Academic language: Vocabulary Plus
Academic language: Vocabulary Plus
The primary purpose of this session is to give middle school classroom teachers background information and a working definition of academic language. Key components of academic language-- vocabulary, word density, discourse markers, genre, register and code switching-- are illustrated and applied within a classroom context from a cognitive and socio-cultural perspective. Hopefully, teachers who attend will leave this session with a better understanding of how to develop their students’ language skills, thinking skills, and socio-cultural skills through academic language.
Academic language
Academic language is the language of school and the professional workplace, and it refers to both expressive and receptive language. Unlike everyday conversation, academic language exudes a distant authoritative persona, characterized by technical words and a succinct style (Nagy, & Townsend, 2012; Schleppegrell, 2009; Schleppegrell & O’Hallaron, 2011; Snow & Uccelli, 2009; Zwiers, 2007).
More specifically, academic language encompasses
1. the technical vocabulary used within specific subjects as well as the general vocabulary common across all academic disciplines;
2. the various genres for speaking and writing that are accepted in academic and professional venues;
3. the way a writer/speaker structures, presents and contextualizes information;
4. the way a reader/listener comprehends and organizes information so that it can be retained and recalled;
5. a way of thinking (Bunch, 2011; Duff, 2010; Nagy & Townsend, 2012; National Research Council; Schleppegrell, 2009; Snow, 2010; Snow & Uccelli, 2009).
6. Register/stance and code switching act as an umbrella that stretches over all these elements.
More specifics on each element
1. Vocabulary has three tiers (in regards to academic language) (Beck, McKeown, & Osmanson 1987; Beck, McKowen, & Kucan, 2008)
a. Tier I: common words, which most children acquire in daily conversations in their first language
b. Tier III: content specific technical words, which may be commonly used or rarely used.
c. Tier II words: two paradigms
i. “. . . words that define written text—but are not so common in everyday conversation” (Beck, et al., 2008, p. 7). More sophisticated and precise than words used in conversation; examples are from well-written children’s lit.
ii. General academic vocabulary refers to the words from the Academic Word List [AWL] (Coxhead, 2000). Those using the AWL for the vocabulary of academic language draw their examples primarily from academic texts (science, math, social studies) taught in school, rather than literary texts taught in school. “These words have strong overlap with our Tier II words. And, of course, for the same reason: Tier Two represents our effort to identify highly useful, though not necessarily high frequency words” (Beck, et al., 2008, p. 14).
1. Word Generation Lists developed by the Strategic Education Research Partnership (SERP, 2011).
2. See examples (Landrum) on last page
d. TPA and Common Core Standards
i. Both paradigms are merged.
ii. Elementary sources often call Tier II vocabulary function words
iii. TPA refers to Tier III as the bricks and Tier II words as the mortar
Examples
|Tier I Words |use, for, shoe, she, yes, quickly, cold, the, etc. |
|Tier III Words |freise, poem, microscope, market share, multiply, melody, etc. |
|Tier II Words |intricate, exquisite, pry, lurched, parched, precarious, subtle, etc. |
|General Academic Vocabulary |analyze, assess, consist, data, evident, indicate, interpret, occur, percent, principle, simulate, theory,|
| |vary, etc. |
2. Genres (K-12 students need to be able to read and write the genres of all content areas)
a. Example: recent research on succeeding by knowing the genre, not the data.
b. Rhetorical context: Audience, purpose, speaker
c. What are the characteristics of various genre structures MS students need to know?
i. Examples: map key; lab report; labeling parts of a _____; musical staff; syntax of a math problem or proof; performance program (and behavior).
ii. Oral: class discussion; presentation; meetings (small group work)
d. When reading and writing are taught in tandem, students’ learning of both grows exponentially.
e. Genres evolve:
i. Use of “I” in primary research
ii. Broadening of argumentative/persuasive discourse
iii. Use of intervention/comparison as opposed to experimental/control
3. Structure/Presentation/Contextualizing information (Expressive language)
a. Teaching Master’s students about writing a thesis:
i. Use of and correct presentation of subheads
ii. Paragraph #1 (purpose and structure)
iii. Guiding question (purpose and presentation)
iv. Chapter I (contextualizing the study)
b. Middle School (ask for examples to model)
c. Discourse markers
i. Phrases that signal what information is being presented
ii. That being said
iii. In conclusion, In summary, First, . . . . Second, . . . . ., Third,. . . ., If/then, Therefore, because, since, as a result, in conclusion, etc.)
iv. Important note: Using discourse markers is not just a way of reading and writing a text. It is a way of organizing thoughts to make ideas as well as text comprehensible.
