CQ4 – Core 2 - aceh.b-cdn.net

 Core 2: HSC Questions 2016 – 2001CQ3 not in trials – BUT AT THE END OF FILENot in syllabus2016Outline the Stages of Skill acquisition (3)There are three stages of skill acquisition that sit along a continuum of skill learning. The cognitive stage is characterised by frequent errors and is the stage when the learner has to think a lot about the skill and how to execute it. They also require lots of frequent feedback. For example; To teach a lay-up break it into subroutines; how to dribble, footwork to step to the ring, angle of approach, and later make the shotThe associative stage is the largest and longest stage. It is characterised by lots of practice. As the athlete progresses towards the next stage errors become less frequent and smaller. For example Individual gains this assurance as he/she develops ability to execute a strong layup, with successes felt with frequent practise and drills ? coach also commendsThe final stage is the autonomous stage. This stage is characterised by few if any errors that are minor. An athlete at this stage of skill acquisition can think about other aspects of competition and not think at all about the skill itself. For example; execute layup efficiently w/o worrying about the basics focus on strategies and tactics on the court -? challenge defenders and work out whoOutline, using specific examples, the types of feedback that are appropriate at each stage of skill acquisition. (4)The type of feedback appropriate at the cognitive stage would include external and knowledge of performance eg a coach giving verbal feedback after a basketball lay-up to correct the technique for arm extension. Associative stage should use external, delayed and knowledge of performance eg a coach and athlete watching a video and critiquing the technique of their back swing in a forehand shot. The feedback used by an athlete at the autonomous stage is internal, concurrent and knowledge of result eg a tennis player ‘feeling’ the extension of the arm was not optimal and modifying future performances or a basketball player watching their attempt at a three point shot moving through the air and into the basket, indicating success.Using examples, distinguish between valid tests and reliable tests of athletic performance (5)A valid test of athletic performance is one that measures exactly what it was designed to measure. For example, if you want to measure speed, it would be better to time an athlete over a 50 m sprint than conduct a vertical jump test. A reliable test of an athletic performance is a test that you can rely on to measure something consistently or repeatedly. For example, you may time how long it takes to run around the same oval every day as a measure of aerobic fitness. While this may not be entirely valid it is pretty consistent and will show improvements in performance very reliably.Justify the psychological strategies used by athletes to enhance their motivation and to manage anxiety (8)Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on performance, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement. To enhance motivation as well as manage anxiety athletes must learn to control their mental state, channelling their mental and physical energy in the right direction. Athletes enhance their motivation and manage anxiety by using the following psychological strategies: concentration/attention skills, mental rehearsal, visualisation, imagery, goal setting and relaxation techniques. Concentration is the ability to focus on the task at hand through a focus on the process rather than the task at hand. It is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual can completely focus on the process performing appropriate cues, rather than thinking about outcome. When an athlete thinks about doing, they often separate the task from themselves as the performer, with their feelings, sensations and personal reactions becoming the focus. However, a total focus on the execution of the task can lead to over arousal. ?Effective concentration involves the maintenance of an uninterrupted connection between the two. Experienced athletes learn to switch off concentration when not needed so they can avoid fatigue, amount needed varies across sport Examples: some sport requires intense concentration like gymnastics and golf, whereas others require intervals of concentration like football, netball. Whereas sustained motivation/ concentration is found in endurance events like triathlons and tennis. For example; during basketball game player must focus on the shot and exclude other distraction, but at other times be aware off their defensive position and tem mate, intervals of high concentration interspersed with period of less intense concentration Goal setting is initially used at the start of the training year to set realistic objectives and performance expectations. This increases levels of motivation resulting in adherence to training schedule and intensity required for improved performance. An athlete who is bored and lacking direction will benefit from goal setting, resulting in a greater interest and focus in training, which will then improve an athletes performance. The can be short term e.g. “I will complete at least 3 endurance training sessions this week”. They can be long term and completed over a long period of time e.g. completing the City to Surf fun Run. They can relate to the behaviour of the athlete, e.g. showing up to training on time and on the performance e.g. getting a gold medal or reaching a national level in soccer. Relaxation techniques such as progressive relaxation can assist an athlete whose performance suffers due to high levels of anxiety. High levels of anxiety can lead to: tense muscles, muscular fatigue and reduced focus. Progressive relaxation before an event helps to reduce muscle tension and improve focus so that performance is improved or at an optimal level, instead of being affected by a high level of anxiety. Optimal relaxation is important for effective imagery and concentration, and combining the mind and body to eliminate performance stressMental rehearsal involves recreating in your mind a mental image of yourself successfully practising a skill or movement performance. Is the technique of using power of imagery or mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the minds familiarity with the desired motion or skill before executing it – which can enhance performance and the acquisition and building of motor skills. This increases an athlete’s familiarity with the skill, increasing confidence and reducing anxiety. Mental rehearsal would definitely benefit an athlete at who lacks confidence and has a high level of anxiety, thus improving their performance. Example: Downhill skiers, gymnasts, high jumpers and divers all visualize their performance with their eyes shut and move their body as if they were performing to help reduce anxiety and improve performance. 2015How can flexibility improve athletic performance? (3)Flexibility is extremely important for improving performance. Flexibility allows a wider range of motion for muscle groups which can be used to the performer’s advantage when participating in sport or exercise. Having good flexibility also reduces the chance of injury. Having good flexibility means that muscles can stretch much more during activity without overstretching, e.g. a sprinter can take bigger steps giving him an advantage.Explain how different types of motivation can affect an athlete’s performance (4)Motivation is an extremely important part of an athlete’s mental game. There are many types of motivation ranging from positive to negative and intrinsic to extrinsic motivation. Motivation is a useful tool to ‘pump’ the performer up. It allows them to get in the right frame of mind as motivation influences you to want to do something positive. Motivation is when you do something for the sense of achievement or a good feeling. Negative motivation is when you do something out of fear or consequence, eg getting kicked out of the team. This impacts how the athlete performs. If an athlete has no drive, their performance will be poor. It’s important for the athlete to have the right kind and right amount of motivation.Why are both objective and subjective performance measures appropriate in the assessment of an athletic performance? (5)Objective performance measures refer to the facts of a performance, eg scoring 20 points in a game. Subjective performance measures refers to the opinion of another person, eg coach saying you played well. Both of these measures are appropriate for assessing an athletic performance as long as they are consistent. Objective performance measures can not be argued with as they show the facts. This allows for a truthful measure of athletic performance, even if told otherwise, eg if your parents say you played well but you missed 10 shots and only scored once. This however is not valid in all sports, as sports such as gymnastics requires the judge’s opinion. To ensure that this appropriate in the assessment of an athletic performance, the judges use criteria in order to maintain consistency and improve objectivity. This is why objective and subjective performance measures are both appropriate in the assessment of an athletic performance.Why is it important for an athlete to develop the elements of performance? (8)There are two main performance elements that need to be included in instruction of athletes. These are decision-making and strategic and tactical development. Athletes need to be taught decision-making skills in order to understand their roles and responsibilities in game situations. As an athlete's skill increases, they also increase their ability to make more diverse and creative decisions in increasingly complex game situations. For example, knowing when to shift from man on man or zone defence based on possession in a game. Strategic and tactical development are also important instruction elements for improving athletic performance because they ensure athletes can not only implement set plays and rehearsed routines, but can also adapt and take advantages of different game situations as they arise. Strategic development requires athletes to reflect on past performance and plan new approaches for improving in future events. Tactical development requires athletes to 'think on their feet' and play out the scenario in front of them to the best of their ability.2014Outline the post-performance dietary considerations of an endurance athlete (3)How do anxiety and arousal differ in terms of their effect on athletic performance? (4)Anxiety is a psychological process characterized by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening. It is a complex emotion identified by various levels of agitation in reaction to a threat i.e. fight or flight response. At the extreme anxiety disrupts and unsettles behaviour by lowering the individual's concentration and affecting their muscular control. Arousal Is the specific level of anxiety prior and during performance and has driver properties. These arousals can be high, low or optimal – having huge influences on performance. It can manipulate anxiety factors, motivation and can increase or decrease levels of arousal. Generally, athletes who have a high disposition towards anxiety require less arousal than those who have a low disposition towards anxiety. ? Arousal affects performance when it becomes a focus: when an individual is able to shift their focus onto concentrating on the task, anxiety is revealed for what it is; a heightened state that can be controlled and CAN ASSIST performance. The key difference between Anxiety and Arousal is that: Anxiety is predominantly a psychological state but arousal is a physiological process that is necessary for sports performance- they can both facilitate and hinder skill execution and interrelate heavily.Low levels of arousal are caused by lowered motivation, distraction or negative attitude and results in lack of concentration and focus. ?For example; if a netball player comes in late, talking about last night, they are ‘under-aroused’ so the first 10 mins of the game they make mistakes and are inattentive. However, over arousal. Is detrimental to performance due to excessive anxiety and is caused by over thinking and by extrinsic forces. Symptoms include anxious, apprehension, reflection excessive concern about performance, increased muscular tension and mental confusion. Both of this can be illustrated in an example of a 100m sprinter. A 100m sprint may post a worse time than expected due to low levels of arousal due to distraction, disinterest or depressed level of motivation OR a state of over-arousal due to excessively tense and inability to concentrate.Meanwhile, anxiety comes in two forms. Trait and State anxiety. Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of (personality trait), and differs between each individual, evident in an individual’s response to everyday situations. For example Example: one tennis player may feel anxious under pressure situations whereas another performs well under pressure. ?State anxiety is more specific, referring to a state of heightened emotions and increased distress that develop in response to fear/danger of certain situation/events. For example the presence of state anxiety includes missing relatively easy shots in basketball, missing golf holes, and ‘breaking’ at the start of important pare the two anaerobic energy systems. (5)Alactacid System (ATP/PC) system is the initial energy system, anaerobically occurring during the first few moments of exercise. Residual supplies of ATP in body are very limited and are only enough for one explosive muscular contraction. Explosive movements cause ATP molecule to split providing energy for muscular contraction. The lactic acid system is the secondary energy system, anaerobically occurring after creatine phosphate supplies are exhausted and before sufficient oxygen is obtained. This follows after 10-12 seconds of maximal exercise creatine phosphate supplies are exhausted.We have 90 grams of ATP in our body to power ONE explosive movement or 1 -2 seconds of hard work, after that we need 120g of reserve fuel, or creatine phosphate to fuel the ATP system. In contrast the lactic acid system is fuelled by carbohydrate existing as either; glucose in the blood OR in the storage form of glycogen. This is then broken down to produce ATP and energy for muscular contraction.The ATP/PC system functions to make ATP available and occurs whether or not O2 is there. Thus, rapid supply is enabled by concentration of CP within muscles, which is 5x greater than ATP. The important is in short movements. The Lactic acid system Provides ATP quickly but requires large amounts of glucose. ATP is rapidly available at a considerable cost for example 3 mols of ATP is the most that can be manufactured from the breakdown of 180 grams of glycogen during anaerobic glycolysis.The ATP exhausted after 2 seconds of hard work and the CP exhausted in a further 10-15 seconds. However the lactic acids duration depends on intensity. For example, maximal effort causes exhaustion in 30 seconds whilst 70-80% effort lasts only for 3-4mins. The cause of fatigue of the ATP system is the inability of system to continually resynthesise ATP from CP because CP supplies