as those of disadvantaged citizens -do not always have an equal hearing. Despite this suggested imbalance, interest groups play an important role in the political process. You are probably a member of a number of interest groups even though you may not be aware of it. Interest groups are made up of people -in our roles as students, business people, consumers, farmers, workers, and veterans. In a free society, citizens have the right to make their opinions known to government leaders. Interest groups are evidence of our political freedom. F. Taking Part in Political CampaignsAnother way to influence political decisions is to take part in election campaigns. Although you must be 18 years old to vote, people of any age can work as volunteers in political campaigns. Volunteers are people who work without pay to help others. Playing an active role as a volunteer in a political party is an effective way to have a say in who represents you in the government. You can also learn firsthand how the political system works. There are many jobs for volunteers during an election campaign. You can ring doorbells or make phone calls to inform voters about your candidate and his or her ideas. You can encourage your friends and family members to vote. People are always needed to distribute campaign literature to passersby on the street. Envelopes must be addressed and stuffed with information about the candidate. On Election Day, campaign workers urge people who support their candidate to vote. They may stay with young children to allow voters to go to the polling places. All of these efforts can make the difference in the outcome of an election. G. Interest Groups and Political Campaigns Interest groups take part in political campaigns. They may provide volunteers to help candidates who are sympathetic to their causes. They also make financial contributions to election campaigns. Although interest groups are prohibited by law from contributing money directly to candidates, they may contribute through political action committees (PACS). PACs collect voluntary contributions from members and use this money to fund candidates and issues the committees favor. The number of PACs has risen dramatically in recent years-from 608 in 1974 to about 6,000 today. In 1992, PACS contributed approximately $9 million to political candidates. PART III1.The role of the media in election campaigns: Press coverage The First Amendment guarantees freedom of the press. The Bill of Rights, which includes the First Amendment, was added to the U.S. Constitution in order to protect individuals from the federal government infringing on their rights. Many argue that freedom of the press was added to the First Amendment so that the press would serve in a watchdog role as one means to protect individuals from the federal government infringing on their rights. Freedom of the press extends to election campaigns, where the press informs the public about various aspects of campaigns. Press coverage includes providing information about the candidates, issues and political parties (most elective offices are linked to party labels). Measures of consumer preferences, such as ratings and circulation, also influence the type of stories that the press report on, the amount of time (if on television or radio) or print (if in a newspaper, Internet site, or news magazine) devoted to any subject or story, or the overall length of the broadcast or printed text in a publication. Because press organizations are themselves private entities, their desire to succeed as a corporation influences how they operate. News coverage, including campaign coverage, is no different. Coverage that does not interest the public will result in lower ratings or circulation, which affects the bottom line. Taken together, this means that media organizations make strategic choices when deciding which aspects of campaigns to cover, and how that coverage will take shape. The way that the media cover campaigns can have a strong impact on elections. The nomination process is especially affected by media coverage because primaries often bring out candidates who lack widespread name recognition especially in open seat races where there is no incumbent. The media lacks the time to give all candidates equal press coverage. Consequently, the media focus on those candidates believed to have a serious chance at winning. Critics argue that such practices demonstrate media bias and create a self-fulfilling prophecy where the media pays more attention to Userio us" candidates. Voter interest and support then follow. The opposite is also true. If a candidate is portrayed as a "loser", it is then more difficult to raise money and other forms of support. Lacking financial and volunteer support makes it more difficult to enhance name recognition and voter support. 2. The role of the media in election campaigns: campaign advertising The media serve as a vehicle for candidates, political parties, interest groups and even ordinary citizens to convey their messages during election campaigns. These campaign-related entities pay media outlets to advertise their message. Unlike news coverage, where the news organizations control what they broadcast, print or produce, campaign advertising gives candidates, interest groups and political parties the opportunity to control the message about themselves and their opponents.Most campaign-related advertising is available where there are the most consumers. There are far more television consumers than there are radio, Internet, newspaper or news magazine consumers. Thus, far more campaign-related advertising is found on television than in any other medium. Among non-television media, radio and the Internet are far more often used as campaign advertising outlets than are newspapers or news magazines. Electronic media draw far more consumers than do print media, with television leading a" other media. Electronic media enjoy a core advantage for reaching large audiences because these media are free to use provided that one already owns or has access to a television, radio or computer. Print media must usually be purchased in order to enjoy access, and periodic issues, such as daily, weekly or monthly publications, renders regular purchase or access necessary in order to keep current. As accessing electronic advertising is much easier than is accessing print advertising, it follows that these more readily available media wi" enjoy higher consumer use, and wi" attract more campaign advertising dollars. Televised campaign advertising spots were first aired in 1952. The cost and use of television advertising has grown exponentially since then, which has resulted in shorter television spots (and, critics argue, less information and a greater emphasis on entertaining viewers). More recent presidential campaigns have seen television advertisement spots run from 30 to 60 seconds. 3. Legal limitations on the media in election campaigns Freedom of the press was included in the First Amendment as one way to protect individuals from infringement by the federal government. Freedom of the press includes campaign coverage and advertising. As freedom of the press is not absolute, neither is freedom of the press in campaigns. Campaign coverage and advertising has been regulated by the federal government since the Federal Communications Act of 1934. Since then, other laws have been enacted which limit and otherwise regulate campaign Coverage and advertising. The Federal Communications Act (1934), Section 315 (as amended) places limitations on how media organizations treat candidates.These limitations include:a) The lowest charged rate for a specific time period shall be charged to all candidates 45 days before the primary and 60 days before the general election. b) At times other than 45 days before the primary and 60 days before the general election, candidates are charged a comparable amount to those purchasing comparable times c) Legitimate newscasts, interviews and documentaries are exempt from these requirements d) Television advertising must end with a minimum four second period that includes a clearly identifiable photographic or similar image of the candidate and a readable statement stating that the candidate approved of the broadcast. e) Radio advertisements are similar except that they require no photographs or readable statements More recently, the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 ("BCRA"), placed restrictions on campaign advertising sponsored by interest groups. BCRA bans corporate or union money to be used to pay for broadcast advertising that identifies a federal candidate within 30 days of a primary or nominating convention, or within 60 days of a general election. These restrictions were upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission 540 U.S. 93 (2003). It should be noted that those news outlets that perform editorializing functions, such as newspaper editorials, retain free speech and press protections when performing these functions. This means that newspapers may endorse candidates for any office on their editorial pages, but not any other place in their newspaper. ................
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