4. Organization of information (Expressive and receptive language--inclusive list)
a. Chronological
b. General to specific
c. Ordinal (superimposed) First, . . . Second, . . . Third,. . . and so forth
d. Hierarchy Most to least important (or least to most important)
e. Key idea followed by supporting points
f. Visual (left to right)
g. Presentation/placement of information on a given page (especially important in math)
5. Thinking process embedded in general academic vocabulary
a. How to teach it: Explicit instruction, modeling, guided practice and independent practice
b. Sentence frames
c. Cause/effect; If . . ., then; results vs. conclusion; Summarizing info, etc. (Function words)
d. Logic (syllogism and enthymeme)
6. Register/Stance/Code switching
a. Academic register: authoritative, formal, precise, efficient, and abstract. Academic language uses technical words and general academic words
b. Example: teenage boy talk
c. Code switching
What else?
References
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2008). Creating robust vocabulary: Frequently
asked questions and extended examples. New York: Guilford Press.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Osmanson, R. (1987). The effects and uses of diverse
vocabulary instructional techniques. In M. G. McKeown and M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 147-163). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bunch, G. C. (2011). Preparing mainstream secondary content-area teachers to facilitate English language
learners’ development of academic language. National Society for the Study f Education, 109(2), 351-383.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238.
Duff, P. (2010). Language socialization into academic discourse communities. Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics, (30), 169-192. doi:10.1017/S0267190510000048
Nagy, W. & Townsend, D. (2012). Words as tools: Learning academic vocabulary
as language acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 47(1), 91-108.
National Research Council. (2010). Language, diversity, school, learning, and closing
achievement gaps: A workshop summary. M. Welch-Ross, Rapporteur. Committee on the Role of Language in School Learning: Implications for closing the achievement gap. Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved from
Schleppegrell, M. (2009). Language in academic subject areas and classroom instruction:
What is academic language and how can we teach it? Paper prepared for the Workshop on the Role of Language in School Learning: Implications for closing the achievement Gap, October 15-16, Hewlett Foundation, Menlo, Park, CA. Retrieved from cfe/paper_Mary_Schleppegrell.pdf
Schleppegrell, M. & O’Hallaron, C.L. (2011). Teaching academic language in L2 secondary
settings. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 3-18. doi: 10.1017/S0267190511000067
Snow, C.E. (2010). Academic language and the challenge of reading for learning about science.
Science, 328, 450-452. doi: 10.1126/science.1182597.
Snow, C.E., & Uccelli, P. (2009). The challenge of academic language. In D.R. Olson & N.
Torranace (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy. (pp. 112-133). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Strategic Education Research Partnership. (2011). Word Generation Lists.
Zwiers, Jeff. (2007). Teacher practices and perspectives for developing academic language.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 93-116.
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Townsend, D., Filippini, A., Collins, P., & Biancarosa, G. (2012). Evidence for the importance
of academic word knowledge for the academic achievement of diverse middle school students. The Elementary School Journal, 112, 497-518. doi: 0013-5984/2012/11203-0005.
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Appendix
Headwords of the Word Families in Coxhead’s Academic Word List
(Note: Coxhead rates the words from 1-10 depending up frequency of use. This list only includes words rated a 1 or 2. I also added words (next list) that were a “3” or higher according to Coxhead, but which I felt were also prominent in academia.)
Achieve Acquire Administrative Affect
Analyse Approach Appropriate area
aspect assess assist assume
authority available benefit bias
category chapter commission community
complex compute concept conclude
conduct consequent consist constitute
construct consume contract create
credit culture data define
derive design distinct distribute
economy element environment equate
establish estimate evaluate evident
export factor feature finance
focus formula function identify
impact income indicate individual
interpret invest involve issue
item journal labour legal
legislate maintain major method
normal obtain occur participate
perceive percent period policy
positive potential previous primary
principle proceed process purchase
range regulate relevant require
research reside resource respond
restrict role sector section
secure seek select significant
similar site source specific
strategy structure survey text
theory tradition transfer vary
Landrum’s additions to Coxhead’s AWL
abstract 6 access 4 adequate 4 aggregate 6
alter 5 alternative 3 ambiguous 8 apparent 4
approximate 4 assemble 10 attribute 4 capacity 5
clarify 8 compensate 3 component 3 comprehensive 7 considerable 3 constant 3 context 8 contrast 4
contribute 3 core 3 correspond 3 criteria 3
cycle 4 deduce 3 deviate 8 differentiate 8
framework 3 hypothesis 4 implement 4 implicate 4
imply 3 impose 4 infer 7 input 6
link 3 locate 3 manipulate 8 negate 3
paradigm 7 parallel 4 predict 4 proportion 3
protocol 9 retain 4 sequence 3 specify 3
subordinate 9 subsequent 3 summary 4 task 3
thesis 7 trend 5 valid 3 virtual 8
whereas 5
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