quickly exhausted. Hence, this is why we are unable to rune at maximal effort for distances longer than 100 m. In contrast, the cause of fatigue for the lactic acid system is when lactic acid levels build up within muscles. This is linked to its rate of removal varying from person to person. Fatigue occurs as a result of an accumulation of lactic acid quantities fast than it can be removed. This depends on lactic threshold of the person – which is the point at which lactic acid accumulates rapidly in the blood)The by-product of the ATP system is heat during the process of muscular contraction, whereas for the lactic acid system there are also pyruvic acid and lactic acids. The rate of recovery is restored within 2 minutes whereas with the lactic acid system it takes 30 mins to an hour. Examples of sports where the ATP system is predominantly used is; 100m sprint, golf, lawn bowls, high jump and weight lifiting. For the lactic system, sports include 200m freestyles, 400 m running and gymnastics. How can the skill and performance attributes of athletes be validly and reliably appraised? (8)Validity is when an assessment measures what it actually intends to measure. By making sure the correct fitness component, energy system, duration and skills are involved in the test, this ensures validity. For example, a long-distance runner who needs to develop their cardiovascular endurance must perform tests like the beep test because it utilises running skills, movement patterns and the cardiovascular/aerobic system. Another example is a tennis player, who would need to complete an agility course such as the agility T-test and running in different directions to validly measure their ability and skill required for such a fast-paced sport reliant on quick reactions.Reliability ensures that the same results are achieved regardless of who, where or when the test is administered. It is an indication of consistency between two measures of the same skill. This ensures that the performance attributes of athletes are accurately recorded to correctly understand skill progressions. For skills to be reliably appraised, the assessment must use the same conditions, surface, tester and weather. For example, 100m sprints on different surfaces would be unreliable as difficulty is changed. Tests are also unreliable if the athlete is not in the same state of mind, for example, running two beep tests on consecutive days would be unreliable because of the impact of fatigue on the testing result.To improve the validity and reliability of the appraisal of skill and performance attributes, objectivity of tests can also be increased, and personal opinion decreased. Objectivity is not based on human interpretation or analysis because it uses accurate tools, for example stopwatches, electronic timing devices, measuring tapes or point scores, making it the fairest form of reliability. Improving objectivity can also occur through the use of set criteria. Set criteria both enhances the reliability of judgement by providing consistency, and increases validity to ensure that judgement is focused on the skill components critical for the performance. For example, aerial skiing has a judging criteria based on landing (30% of score), form (50% of score), and air (20% of score) which more validly and reliably interprets each movement component for an accurate understanding of the whole performance.2013Describe the effect of stroke volume and cardiac output on aerobic performance (3)Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per contraction. An increase in stroke volume results from training and allows the same amount of blood to be transported around the body with fewer heart contractions. Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per minute, and is calculated by multiplying the athlete’s stroke volume by their heart rate. Increased cardiac output is a direct result of an increased stroke volume, as an athlete’s maximal heart rate does not increase significantly.Stroke volume and cardiac output are responsible for the blood flow around the body. Training results in an increase in stroke volume and cardiac output, which increased blood flow. This increase in blood flow increases the amount of oxygen being delivered each minute to the muscle that is working. This increases the workloads within the aerobic training zone, delaying fatigue. The increase in stroke volume and cardiac output are physiological adaptations that?allow for faster and more efficient transportation of blood and the nutrients within it, including oxygen. It means an athlete can remove lactate and carbon dioxide faster and deliver more oxygen and glucose to the muscle as it is needed. This allows the athlete to maintain higher intensities for longer, as lactate removal and oxygen delivery are faster. They can maintain these intensities for longer for the same reasons and because there is a faster delivery of blood glucose and removal of carbon dioxide.Describe THREE characteristics of a learner that can influence his/her ability to learn a new skill (4)Each human has unique physical, social and emotional characteristics. The ways in which people learn, perform and think affect every aspect of their lives. These individual differences include inherited, social and emotional factors and they account for the variability in the learning of motor skills. Inherited factors affecting skill acquisition include gender, age, race, somatotype (body shape), muscle-fibre composition, information-processing capacity and aptitude for the activity. These can be described as the natural ability of the athlete. After training and practice an athlete’s ability to perform activities is usually improved. Prior experience with the task (or with a similar task) will also affect performance.It is often easier to learn a new skill if similar movements have already been successfully acquired. This prior experience has the potential to accelerate the learning process and increase performance. It is suggested that transfer of learning is an important aspect in the acquisition of new skills. For example, in taking up basketball, the skills of netball are more easily transferred to the new sport than are the skills of, say, hockey. This transfer of prior experience can also apply to other aspects of various activities, including fitness, strength and flexibility. For instance, if aerobic endurance, speed or strength are required to perform the new skill, someone with previous experience in these will take less time to learn the skill, and will be able to participate at a higher level, than will a total beginner. Even knowledge of the rules of the game, without ever playing it, can increase the ability of the person to perform the activity or skill. An example of the transfer of skills and attributes from one sport to another is when athletes are able to change relatively easily between rugby union and rugby league, without any obvious decrease in performance.The level of confidence within a person can influence performance. The reasons for participation, the level of aspiration, the degree of enjoyment, persistence at the activity, the effort put into the activity and the readiness of the participant to learn. Those athletes who are confident about their abilities, or their ability to improve and learn, can develop skills faster and perform better than those who are not. This self-confidence is sometimes evident in athletes as ‘ego’. Ego can also be a good tool for coping with stresses, and for ‘throwing others off their games’ to increase performance. For example; after Roger Federer’s loss in 2011 he states that “losing like this motivates me more than anything” and that he is “looking forward to the next match”. He is an example of a person who exhibits all these positive personality traits.Skill acquisition and performance depends on various personality traits. Positive personality traits include; levels of keenness, confidence, competitiveness, self-esteem and relations with others and even level of aggression. These personality traits are enhanced as involvement in activity is continued and can often decrease performance if they are absent. For example; after Roger Federer’s loss in 2011 he states that “loses like this motivate me more than anything” and that he is “looking forward to the next match”. He is an example of a person who exhibits all these positive personality traits. OTHER: Characteristics of the learner that can influence their ability to learn a new skill are personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience and ability. The personality of a learner refers to the way they behave. If they are consistent, reliable and motivated this can certainly make a difference. Thus some personality traits are positive in terms of learning a new skill. Players themselves and coaches may in fact prefer athlete‘s displaying these more favourable characteristics such as cooperativeness and dedication and this will allow them to learn skills quickly and easily. Heredity refers to the genetic traits inherited from parents. These therefore limit the athlete's potential. Things like somatotype, height, muscle fibres and gender can all affect which sports and skills an athlete is suited to. Confidence or belief in?What are the advantages and disadvantages of protein supplementation and creatine supplementation for improved athletic performance? (5)How can psychological strategies enhance motivation and manage anxiety in athletes? Include examples in your answer (8)Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on performance, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement. To enhance motivation as well as manage anxiety athletes must learn to control their mental state, channelling their mental and physical energy in the right direction. Athletes enhance their motivation and manage anxiety by using the following psychological strategies: concentration/attention skills, mental rehearsal, visualisation, imagery, goal setting and relaxation techniques. Concentration is the ability to focus on the task at hand through a focus on the process rather than the task at hand. It is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual can completely focus on the process performing appropriate cues, rather than thinking about outcome. When an athlete thinks about doing, they often separate the task from themselves as the performer, with their feelings, sensations and personal reactions becoming the focus. However, a total focus on the execution of the task can lead to over arousal. ?Effective concentration involves the maintenance of an uninterrupted connection between the two. Experienced athletes learn to switch off concentration when not needed so they can avoid fatigue, amount needed varies across sport Examples: some sport requires intense concentration like gymnastics and golf, whereas others require intervals of concentration like football, netball. Whereas sustained motivation/ concentration is found in endurance events like triathlons and tennis. For example; during basketball game player must focus on the shot and exclude other distraction, but at other times be aware off their defensive position and tem mate, intervals of high concentration interspersed with period of less intense concentration Goal setting is initially used at the start of the training year to set realistic objectives and performance expectations. This increases levels of motivation resulting in adherence to training schedule and intensity required for improved performance. An athlete who is bored and lacking direction will benefit from goal setting, resulting in a greater interest and focus in training, which will then improve an athletes performance. The can be short term e.g. “I will complete at least 3 endurance training sessions this week”. They can be long term and completed over a long period of time e.g. completing the City to Surf fun Run. They can relate to the behaviour of the athlete, e.g. showing up to training on time and on the performance e.g. getting a gold medal or reaching a national level in soccer. Relaxation techniques such as progressive relaxation can assist an athlete whose performance suffers due to high levels of anxiety. High levels of anxiety can lead to: tense muscles, muscular fatigue and reduced focus. Progressive relaxation before an event helps to reduce muscle tension and improve focus so that performance is improved or at an optimal level, instead of being affected by a high level of anxiety. Optimal relaxation is important for effective imagery and concentration, and combining the mind and body to eliminate performance stressMental rehearsal involves recreating in your mind a mental image of yourself successfully practising a skill or movement performance. Is the technique of using power of imagery or mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the minds familiarity with the desired motion or skill before executing it – which can enhance performance and the acquisition and building of motor skills. This increases an athlete’s familiarity with the skill, increasing confidence and reducing anxiety. Mental rehearsal would definitely benefit an athlete at who lacks confidence and has a high level of anxiety, thus improving their performance. Example: Downhill skiers, gymnasts, high jumpers and divers all visualize their performance with their eyes shut and move their body as if they were performing to help reduce anxiety and improve performance. OTHER: Athletes today recognise the importance of the psychological aspect within their training program. Achieving success requires dedication to the most arduous and challenging training programs that can totally consume an athlete’s lifestyle, leaving very little room for relaxation and space away from the intense training and competitive environments. Maintaining and enhancing motivation is very important to ensure the athlete is able to consistently give their best efforts. Elite athletes also face immense pressures from themselves, supporters and the media. These can all contribute to high levels of anxiety an athlete may face, especially during major competitions such as the Olympics. There are a number of strategies athletes can employ to enhance motivation and manage anxiety. Athletes often claim it is the degree of control over their own mind that will often determine success, especially in such intense situations as a penalty shootout or play off in golf.?Most people associate being psychologically strong with being able to maintain concentration and attention under immense pressure. Some sports, or situations in sports require a high degree of focus on the impending skill. A final free throw to win basketball game; a tennis serve to win Wimbledon or a final weightlift to win a gold medal. Distractions can come from many different sources. Internally, an athlete’s own thought patterns could lead to a total loss of focus. Negative or worrisome thoughts, even thoughts that are totally irrelevant to the task at hand can erode concentration. Athletes must ensure all thought patterns are relevant, positive and will lead to success. Externally, the opposition, crowd noise and movements and other irrelevant cues can steal an athlete’s focus. By being able to block these distractions, to hold attention to important information only, and to channel thought patterns towards calming and focused outcomes, can help manage anxiety and enhance motivation. It is very important that athletes train and develop these psychological skills of concentration, attention and focus during realistic situations to help manage anxiety.?During highly stressful and competitive scenarios, athletes employ a range of strategies and techniques to clear their mind, relax and focus on the event. These can be used before a match to either increase or decrease arousal or prior to self paced skills such as a free throw, to help the athlete psychologically prepare to execute the skill Mental rehearsal involves imagining a skill in your mind, immediately before performing it. fine should be done from a first-person perspective. looking through your own eyes, the skill should be performed at a realistic speed and always be successful. For example, imagining a golf swing as you stand on the tee. This important skill relaxes the athlete, helping them manage anxiety. It also stimulates the motor pattern required for the movement to follow. Visualisation is generally performed before an event, and is used to increase or decrease arousal, or to help an athlete calm their nerves and relax. They could picture themselves winning or performing the skill well, or something not related to the game such as a tropical beach to help calm down. These imagery skills are very important to help an athlete enhance motivation and manage anxiety.?Elite athletes have to cope with many different stressors. Many relate to the pressure of performing weekly and enduring intense training loads. External stressors, such as pressure from sponsors, the media and supporters can also have a negative impact on the athlete. These can all lead to increased anxiety and can erode an athlete's motivation and sense of peace. Athletes should use a variety of techniques to help them relax. Strategies to be used before or during competition could include controlled breathing, listening to music or Jacobson‘s Progressive Muscle Relaxation Technique, where muscles are contracted and relaxed. Outside of competition, massage, yoga or even socialising with friends can help athlete's to relax. These relaxation techniques are very important in helping an athlete to manage anxiety. Goal setting is a critical strategy in helping an athlete to increase their motivation and their drive towards a desired outcome. Appropriate goals could include winning the competition, gaining representative selection or a new personal best. Goals should be set between coaches and players, to increase accountability. They should be specific, be able to be measured, realistic and achievable and have a clear time frame. Goals could also be set in relation to specific aspects of an athlete’s lifestyle, such as their training, nutrition or performance.?To enhance motivation, and manage the anxiety associated with elite sport, athletes should use these aforementioned psychological strategies.?2012Outline the influence of prior experience on skill acquisition. (3)Each human has unique physical, social and emotional characteristics. The ways in which people learn, perform and think affect every aspect of their lives. These individual differences include inherited, social and emotional factors and they account for the variability in the learning of motor skills. Inherited factors affecting skill acquisition include gender, age, race, somatotype (body shape), muscle-fibre composition, information-processing capacity and aptitude for the activity. These can be described as the natural ability of the athlete. After training and practice an athlete’s ability to perform activities is usually improved. Prior experience with the task (or with a similar task) will also affect performance.It is often easier to learn a new skill if similar movements have already been successfully acquired. This prior experience has the potential to accelerate the learning process and increase performance. It is suggested that transfer of learning is an important aspect in the acquisition of new skills. For example, in taking up basketball, the skills of netball are more easily transferred to the new sport than are the skills of, say, hockey. This transfer of prior experience can also apply to other aspects of various activities, including fitness, strength and flexibility. For instance, if aerobic endurance, speed or strength are required to perform the new skill, someone with previous experience in these will take less time to learn the skill, and will be able to participate at a higher level, than will a total beginner. Even knowledge of the rules of the game, without ever playing it, can increase the ability of the person to perform the activity or skill. An example of the transfer of skills and attributes from one sport to another is when athletes are able to change relatively easily between rugby union and rugby league, without any obvious decrease in performance.OTHER: The rate and degree to which a learner acquires a new skill is partly determined by prior experiences, and if any transfer of learning can be made across sports. Many sports share basic motor skills and patterns. which can make skill acquisition easier. if an athlete has experience in a similar sport, it is possible that the learning process will be accelerated. and learning new skills can be made easier. For example, a competent surfer may find it easier to learn the skill of snowboarding due to the similar body positions and skills required. Likewise. a netballer learning to play basketball may find it easier to develop the specific skills required. The influence of prior experience can vary greatly between athletes and the sport. and in some cases can even act as a negative influence. Highly refined movement patterns and habits can be difficult to ‘unlearn’ in the new environment. For example, switching between the halfback role of Rugby League and Rugby Union may present challenges.?Describe TWO different types of motivation that can affect performance. Provide examples. (3)There are four types of motivation that can affect the sports performance of an athlete. Two of these are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from within the individual. It is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have interest in a task or activity and they enjoy learning and the satisfaction of performing the desired movements. Intrinsic motivation is self-sustaining and self-reinforcing because effort and personal accomplishment becomes its own reward. Central to intrinsic motivation is the ‘flow experience’. This is known as the highest level of internal motivation and is?characterized by a very high level of concentration - to the extent that an?individual is completely absorbed in the task. For example and athlete who beats themselves up for poor performance is negative and intrinsic, while if a coach?says the player will be made to do a 30 minute anaerobic training session if they lose, this is a negative extrinsic motivator.Extrinsic motivation occurs when a person’s internal state is affected by sources originating from outside the person, such as a rewards or encouragement from coaches. Extrinsic motivation focuses on the product, or what can be gained. This is seen in many forms such as praise, rewards, fame and financial remuneration or fear of an external source. These forms are often used to manipulate the motivation of athletes. I experienced many forms of extrinsic motivation. An example is if a coach says the player will get a bonus $500 if he wins.?Athletes?who utilise positive motivation are more likely to take risks, be creative and perform under pressure.OTHER: There are generally four types of motivation considered that can affect performance. Intrinsic motivation comes from an internal source within the athlete, for example the desire to do one‘s best in an upcoming event. Extrinsic motivation comes from an external source such as coaches and parents as well as trophies and rewards. Positive motivation is rewarding and encouraging and can result in increased enthusiasm. An example would be receiving praise for a performance from a coach or the crowd. Negative motivation is based on fear and threats of punishment such as a coach penalising a losing team with an extra fitness session.?How can THREE principles of training be applied to improve strength? Provide examples. (6)The six principles of training are: specificity, progressive overload, reversibility, variety, training thresholds, and warm up/cool down. They can each be applied to improve an athlete’s strength. Progressive overload describes a training effect that is produced when the system or tissue is worked at a greater level than it is normally accustomed to working at. As the body adapts to these new levels, training should continue to be progressively increased. Overload in strength training can be achieved by varying the frequency, duration and intensity of the resistance training, with increases in intensity having the greatest effect. Considerable stress must be placed on the system or tissue so that improvements can occur. If there is too much overload, fatigue can result as well as potential injury; if the training load is too little, the training effect will plateau or decrease. For?resistance?training progressive overload requires that the workload is increased. This increase can come as an increase in resistance, reps, or sets. Alternatively the rest period between sets can be reduced. So if an athlete is training for rugby league by doing 3 sets lifting 110Kg, which is their 12RM with a 2 min rest between sets, this training will produce an adaptation in the athlete so that they can now bench 100Kg 16 times and so it is no longer their 12RM, but their 16RM. The athlete will no longer adapt, unless the principle of progressive overload is used changing the load in order to place a sufficient stress upon the body to cause further adaptations. This increase in workload could be done by getting the athlete to complete 5 sets (though this is time consuming), increasing the weight to 120Kg, which might be his new 12RM, or decreasing the rest period to 1 minute between sets. Variety refers to athletes needing to be challenged not only by the activity but also by the implementation of the activities and this is often achieved by cross-training. Strength training can use many forms of resistance (free weight, body weight, machine weights) so it can be easy to incorporate this principle into strength training programs. For?resistance?training variety would mean mixing the training sessions up, using free weights and machine weights and also adding some elastic or hydraulic training as well. I means when you train your chest muscles you would include incline, flat and decline activities to ensure the entire pectoral muscle was trained. You might use hydraulic machines to ensure the gains also occurred at a faster speed of movement.Specificity is where the exercise must be specific to the type of strength required, and is therefore related to the particular demands of the athlete’s event/sport. The athlete should have knowledge of the predominant types of muscular activity associated with his/her particular event, the movement patterns involved and the type of strength required. Specificity when applied to?resistance?training requires that the muscle groups used in the sport are the ones trained. Training should also seek to replicate similar movements from the sport at a similar speed. Strength training for swimming would then use a lat pull-down to replicate the pulling movement of swimming, at the most efficient swimming movement speed to increase strength at that speed for that movement in swimming.OTHER: ?There are 6 principles of training, of these some have more of a clear impact on strength training than others. The principle of progressive overload can easily be applied to improve strength. This principle can be applied generally to the overall program or even during an individual weights session. When using free weights or pin loaded machines progressive overload is easy to achieve. If the athlete is working around 8 to 10 reps in order to achieve strength gains then overload can be achieved once the set becomes easy to complete. This indicates that adaptation has occurred and that hypertrophy has occurred. Therefore the athlete needs to increase the load in future sessions to ensure overload is occurring.?Specificity can also be easily applied to strength training. An athlete can train in many ways to achieve different goals through strength training, such as absolute strength, power, endurance or lean body mass. Once the athlete has identified their goal of strength training they then need to specify their type of strength training to achieve this. A power is still aiming to develop strength and hypertrophy; however, they need to ensure that they train utilising the speed element required for their chosen activity. Thus a power athlete training for strength will drop some weight to allow the movements to occur quickly, thus developing the power they need through speed and strength.?Variety is also a key principle if improvement in strength is desired. Muscles develop memory and therefore it is important to change a strength program approximately every 4 weeks. While similar weights will still be lifted, the variety needs to come through the exercise. if an athlete does purely bench press for their chest strength, not only will they most likely become bored, but they will also plateau easily. By changing the exercise every 4 weeks, to incline?flies for example. the muscles are stressed in a different way thus allowing for improvements in strength and hypertrophy.Describe the different recovery strategies used by athletes to improve performance. Provide examples. (8)2011What type of training is most suitable for each activity listed? (2)Activity Type of Training Weight Lifting StrengthYogaFlexibility Marathon Aerobic Describe how different strength-training methods affect an athlete’s performance. (4)Strength training is any training that is done which will improve an athlete’s strength. It involves muscular contraction against a resistance, aimed at developing such capabilities as strength, power and endurance. Different types of resistative forces result in a variety of advantages to the athletes. This type of training affects performance by causing muscular hypertrophy, which is a growth in myocyte cross-sectional area. Strength training causes a large stress on the muscle being used, causing minor tears in the muscle. The body responds to these high intensities by increasing he size of the muscles to increase muscular strength so that the next time the intensity is encountered it can be lifted without causing as much damage. Strength training often involves: sets (how many times an exercise is repeated), repetitions (how many times the set resistance is lifted), a set resistance (can be a set weight such as 20Kg or a set intensity such as 10 RM) and a rest period between sets. There are three main strength-training techniques that athletes can use to improve performance. These techniques would be used with the progressive overload principle so that an athlete can improve their strength to the level needed in their sport, such as that required in a football scrum or for a vertical leap to catch the ball in AFL.Free or Fixed weights involve the use of isolated weight and resisance for the whole excerise. Sports that require a significant strength or power components will benefit from free or fixed weights such as weightlifting, Rugby or sprinting. The weight can either be mobile and unfixed (Free Weight) or attached to a system of pulley’s, where the angle of movement if fixed (ie. Machine Weight). Free weights allow great variety and therefore specificity to the athlete training for specific movements. For example, a bench press involves a similar action to that of a Shot putter. They also develop surrounding muscles that provide support and stability during the movement. Athletes must be well trained and have strict technique to stay safe and effective. Machine weights are safer, as the movement is fixed which can allow an athlete to work even harder than with free weights. possibly resulting in greater strength and power. This may come at the expense of good form; however, as well as less development of the surrounding stabilising muscles. For example, a leg press machine versus a barbell squat.?Elastic Bands: Require minimal equipment, and are portable, quickly adjustable and allow a variety of exercises. The resistance is generally light to moderate, making them more suitable to muscular endurance activities such as long-distance swimming. They can also be used to develop specific stabilising muscles, which protect the athlete from overuse injuries. For example, the rotator cuff, a group of muscles deep in the shoulder that are used in sports such as swimming, tennis and golf, can be strengthened using light Therabands. Resistance?bands are also beneficial in rehabilitation, as the injured athlete aims to regain strength lost from reversibility.?Hydraulic Weights: Provide resistance in both directions of a movement (is. concentric contractions only of opposing muscles, such as the biceps and triceps). This high intensity exercise develops more muscles in one~movement, which benefits elite athletes. They are?also suited to power sports such as sprinting, as the resistance increases as the speed of movement is increased.?Other strength training methods include the use of; exercise balls, which produce an unstable platform, increasing the core strength of the athlete; medicine balls and kettle bells, which allow more dynamic and specific movements; and even the athlete's own body weight. which develops the stabilising muscles through isometric exercises that involve no change in muscle length, such as Hovers or Wall Squats.OTHER: Free weights allow great variety and therefore specificity to the athlete training for specific movements. For example; a bench press involves a similar action to that of a shot putter. They also develop surrounding muscles that provide support and stability during the movement. Athletes must be well trained and have strict techqniue to stay safe and effective. Machine weights are safer, as the movement is fixed, which can allow an athlete to work even harder than with the free weihts, possibly resulting in greater strength and power. This may come at the expense of good form; however, as well as less development of the surrounding stabilising muscles. For example, a leg press machine versus a barbell squat. Firstly, resistance training can be used, which involves the use of elastic or hydraulic equipment to provide resistance during both concentric and eccentric contractions. Hydraulic?training uses machines, which use water or air compression to provide the resistance throughout the movement. This method of training increases the resistance the faster the movement is executed. This method of training is good for sports that require fast movements through a resistance. These sports include: rugby league, swimming, boxing and other martial artsSecondly, weight training can be used, which can involve the use of plates and dumbbells to provide resistance in concentric contractions. Weight?training involves lifting a certain weight against gravity to train specific muscles or groups of muscles. This method of training can use both fixed weights and free weights. Free weights often involve lifting dumbbells, barbells and sometimes the weight plate itself.. The advantage of this method is that it helps the athlete to learn the correct technique and to experience equal resistance throughout the full range of motion. Weight training is the dominant form of resistance training when large gains in strength are required or when a large resistance is desired. It is most suited to sports that require large amounts of strength or power. These sports include: rugby, shot-put, Greco-Roman wrestling, and American football.Thirdly, athletes can utilise isometric techniques whereby resistance is applied against an immovable force or weight is held in a static position. ? Elastic?training uses various forms of elastic to provide the resistance to develop strength. The intensity of this type of training is limited and the resistance increases as the elastic is stretched. The benefit of this method is that it is highly portable making it useful in home gyms or for personal trainers. This method of strength training is often used in rehabilitation, especially of weaker muscles. This method of training is best suited for sports, which require use of the smaller muscles. These sports include: arm wrestling, darts and JavelinCompare the dietary requirements of athletes in TWO sports that have different nutritional needs. Provide relevant examples. (6)Justify a coach’s use of objective and subjective performance measures to appraise the performance of an athlete. Provide relevant examples (8)Objective and subjective performance measures are used to classify the various different types of performance measures.Objective?performance measures are independent of the observer. That means the measurement is done using something other than the person observing. This independent measure can include:?a stop-watch, measuring tape or record of goals. The objectivity of the performance measure is increased through measures such as: time, checklists, or established criteria.In contrast?subjective?performance measures are dependent on the observer and based on opinions, feelings, and general impressions. Subjective measures rely more on the observer than independent measures. Sports such as dance and gymnastics are more subjective than objective in their measures.It is important to remember that these are not clear cut categories – objective and subjective performance measures. No, these measures sit at either end of a continuum.Sports?such as high jump use completely objective performance measures of metres and centimetres, while diving tends to use more subject performance measures. Skills are often measured using both, such that a soccer player’s performance. It was good because it looked good, felt smooth, but also he covered 12Km in the game, made 30 tackles, had 98% success in passing and 85% success in shots, and scored 3 goals in the game.OTHER: An important role of the coach is to make regular assessment of the quality of an athlete’s performance. This assessment can occur for different reasons, and there are a number of?ways to do this, depending upon the reason for the assessment. Generally, two types of assessment are possible: subjective and objective.?Objective assessment involves an independent measurement that is free from bias. It is clearly evident in sports such as swimming, shot put, sprinting and long jump, where the winner is determined by the greatest measured performance. it is also evident in many fitness tests such as the Multi-stage Fitness test, Vertical Jump and a Timed Hover. Opposed to this are measures that rely on personal opinion and judgment as to the quality of performance, which is described as subjective assessment. Sports such as gymnastics, diving and surfing use subjective measures to determine the winner.?Regardless of the actual performance assessment, coaches in all sports must rely on both objective and subjective measurements to assess the capabilities and progressive development of an athlete.?Objective assessment returns results that are reliable. This means the results of different athletes on different days should be able to be accurately compared. as long as all testing procedures are similar. This is very important for coaches in a variety of contexts. A coach selecting athletes based on physical capabilities requires accurate results to compare performance, and objective assessment allows for this. For example, to test the aerobic endurance of prospective netballer, a 10-minute run will enable the coach to appraise the performance of different athletes in this area. Another form of objective assessment is the statistical analysis of an athlete's performance, particularly in team sports such as Rugby League. For example, the hit-ups, tackle, point, metres gained and even mistakes, give the coach a clear picture of the athlete's contribution. This helps both the athlete and coach measure their progress, and to also set goals for future performances. As sport becomes increasingly reliant on scientific study and application, objective assessment supports the coach in this area. For example, using body senses and video, computer generated images of an athlete‘s actual movements can allow an objective measurement of an athlete's technique. This could be particularly useful for a cricket coach, who wishes to assess the biomechanical?efficiency of a fast bowler, and identify any potential weaknesses in their action, which could lead to injury.?While subjective measurement is inherent in the assessment of sports such as gymnastics and diving. all coaches rely on this form of assessment at some stage. Assessing the quality of a gymnast's tumbling is best done through the eyes of an experienced judge. However, a sprinting coach analysing the striding technique of an athlete equally relies on subjective assessment, even though this sport is purely objective. Likewise, a coach analysing the performance in a team game and devising a half-time talk and potential changes in tactics or team structure relies on personal judgment and opinion. Sometimes, objective statistics do not give the complete picture about the quality of a performance, and the opinion of the coach may give a more accurate picture. This may also be evident during team selections, as the coach decides upon the best prospective athletes. For example in football, the striker may have scored all the goals; however, there is little statistical analysis available for a defender. Less experienced coaches may make an unfair assessment in these contexts as their skills in analysis, as well as different opinions and areas of focus can lead to an inaccurate assessment.?Both objective and subjective measures are valuable to a coach in the assessment of an athlete's performance. Generally, they are best used in conjunction as they complement each other providing the most accurate assessment possible.?2010Outline THREE physiological adaptations in response to aerobic training (3)Many of the changes occur to the cardiorespiratory system and lead to an improved ability to deliver oxygen to working muscles, more efficient energy production and a greater ability to remove waste products. Other changes relate to the size and recruitment of the muscle fibres that produce the movements required when performing physical activityHeart rate is measured in beats per minutes and at rest will beat enough times per minute to deliver oxygen via the blood stream to all the cells of the body. This minimum requirement for oxygen is reflected by the resting heart rate. When an athlete undertakes an aerobic training program their heart will undergo a significant change and this can lead to a reduction in the number of beats required to meet the needs of the body at rest. The main reason for the fall in resting heart is the increase in stroke volume. This increase allows more blood to be pumped out for every beat the heart makes. Therefore, to deliver the same amount of oxygen to the body, fewer beats will be made. For example, an individual who has a resting heart rate of 72 beats per minute prior to a training program and a stroke volume of 70 mm per beat will have a cardiac output of 5.04 litres per minute. Following an aerobic training program, the individual’s stroke volume may rise to 80 mm per beat. This would lead to a resting heart rate of 63 bpm, which is a fall of 9 beats per minute. Stroke volume is the amount of blood that leaves the left ventricle after each beat. The more oxygen rich blood that the heart can push out, the more work an individual will be able to do. The person will be able to exercise longer and faster. Aerobic training has a positive effect on stroke volume and, therefore, on an individual’s potential to perform aerobically. Training causes the physical size of the heart and ventricles to increase. Additionally, the walls of the ventricles will become thicker and therefore stronger. These two factors allow more blood to enter the heart as it is now bigger and the stronger walls allow much more of the blood to be ejected each time a beat occurs. When combined with an increase in blood volume, lower blood pressure and an improved ability to move blood through the veins back to the heart, a rise of 25 per cent in stroke volume can be achieved through aerobic training. For example if stroke volume was 72 millimetres per beat prior to undertaking an aerobic training program this could be increased to 90 millimetres following a program. This increased stroke volume leads to higher cardiac output, more blood going to working muscles and improved performance in endurance events. Stroke volume will increase regardless of whether exercise is being undertaken. Cardiac output is the amount of blood leaving the heart each minute. To determine cardiac output - multiply stroke volume by the number of times the heart beats per minute. Cardiac output reflects the ability of the heart to deliver oxygen-rich blood to working muscles. This oxygen enables the aerobic energy system to produce ATP and therefore to maintain movement. Undertaking an aerobic training program does not change cardiac output results. This is because the energy demands are unchanged and the same amount of blood (oxygen) is required. The biggest change occurs during maximal exercise. As the maximum heart rate will be the same for a trained or untrained individual, the greater stroke volume will lead to an increase in the cardiac output. A trained individual is able to deliver more blood to the working muscles: 19 litres per minute after training compared with 16.5 litres per minute for an untrained person. This change is what has improved the individual’s potential following a training program.Assess the value of products containing creatine as supplements for improved performance. (4)Describe the stages of skill acquisition that an athlete should typically pass through when developing a skill. (5)The acquisition of skill is a gradual developments process that requires our cognitive processes to work with out physical abilities to learn how to perform movements which are previous unfamiliar. By understanding how skills are learnt and the factors that affect skill acquisition and execution - athletes can improve their performance and develop from a beginner to a skilled performer. It is also imperative for coaches to be aware of these considerations when designing training sessions. For example, designing training sessions for Basketball. The cognitive or planning stage of skill acquisitions involves the mental processing of info, thinking and understanding. The fundamental requirement is to ensure that an athlete gains understanding of task required by knowing what to do and an insight about how to do it. This is often executed by Conceptualisation. This is needed for good movement reproduction as visual guides, such as demonstrations, videos, and info, provide important points to guide learner through the skill. Coaches must avoid “information overload” as it confuses the learner. Athletes must also receive continuous feedback on progress as positive learning is reinforced and encouraged. Skills can be broken down into smaller movements so athlete has some success. For example, in an attempt to learn the fundamental skills in a basketball game the coach must Involve the group/athlete in a discussion of what is involved and other subroutines. This can be done through demonstrations of another person who has mastered skill. The coach would teach basic dribbling and passing such as passing to each other with small distance between them. To teach a lay-up the coach would break it into subroutines; how to dribble, footwork to step to the ring, angle of approach, and later make the shotThe associative stage of skill acquisition involves connecting or linking ideas so the learner has acquired the idea of what the skill is so it needs to be repeated to enhance synchronisation of the mind and muscles. The athlete has now developed a sense of fluency or smoothness develops and they know subroutines. The athlete needs constant assurance of success and gains to feel more at ease and confidence increases. For basketball, the coach should aim to teach the athletes how to practise jumping off appropriate foot for layup. They would also progress to learn how to learn layup with right and left hand. Coach could film to show what they are doing wrong and show them how to master it. Individual gains this assurance as he/she develops ability to execute a strong layup, with successes felt with frequent practise and drills.The autonomous or automatic stage of skill acquisition involves being in full control of actions so they become automatic. Movement execution is properly sequences, performed instinctively, are fluent as subroutines sequence and blend in aesthetically pleasing motions known as temporal patterning. The movements are efficient and look good as muscle groups work in order and produce only necessary movements at right time. In this stage, the athlete is able to attend other cues whilst giving little thought on how to perform skill e.g. who to pass to as opposed to how to pass ? strategies and tactics. Practise needed by mostly simulate competition situation. Unless specifically practise to improve technique, training sessions should incorporate pressure drills to help adapt skills to real performance. For example; basketball players execute layup efficiently w/o worrying about the basics. The coach is now able to focus on strategies and tactics on the court such as how to challenge defenders and work out who to pass ball too. For example; in a basketball game it easy to make pass but hard to know who to pass to or type of pass to use. In this way, the stages of skill acquisition are imperative in the development of training programs. This is evident in the coaching of a basketball game. OTHER: There are three stages that a learner progresses through as they acquire and develop new motor skills.?In the cognitive stage is, the learner is starting to understand the concept of the skill and it’s various sub-routines, and begins to form a mental picture of what it should look like. Their?performances are characterised by many gross errors, as they learn to apply the fundamental aspects of the skill. The coach should give clear and concise explanations and?demonstrations, and they should be given opportunities to practice the skill in a closed and stable environment. The coach should also provide extrinsic feedback, that relates to the basic key teaching points only. For most athletes this is generally a short stage, and requires a great deal of intentional focus and confidence.?The associative stage is characterised by fewer errors, and a more consistent and refined skill level. They start to develop basic temporal patterning, as the brain creates a motor pattern, which is sometimes called ‘muscle memory’. At this stage, the athlete can start to recognise when and why an error was made, as intrinsic feedback plays a greater role. The coach is still required to provide advice and feedback, as well as a range of training activities that promote continued skill refinement. The environment can also start to become less predictable, and modified games help transition the skill application into game-like settings. This stage requires commitment from the athlete to continue practising until their skills become more fluent.?In the autonomous stage, the athlete is able to consistently and accurately perform the skill with little conscious thought, i.e. it becomes an automatic response. They make fewer and less obvious errors, and are able to adjust their focus onto the game, such as anticipating potential scoring opportunities. They also have a highly developed sense of their body’s position in space known as ‘kinaesthetic sense', and rely more heavily on intrinsic feedback to detect any errors. At this stage, the athlete and coach focus more on strategic and tactical development, and extrinsic feedback focuses on these performance elements. This is a highly satisfying stage for the athlete, but may need to develop skills in managing anxiety.?3543300173355Compare TWO psychological strategies that each of these athletes would employ to enhance motivation OR manage anxiety. (8)Athlete A could utilise concentration (focusing) skills and mental rehearsal to manage anxiety. The athlete by the nature of their sport needs to be calm therefore the need to manage anxiety. Physically the athlete needs to keep their heart rate low and to control their breathing. Focus and concentration are also key for this athlete.?As the athlete is involved in target sports concentration and focusing will be essential. Focusing will see the athlete attend to the relevant cues of their sport, in particular the skill and the environmental factors. This athlete has several focusing strategies that they can employ to ensure that they are competing at within their. Pptimal arousal zone. These include having cues that will help them to focus at the appropriate time. This simply may be a word or phrase the athlete says to themselves at a specified time within their routine. This word will trigger certain cues for the athlete to focus on the task at hand. Set routines will also allow athlete A to be focused and concentrating. Routine breeds familiarity and can help to manage anxiety that may be building as a result of the status of the competition. Things like breathing can form part of the athlete's routine. As the crowd is kept quiet throughout this event, the athlete is less likely to require any training that will allow them to overcome distractions. However, a key skill for this athlete will be the ability to refocus. Due to the environmental factors the athlete may be deep into their routine when there is a wind change or other environmental change which will affect the athlete's concentration and focus. Being able to refocus quickly and effectively will assist the athlete greatly. This refocusing may also be necessary following a poor result following an attempt. Having the ability to move on and to leave it in the past will also benefit the athlete.?Mental rehearsal will also allow Athlete A to manage anxiety effectively. Being within their optimal arousal zone is extremely important for all athletes. Over arousal for this athlete will most definitely bring about a decrease in performance. Mental rehearsal will not only have a calming and focusing effect but it will also allow for a heightened state of mental focus as the athlete will have ‘seen' success. By experiencing the event or shot prior to it occurring the athlete can evaluate the skill and make any internal changes necessary prior to actually performing the skill. Mental rehearsals taking into account the sights and sounds and in particular the environmental conditions will allow the athlete to manage any anxiety they may be experiencing prior to their skill execution.?Athlete B may in fact take a very different approach to Athlete A. Athlete A requires calmness and focus, whereas Athlete B needs to be highly motivated at a heightened state of arousal in comparison. While both athletes need to be operating within their optimal arousal zones, Athlete B requires a higher level of arousal to be perform at their best. Athlete B may still?require concentration and focusing skills and also mental rehearsal but are most likely to use them for different reasons.?Concentration and focus is still required by Athlete B and they may in fact utilise some of the same strategies such as cues and set routines. They will however, employ the strategy relating to training to minimise distractions. As this athlete plays in a team sport with a vocal crowd and game announcer, the ability to minimise distractions will be important for this athlete. The cue from both team mates will mean that they will need to be acutely aware of these and therefore cannot afford to be distracted by the crowd and its associated noise. The athlete will most likely have trained to remove the distractions from their skill execution. Where Athlete A had to deal with environmental factors such as wind Athlete B has distractions of noise and movement. Being distracted can result in a crucial mistake, which can affect their personal performance as well as the team’s performance. Therefore it is essential for Athlete B to develop concentration and focusing skills to ensure they manage any anxiety.?Athlete B will also be able to employ mental rehearsal into their routines for managing anxiety. This athlete is at a high possibility of becoming ever aroused due to the nature of the opponents, crowd and party-like atmosphere. Therefore managing anxiety is important. Mental rehearsal is an option although during the game opportunities for quality mental rehearsal may be lacking. Therefore this may have occurred entirely prior to the event or there may be some opportunity during stoppages or set plays for it to occur.?Athlete A and B both have similar needs in terms of requiring to be within the optimal arousal zone. While these 2 athletes may employ similar techniques to achieve this, the processes are quite different for each. Both require focus but have very different reasons and factors to focus from. The distractions are very different. The skills of mental rehearsal could be utilised by both and while for Athlete A this may occur prior to each skill execution, Athlete B does not have this luxury apart from sot plays.?Motivation, goal setting and relaxation are other skills that the athletes could employ to varying levels.?2009Complete the table by identifying the features of each energy system (5) FeaturesATP/PC system Aerobic System Source of FuelPhosphate creatine (PC). The energy is stored within the bond of the PC molecule. As it breaks, energy is released Carbohydrates (moderate intensity)and fat (rest to low intensity). Carbohydrates, in the form of glucose, are used primarily for aerobic exercise, when the intensity increases towards and above 70 per cent of maximal heart rate (220 ? age) At lower intensities, fat is the preferred fuel, as it is dense in energy. However, fat as a fuel does require more oxygenDuration of System0 – 10 seconds. First the first 5 seconds of maximal activity, it is the dominant supplier of ATP and will be fully utilised after 10-12 seconds. It takes at least 60 seconds for aerobic glycolysis to start providing energy, as the increased oxygen demand has to be delivered via the cardiovascular system. However, once these pathways are established, the aerobic energy system can continue working for hours as long as fuel sources are consistently replenished (such as a 24-hour mountain bike race)By-ProductsHeat. The ATP-PC system is relatively circular. Therefore, the only by-product is a result of the chemical reactions – heat, which causes no adverse reaction to the athlete (heat is produced in all chemical reactions that involve the breakdown of a chemical bond).Carbon dioxide, Water and Heat. These by-products do not have a negative effect upon performance, and are simply removed as waste products of the body. The heat produced will stimulate other changes in the body, such as vasodilation and sweating, to ensure body temperature is maintained at 37°Recovery RatePC resynthesis through rest 2–3 minutes. The resynthesis of PC occurs very quickly at rest, with close to half being restored within 30 seconds. This is why people should rest between sets of heavy resistance training or sprints, to ensure the body has enough energy for the next set, to enable work at maximal capacityReplenish fuel stores - 24 hours. Following a bout of sustained and intense exercise, athletes must ensure they eat adequate amounts of food to replenish depleted fuel stores. This primarily involves eating 50 to 100 grams of carbohydrates within 30 minutes of exercise. The process of restoring liver and muscle glycogen can take up to a full daySpecific sporting example 100m sprint, shot put, discus. Cross country, cycling, 800m swimming Evaluate the types of practice methods and feedback that can assist an athlete to progress through the stages of skill acquisition (15)The Cognitive stage also known as the understanding stage is characterised by trying to understand a skill, a large number of gross errors made and unsure of how to correct their error. The learner is inconsistent and poorly timed and feedback is important using mostly concurrent feedback. This stage is short with regular practice and thoughts are rapid. Practice methods would be part and distributed because this is the learning stage. Early emphasis on accuracy is better unless skill is speed specificThe Associative stage also known as the practice stage has an emphasis on practice, less gross errors are made, sense of fluency developing, the athlete learns to use environmental cues for timing and feelings of success start to develop. This stage should have a progressive increase in task complexity during practice and encourage the use of mental imagery. Use both KP and KR, avoid feedback on every attempt. Practice methods would be part and whole depending on the complexity of the skill. Taught at a faster rate, not so distributed, mass practice should be used for easy skills. Focus on speed and accuracy.The Autonomous stage also known as automatic. The skill is performed automatically as athlete requires less attention to basics and gives more selective attention to things such as game strategies. The skill is properly performed and sequenced, few mistakes, good consistency and able to detect and correct errors. Psychological skills can be very effective in this stage, e.g. dealing with anxiety. Practice methods would be whole and massed (distributed if fatigue producing) and depending on the sport it would be based on speed or accuracy or both?2008Distinguish between prescribed and personal criteria used to judge the quality of a performance (5)Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance. For example, personal criteria such as music preference is used by spectators when evaluating dance performances, evident as a result of feelings and impressions rather than assigned criteria. Personal criteria can lead to invalidity in assessments, as it can be based and impacted on a judge’s subjectivity. It is also more suited to the appreciation of performances such as dance, gymnastics and diving rather than to the impartial judgement of one performance compared with another, the latter of which is used in prescribed criteria.In comparison, prescribed criteria is established by sports organisations and forms the basis of assessments of competitions in a sport or activity. For example, criteria such as technique and suitability of song choice can be applied to sports such as dancing, with the aim to remove the aspect of subjectivity into a more objective framework. By applying prescribed criteria to the judgement of a performance, the quality of this assessment is improved.An athlete in the sport of your choice shows signs of anxiety and exhibits the following performance characteristics: ? easily distracted by noise, crowd and opponents ? makes many unforced errors ? highly paid and highly skilled but underperforms. Recommend strategies that could be implemented to motivate this athlete and manage their anxiety. (12)USE OTHER RESPONSES2007Explain how characteristics of the learner and the learning environment affect the acquisition of skill. (8)Characteristics of the learner which affect the acquisition of skill are confidence, heredity, ability, previous experience and personality. An individuals’ confidence affects their willingness to attempt new things, and their ability to continue trying after making mistakes e.g doing lay-ups in basketball.Heredity is an individuals inherited characteristics, such as somatotype, height, mental ability and body muscle fiber composition. These affect the acquisition of skill. For example, a tall, smart, lean, muscle-bound person (mesomorphic ectomorph) should acquire the skills of high jump faster than a short, stupid, round person (endomorph). Ability refers to the ease with which a skill is performed. Obviously someone with great ability will acquire and develop a skill faster than a person with poor ability.Previous experience is whether a person has performed similar skills to the ones involved in the task before. When learning to play netball, a skilled basketball player already possesses the skills of passing, space awareness, breaking and shooting, so will grasp these concepts quickly.Personality includes determination, enthusiasm, dedication, motivation, aggressiveness and cooperation. With the exception of aggression, a high level of these will help the learner acquire skills. They affect the willingness of the learner to try new things and to continue trying even when making frequent mistakes.The type of skill being learnt affects the rate of skill acquisition. Open skills occur in an unpredictable, changing environment. These, however, are best practiced in a closed (predictable) environment, focusing on accuracy over speed, while in the cognitive stage of learning. Gross motor skills involve coordination of the large muscle groups, meaning they could be harder to acquire than fine motor skills (those involving small muscle groups).The acquisition of a skill can also be affected the structure of a skill; discrete, serial or continuous.Discrete skills have a distinct beginning and end eg kicking a ball. Serial skills involve a number of smaller skills put together eg a gymnastics routine. Continuous skills are those which have no distinct beginning or end eg rowing. For this reason, continuous skills are often the hardest to acquire, as they cannot be broken down into parts to be taught (part practice method), and must be taught as a whole skill (whole practice method). Discrete skills are also taught using the whole practice method, and serial skills are performed in the part practice method.For learners in the cognitive stage it is often best to practice for short amounts of time with large rest breaks (distributed practice method). This is because they are spending a lot of energy on focusing on acquiring the skill. Also, when acquiring a skill it is often best to only focus on two or three key details at once, otherwise information overload occurs and the learner may experience a negatively accelerated learning curve as they have too much to focus on, or they may not progress at all.Also, while many skills are externally paced, it is best to practice them self-paced while in the cognitive stage, so that no other cues must be focused on and the learner can spend time focusing on acquiring the movements of the skill.Evaluate how the principles of training have been used in this training program for the running event (12)1143000146685The principles of training have been used in the training program to prepare an active 18 year old to participate in a 14km running endurance event. The Principles of training are; progressive overload, specify, variety, training thresholds, reversibility and warm up and cool down. These principles are all evident within the above training program. Progressive OverloadThe overload principle implies that gains in fitness (adaptations) occur only when the training load is greater than normal and is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur. Training produces certain physiological changes that allow the body to work at a higher level of intensity. This higher level is achievable as a result of adaptations that have occurred in response to training stress at the lower level. As the body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it adapts to it and further training at this level fails to sufficiently stress the system. These adaptations will not take place if the load or resistance is either too small or too big. A resistance that is too low to stress the body system signaled for development fails to produce the necessary adaptations. A resistance that is too high, particularly in the early stages, results in the onset of fatigue as well as possible injury and the discontinuation of the activity. Within the training program there is evidence of progressive overload. The 19 year old has increased the duration of her Jog’s gradually. In week 1 she was jogging for 25 mins, in week 2 for 30 mins, and a gradual increase of 5 mins meant she jogged for 45 mins in week 6. Additionally, There was an increase in training intensity. In week 1 she was merely completely circuit training at 70-85% MAX hear rate however by week 6 it was 80% max. Training Thresholds Thresholds generally refer to a specific point that, when passed, take the person to a new level. Most of us are familiar with the tax-free threshold. Below this level of income, tax is not payable. Above this level, tax is progressively increased. Thresholds also apply to physical training. When we train, we expect an improvement in our physical condition. However, for improvement to occur, no matter how small, we must work at a level of intensity that causes our bodies to respond in a particular way. These changes are called adaptations or fitness gains. The magnitude of improvement is approximately proportional to the threshold level at which we work. Aerobic threshold refers to the minimal level of exercise intensity that is sufficient to cause a training effect (lowest level we can work and still have fitness gains. This is approximately 70%-80% (zone) of a person’s maximal heart rate. ?For example; in week 1 and 2 the athlete was completely her training at 70 - 85% of her MH. Aerobic training zone is when athletes train at a level of intensity above aerobic threshold and below anaerobic threshold. Exercise here is referred to as steady state exercise and is at a level of intensity high enough to cause significant improvements in aerobic endurance. ?Approx. 65-70% of VO2 max. This is evident in all her jogs. Anaerobic threshold or Lactate inflexion point (LIP) refers to a level of intensity in physical activity where the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood increases very quickly, and once the LIP is reached, further effort is characterized by fatigue. A high LIP reflects a strong balance between lactate entry and removal from the blood. ?80% of MHR – 80-90% of MHR (zone). This has been trained in her soccer training lessons. VarietyUsing the same drills and routines to develop fitness components in every training session is not productive, as repetition without creativity leads to boredom. It is important to continually strive to develop the required attributes using different techniques to ensure that athletes are challenged not only by the activity, but also by initiative and implementation. For example, it is not necessary for a footballer to pass, tackle and practice tactics each and every training session. General endurance, strength and power can be developed using a variety of techniques such as swimming, plyometrics and resistance programs to supplement the training experience. Mental wellbeing is vital to maximize effort in physical training. There is evidence of variety within the training program as the athlete has completely a range of endurance actives such as jogging, circuit training, soccer, swimming and more. SpecificityThe specificity principle implies that the effects of a training program are specifically related to the manner in which the program is conducted. The principle draws a close relationship between activities selected for training and those used in the game or event. It focuses on what is being performed at training and its similarity to what is done in the game. Metabolic specificity refers to identifying the energy system or systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these systems through related training procedures. The athlete has used this method by completely endurance actives, such as swimming and jogging. She has also partake in Circuit training to develop aerobic capacity and has also jogged and run in order to familiarize herself with the activity. Warm Up and Cool Down Each training session requires three essential components — warm-up, training (or conditioning) and cool-down. A session that lacks one or more of these components may contribute to injuries or fail to achieve the desired results. Within the training program the athlete complete 10-15 minutes of warm up and cool down before and prior to their training. This has many benefits and ensures that the athlete is able to train for the 6 weeks without feeling impaired in anyway due to DOMS and injury. The benefits of warm up include;Reduces the risk of injuryIncrease body temperature → makes muscles, ligaments, tendons more elastic by increasing enzyme activity (powerful muscle contractions Increase range of motion around joints and muscle elasticityMentally prepare the athleteStimulate the cardiorespiratory system. Increased blood flow to working muscles Activates motor neurons (switches players on task)?The Benefits of Cool Down include;Minimize muscle stiffness and soreness (removal of wastes + prevention of shortening of muscle fibres)Disperses and metabolizes lactic acid concentration.Replenishes the body’s energy stores. ?Brings heart rate back to normal slowly so strain is taken off the heart. ?Prevents blood pooling in extremities. ??Active recovery → body return blood to heart rather than muscles ?O2 blood flush out wastes (hydrogen ions)2006Complete the table by identifying the causes of fatigue for the energy systems. (3)ATP/CPLactic AcidAerobic System As the PC stores become depleted to the point of exhaustion, the body will be able to supply energy through the second pathway, which will have been activated by this point. The athlete will not recognise fatigue directly as a result of this, but from other sources such as local neuromuscular fatigueIf the pyruvate is unable to remove the hydrogen at the same rate of accumulation, the PH inside the muscle leads to acidosis. This causes feelings of fatigue, as well as impairing the ability of the muscles to effectively contract at full powerA consistent level of moderate intensity can be sustained for up to two hours if glycogen stores are full. If these are not replenished regularly, then the athlete will switch to using fats, causing the athlete to quickly fatigue and have to slow down due to the increased oxygen demand. Other causes of fatigue are general neuromuscular and mental fatigue, as a result of the sustained activity .“hitting the wall” ? point where body changes main fuel supply from glycogen to fat, fatigue happens bc fat needs more O2 for metabolism than carbs and thus increases persons body temp and rate of respiration Explain how nutritional supplementation affects the performance of athletes. (5)2003Outline the features of the Alactacid (ATP/PC) and the lactic acid energy systems. (5)Alactacid System (ATP/PC) system is the initial energy system, anaerobically occurring during the first few moments of exercise. Residual supplies of ATP in body are very limited and are only enough for one explosive muscular contraction. Explosive movements cause ATP molecule to split providing energy for muscular contraction. The lactic acid system is the secondary energy system, anaerobically occurring after creatine phosphate supplies are exhausted and before sufficient oxygen is obtained. This follows after 10-12 seconds of maximal exercise creatine phosphate supplies are exhausted.We have 90 grams of ATP in our body to power ONE explosive movement or 1 -2 seconds of hard work, after that we need 120g of reserve fuel, or creatine phosphate to fuel the ATP system. In contrast the lactic acid system is fuelled by carbohydrate existing as either; glucose in the blood OR in the storage form of glycogen. This is then broken down to produce ATP and energy for muscular contraction.The ATP/PC system functions to make ATP available and occurs whether or not O2 is there. Thus, rapid supply is enabled by concentration of CP within muscles, which is 5x greater than ATP. The important is in short movements. The Lactic acid system Provides ATP quickly but requires large amounts of glucose. ATP is rapidly available at a considerable cost for example 3 mols of ATP is the most that can be manufactured from the breakdown of 180 grams of glycogen during anaerobic glycolysis.The ATP exhausted after 2 seconds of hard work and the CP exhausted in a further 10-15 seconds. However the lactic acids duration depends on intensity. For example, maximal effort causes exhaustion in 30 seconds whilst 70-80% effort lasts only for 3-4mins. The cause of fatigue of the ATP system is the inability of system to continually resynthesise ATP from CP because CP supplies quickly exhausted. Hence, this is why we are unable to rune at maximal effort for distances longer than 100 m. In contrast, the cause of fatigue for the lactic acid system is when lactic acid levels build up within muscles. This is linked to its rate of removal varying from person to person. Fatigue occurs as a result of an accumulation of lactic acid quantities fast than it can be removed. This depends on lactic threshold of the person – which is the point at which lactic acid accumulates rapidly in the blood)The by-product of the ATP system is heat during the process of muscular contraction, whereas for the lactic acid system there are also pyruvic acid and lactic acids. The rate of recovery is restored within 2 minutes whereas with the lactic acid system it takes 30 mins to an hour. Examples of sports where the ATP system is predominantly used is; 100m sprint, golf, lawn bowls, high jump and weight lifting. For the lactic system, sports include 200m freestyles, 400 m running and gymnastics. Evaluate how both rates of skill acquisition and the learning environment affect physical performance (15)Closed and open skills As noted earlier, in the early stages of learning a skill or activity, the coach tries to make the learning environment as stable and predictable as possible. Skills performed in this sort of environment are said to be closed skills, whereas skills performed in a changing, unpredictable environment are open skills. A continuum exists whereby closed skills are performed in fixed environmental conditions at one end of the continuum, and open skills are performed within a changing environment at the other. Some examples of closed skills are those involved in golf, archery, weightlifting and synchronised swimming. In these activities the performer can use pre-learned skills or patterns of movement without having to make the major changes that would be needed if the environment were changing. When performing a closed skill it is the athlete who determines at what pace actions should occur. The athlete can execute the movement at a desired speed and method. Such movements are said to be self-paced. For example, a golfer places the tee and ball where the golfer chooses, approaches the ball when ready to do so, takes a predetermined number of practice swings, looks up the fairway, and then swings—all at a pace determined by the golfer. Open skills include batting in cricket, tackling a player in soccer, executing a set play in rugby union or making a ground stroke in tennis. In contrast to closed skills, open skills are externally paced. This means that they are initiated by actions from an external source or stimulus. The performer then responds to that stimulus. External conditions determine the timing of the performer’s response and include the opposition, the weather and the time left in the game. The unpredictability of the environment forces the performer to respond in a variety of ways, some of which might not have been practised in training. Sports can contain both closed and open skills. For example, a tennis serve is classified as open. All skills and all sports do not fit neatly onto one end of the continuum or the other. When learning motor skills it is easier to learn closed skills than open ones. When playing softball, batting against a pitcher is an open skill. The batter needs to consider the speed, height and spin of the ball before contact can be made. Learning the actual skill of hitting can be made more closed through the use of a ‘batting tee’ so that the movement of swinging to hit a ball can be learnt. When the movement is learnt the skill can be made more open by hitting a ball hung on a string; while the ball will be moving, its height is predictable, allowing the batter to practise timing his or her movement before facing the totally open pitcher.With regard to the precision of the movement, skills can be classed as either fine (using small muscle groups to perform them) or gross (using large muscle groups to perform them). Again, a continuum exists, and each skill can fall along the line between fine and gross. For example, a softball pitch involves subtle movements of the hand and fingers. It also involves larger gross motor movements from the shoulder, arm and back. The pitching action primarily involves gross motor skills, but the fine motor skills are also important.Skills can also be classified according to where they begin and end. If there is a clearly defined starting and finishing point, the skill is said to be a discrete motor skill. Examples include throwing a ball or performing a dive. If an arbitrary start or end point exists, the skill is described as a continuous motor skill. Swimming and running are examples of continuous motor skills. They are so classified because the beginning and end points are determined by the performer, and not by the task itself. When a series of discrete motor skills is put together, a serial motor skill exists. Examples of serial motor skills include performing a dance routine, bowling a cricket ball and shooting an arrow in archery. In these situations a specific series of movements must be performed in a specific order for the task to be performed properly.When learning movement skills they are often first experienced in isolation. For example, a soccer ball will be stationary on the ground, and an individual will be asked to run in and kick it at a goal, and then he or she will do it again. This type of learning does not help an individual understand when to kick a ball in a game, which direction it should go or how hard it should be kicked. These questions can only be answered by the individual after having practised the skills in a game-like setting. Movement skills can be learnt but if you can’t apply them to a game situation then they will not be performed effectively. A forehand in tennis might be performed with precision, but be hit straight back to a player at the net. In this case the skill has been performed correctly but a poor choice of shot allows the opponent to win the point. By practising and developing decision-making skills and the tactical aspects of the sport the tennis player may have played a lob shot and won the point instead.Often in a game setting players need to assess their own strengths and weaknesses, their opponents’ strengths and weaknesses and the situation of the game. The ability to assess these factors and then make a decision as to how to react to them affects an individual’s ability to develop and perform movement skills, especially while playing games. In many game situations, as the pressure to score or prevent the opposition from scoring mounts, poorer decisions about movement are made. In rugby league a player may try to throw a long pass to a winger in the hope that the winger will score a try, but this increases the risk of an intercept. In defence a player may rush up in the hope to tackle a player, leaving a gap in the defensive line for the opposition to run through. Specific training for these game situations will assist players to make better decisions when they need to in a competitive game.When coaching less tactical sports (such as weightlifting, archery or gymnastics) coaches can be very specific and technical with the practice activities and feedback they give to the athletes. In tactical games (such as soccer, Australian Rules football and water polo) the learning environment needs to reflect the game environment if players are to understand how they are to apply the skills they have developed effectively in a game. The earlier an individual engages in learning the tactical aspects of the game the more effective the learning of this aspect will be. This process requires the coach to introduce skills into game-like situations rather than static skill drills. To teach somebody to pass a ball in soccer you could play a game of ‘piggy in the middle’, where two players are trying to pass the ball to each other and a third player is trying to stop the pass being made. For beginners the rules can be set to make it easier for a pass to be made, and as skills develop the rules can be tightened so that the defender has a better chance. By introducing skills in this way, players will become aware quickly that passes need to be made so that the opposition cannot reach them and so that they are directed to their own partners (team) if they are going to keep possession. Compare this approach to that of having two players learning to pass by passing the ball backwards and forwards between hats with no opposition and no tactical knowledge being learnt in the process.Practising is essential to learning and improving, and can be done in a variety of ways. The length of time spent practising skills and the time spent at rest are important training considerations. Massed practice is a relatively continuous type of practice in which the rest periods are either very short or non-existent; for example, when a netball goal shooter practises shooting for 20 minutes continuously. Distributed practice occurs when periods of rest, or periods of practising other skills, are equal to (or longer than) periods of practising the primary skill. An example of this is a netball goal shooter practising shots from the right for 10 minutes, having a break for 10 minutes, then practising shooting from the left for a further 10 minutes, followed by rest for a further 15 minutes.Another way of practising is to use the whole-or-part method. This method refers to whether skills should be practised in parts or as a whole. For example, should a softball hit be taught in its entirety or in its component parts, such as stance, grip, swing and follow through. One method will be more effective than the other in any given situation. Progressive part practice is a term used to describe parts of a complex skill being learnt separately, and then the learnt parts being added together to form larger and larger parts, until the whole skill is practised. For example, a spike in volleyball can be broken down into run up, stepping, jumping and striking. Each skill is practised separately and then each is added to the others, until the whole skill is practised in its entirety. Part practice is useful for novices, or when learning a new skill.Feedback can come from sources within the athlete. This is called internal or intrinsic feedback. Alternatively, it can come from external sources, in which case it is termed external or extrinsic feedback. Internal feedback is information received naturally from the senses as a result of movement. When passing a basketball, the athlete is aware of his or her own legs, shoulders, arms and fingers moving through the air. The athlete is aware of the ball leaving the fingers, and can see and hear it being caught by a partner. The athlete thus perceives information about the performance without the use of equipment, devices or other people. Therefore, internal feedback includes sensations (such as sights, smells, touch and sounds) that are related to the performance.External feedback is information that is provided from outside the performer’s natural sensory awareness of the immediate action. This external feedback might be the coach’s voice, the scoreboard, video analysis or the cheer of the crowd. The external feedback supplements the performer’s natural internal feedback. In some cases, there is no external feedback.Two important forms of feedback are: ? knowledge of results (KR) ? knowledge of performance (KP). KR is information that is provided externally after the completion of the action. It is based on the outcome of the performance or on what caused the outcome. It is particularly helpful when learning a new skill. KR allows the learner to correct an action the next time, to be reinforced when the attempt is totally or partially correct, and to remain motivated to try again. A score in gymnastics and the coach’s reaction to his or her team’s performance are examples of KR. KP is information that is received either internally or externally concerning the movement executed. KP does not inform about the movement success (as KR does). Rather, KP informs about the performance of the movement pattern itself, or how it looked. For example, a gymnastic coach informing the gymnast that she had good body shape and height during a movement or that her feet came apart directly relate to the actual movement and not the score that the gymnast will receive.Concurrent feedback is feedback received during the performance. Examples include the feel of a ball as it hits a table tennis bat, or the sight of the goalkeeper moving to the left before a penalty stroke. The athlete can respond to this concurrent feedback at the time. Delayed feedback (or terminal feedback) is provided after the performance, and is therefore received too late to produce a response at the time. A player jumping to head the ball in soccer cannot change the body’s position in the air when the ball is 1 metre from the head. In this case, the correctness of the action is gauged after the ball has been headed. The feedback might be a goal or a comment from the coach. This is an example of delayed feedback. Concurrent and delayed feedback can therefore be provided both internally and externally. Concurrent feedback, and doing other activities between performances, might hinder learning as it can distract the learner from concentrating on the movement as it is being performed2002Describe how the principles of specificity and reversibility apply to a flexibility-training program. (4)The principle of specificity means that flexibility gains will only be made if stretching exercises are applied to those muscles in which gains in flexibility are required. Specify also applies to flexibility training programs as the program should be specific to the activity being trained for. For example; a butterfly swimmer requires good leg and hip flexibility. The type of stretch method used – ballistic, static of PNF – should also be specific to the muscles used in the sport and the sport itself e.g. a long jumper would benefit from ballistic leg stretched whereas a marathon runner would achieve appropriate flexibility gains through static and PNF leg stretches. Reversibility implied that gains in flexibility will be lost if the intensity or frequency of the program are not maintained. If the targeted muscles are not stretched regularly, the length they are able to stretch will decrease and the range of movement of the joint will diminish. This often occurs during the off-season or after an injury. To prevent reversibility, the athlete should maintain the intensity and frequency of their flexibility program, stretching at least 4 times per week and stretching the targeted muscles in which flexibility gains have been made. Discuss the role of supplementation in meeting the dietary needs of athletes. (6)Analyse the psychological strategies athletes could employ to enhance performance. (10)Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on performance, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement. To enhance motivation as well as manage anxiety athletes must learn to control their mental state, channelling their mental and physical energy in the right direction. Athletes enhance their motivation and manage anxiety by using the following psychological strategies: concentration/attention skills, mental rehearsal, visualisation, imagery, goal setting and relaxation techniques. Concentration is the ability to focus on the task at hand through a focus on the process rather than the task at hand. It is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual can completely focus on the process performing appropriate cues, rather than thinking about outcome. When an athlete thinks about doing, they often separate the task from themselves as the performer, with their feelings, sensations and personal reactions becoming the focus. However, a total focus on the execution of the task can lead to over arousal. ?Effective concentration involves the maintenance of an uninterrupted connection between the two. Experienced athletes learn to switch off concentration when not needed so they can avoid fatigue, amount needed varies across sport Examples: some sport requires intense concentration like gymnastics and golf, whereas others require intervals of concentration like football, netball. Whereas sustained motivation/ concentration is found in endurance events like triathlons and tennis. For example; during basketball game player must focus on the shot and exclude other distraction, but at other times be aware off their defensive position and tem mate, intervals of high concentration interspersed with period of less intense concentration Goal setting is initially used at the start of the training year to set realistic objectives and performance expectations. This increases levels of motivation resulting in adherence to training schedule and intensity required for improved performance. An athlete who is bored and lacking direction will benefit from goal setting, resulting in a greater interest and focus in training, which will then improve an athletes performance. The can be short term e.g. “I will complete at least 3 endurance training sessions this week”. They can be long term and completed over a long period of time e.g. completing the City to Surf fun Run. They can relate to the behaviour of the athlete, e.g. showing up to training on time and on the performance e.g. getting a gold medal or reaching a national level in soccer. Relaxation techniques such as progressive relaxation can assist an athlete whose performance suffers due to high levels of anxiety. High levels of anxiety can lead to: tense muscles, muscular fatigue and reduced focus. Progressive relaxation before an event helps to reduce muscle tension and improve focus so that performance is improved or at an optimal level, instead of being affected by a high level of anxiety. Optimal relaxation is important for effective imagery and concentration, and combining the mind and body to eliminate performance stressMental rehearsal involves recreating in your mind a mental image of yourself successfully practising a skill or movement performance. Is the technique of using power of imagery or mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the minds familiarity with the desired motion or skill before executing it – which can enhance performance and the acquisition and building of motor skills. This increases an athlete’s familiarity with the skill, increasing confidence and reducing anxiety. Mental rehearsal would definitely benefit an athlete at who lacks confidence and has a high level of anxiety, thus improving their performance. Example: Downhill skiers, gymnasts, high jumpers and divers all visualize their performance with their eyes shut and move their body as if they were performing to help reduce anxiety and improve performance.2001Describe how an athlete’s level of arousal affects performance (4)Arousal is the specific level of anxiety prior and during performance. This arousal leads to heightened levels of excitement leading to feelings of hyperactivity. Anxiety is predominantly a psychological state but arousal is a physiological process that is necessary for sports performance. If arousal is not managed properly it can hinder skill execution. However if the level is manipulated to compliment the sport it can enhance and facilitate performance. ?If the athlete is under-aroused they have may have low levels of motivation, high levels of distraction and negative attitudes. This results in a lack of concentration or focus. Meanwhile, over-arousal is detrimental to performance. Due to the excessive anxiety caused by over thinking, physiological influences such as - apprehension, increased muscular tension and mental confusion – lead to poor performance. To avoid situations as such, athletes must attempt to reach a state of “Optimal Arousal”. This is the point where the athlete is in complete awareness and preparation for the event. Skills are most successful when optimal arousal is present. Optimal arousal levels are not static. Levels of optimal arousal differ across different sports depending on whether they require fine motor and gross motor skills. Athletes in gross motor sports require higher levels of arousal, such as rugby. This is to ensure that the athlete is ‘hyped up’ enough so that their bodies can reach the demand of their sport. On the other hand, fine motor skill sports require lower arousal, such as archery and sport stacking. Discuss how prescribed judging criteria are used to measure the quality of a performance. (6)Personal versus prescribed judging criteria seeks to contrast the personal likes or dislikes of performance, compared to more formal judging through the use of criteria. It is prescribed judging criteria that refers to the use of criteria to make subjective performance measures more objective.Personal?judging criteria are the presuppositions brought to the performance by the judge and are very subjective. These include the judge’s expectations and preconceived ideas about the performance. Spectators and coaches often use personal judging criteria when judging a performance. Spectators are especially personal because their judgments rely on feelings and impressions, not prescribed judging criteria. There is often bias in personal judging criteria and so are more suited to appreciation rather than judgments of performance quality. An example of personal judging criteria is a person who walks out of a ballet?performance thrilled by what they saw, because it was exactly what was expected, compared to the person who leaves disappointed because they were hoping for something in-particular that was not provided.Prescribed?judging criteria, on the other hand, are established criteria created by the sporting body, which are then used to appraise performance. This often comes in the form of a checklist or rating system and helps to objectify subjective measurements. The more detailed the judging criteria and stringent the judge the better the objectivity and reliability of the judging criteria. An example would be the check lists and other prescribed judging criteria used in gymnastics to provide a score for each routine.Prescribed judging criteria’s are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity. Prescribed criteria such as checklists, seek to absorb elements of subjectivity into a more objective framework. Most skills are initially subjective, however skills such as diving allow judges to apply the prescribed criteria following their appreciation to standardise interpretations and remove bias. After the diving performance, the judges use various formulas based on the difficulty and execution of the skill and then they provide a score out of 10. The highest and lowest scores are then excluded to improve reliability by preventing bias. Dance also incorporates prescribed criteria with personal as the judges have a standard sheet of paper that marks the performer on costuming, technique and performance quality. However, the judging can also be affected by personal criteria including the judges feelings regarding the song choice and style. Personal criteria includes preconceived ideas and expectations that alter the judgement of a performance. Since they rely on feelings, and impressions this can lead to incorrect or unjustified assessments. However, to prevent this prescribed criteria should be used to compliment these judging standards to increase the objectivity of appraisal. Analyse the physiological adaptations that occur when an untrained individual undertakes a 20-week aerobic training program. (10)physWhen an athlete partakes in aerobic and anaerobic training, their aim is to instigate adaptations so that their performance improved. Many of the changes occur to the cardiorespiratory system and lead to an improved ability to deliver oxygen to working muscles, more efficient energy production and a greater ability to remove waste products. Other changes relate to the size and recruitment of the muscle fibres that produce the movements required when performing physical activityHeart rate is measured in beats per minutes and at rest will beat enough times per minute to deliver oxygen via the blood stream to all the cells of the body. This minimum requirement for oxygen is reflected by the resting heart rate. When an athlete undertakes an aerobic training program their heart will undergo a significant change and this can lead to a reduction in the number of beats required to meet the needs of the body at rest. The main reason for the fall in resting heart is the increase in stroke volume. This increase allows more blood to be pumped out for every beat the heart makes. Therefore, to deliver the same amount of oxygen to the body, fewer beats will be made. For example, an individual who has a resting heart rate of 72 beats per minute prior to a training program and a stroke volume of 70 mm per beat will have a cardiac output of 5.04 litres per minute. Following an aerobic training program, the individual’s stroke volume may rise to 80 mm per beat. This would lead to a resting heart rate of 63 bpm, which is a fall of 9 beats per minute. Stroke volume is the amount of blood that leaves the left ventricle after each beat. The more oxygen rich blood that the heart can push out, the more work an individual will be able to do. The person will be able to exercise longer and faster. Aerobic training has a positive effect on stroke volume and, therefore, on an individual’s potential to perform aerobically. Training causes the physical size of the heart and ventricles to increase. Additionally, the walls of the ventricles will become thicker and therefore stronger. These two factors allow more blood to enter the heart as it is now bigger and the stronger walls allow much more of the blood to be ejected each time a beat occurs. When combined with an increase in blood volume, lower blood pressure and an improved ability to move blood through the veins back to the heart, a rise of 25 per cent in stroke volume can be achieved through aerobic training. For example if stroke volume was 72 millimetres per beat prior to undertaking an aerobic training program this could be increased to 90 millimetres following a program. This increased stroke volume leads to higher cardiac output, more blood going to working muscles and improved performance in endurance events. Stroke volume will increase regardless of whether exercise is being undertaken. Cardiac output is the amount of blood leaving the heart each minute. To determine cardiac output - multiply stroke volume by the number of times the heart beats per minute. Cardiac output reflects the ability of the heart to deliver oxygen-rich blood to working muscles. This oxygen enables the aerobic energy system to produce ATP and therefore to maintain movement. Undertaking an aerobic training program does not change cardiac output results. This is because the energy demands are unchanged and the same amount of blood (oxygen) is required. The biggest change occurs during maximal exercise. As the maximum heart rate will be the same for a trained or untrained individual, the greater stroke volume will lead to an increase in the cardiac output. A trained individual is able to deliver more blood to the working muscles: 19 litres per minute after training compared with 16.5 litres per minute for an untrained person. This change is what has improved the individual’s potential following a training program.Oxygen uptake is the amount of oxygen absorbed into the blood stream during exercise. If more oxygen reaches working muscles then they will be able to work for longer at a higher level. Improving this capacity is one of the goals of aerobic training. Oxygen uptake is measured in litres per minute. By using standard tests, such as the Queens College Step Test, an athlete can work out their maximum oxygen uptake is. The higher your max VO2 becomes the better your aerobic system is functioning, and this will lead to an improved performance in aerobic events For example, Before training an individual may have a max VO2 of 2.5 litres per minute. After training this figure may rise to 3.2 litres per minute. Oxygen uptake improves following a training program for a number of reasons. These include improved stroke volume, cardiac output as well as greater lung capacity and higher haemoglobin levels within the blood. All these capacities, when combined, allow the increased flow of oxygen-rich blood to working musclesLung capacity is the amount of air that can move in and out of the lungs during a breath. Many measures can be made of lung function, including tidal volume and vital capacity. The greater the volume of air that can be inhaled and exhaled during exercise the greater the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed into the blood stream. More oxygen leads to improved performance during aerobic work. A number of adaptations associated with lung function occur as a result of aerobic training. One adaptation is an increase in the number of breaths that can be taken during maximal exercise. As the muscles around the lungs become larger and stronger they can work faster. Maximal breathing rates can increase from 40 to 50 breaths per second as fitness develops. Additionally, the number of capillaries in the lungs will increase with training, allowing more oxygen to be absorbed with each breath taken in. With training, the volume of blood held within the capillaries of the lungs can rise by up to 80%Haemoglobin’s main function is to absorb oxygen at the lungs and carry this oxygen to the working muscles via the blood stream. The make-up of haemoglobin allows it to absorb oxygen at a very fast rate and this leads to an efficient transportation system for oxygen within the body. When training takes place, cells within the body become short of oxygen. One of the ways the body adapts to this is to produce more red blood cells and haemoglobin. This allows the needs of these cells to be more easily met. Many athletes try to boost their haemoglobin level through altitude training. The greater the distance from sea level the lower the amount of oxygen in the air. As a result, the cells in the body receive less oxygen. This causes the body to produce more haemoglobin so that the body can absorb any oxygen breathed. The same effect has been achieved by some athletes who spend time in tents that limit the supply of oxygen and produce the same effect as climbing in altitude.Muscle hypertrophy refers to the increase in the diameter of a muscle. This occurs as a result of strength or resistance training and does not come as a result of aerobic training. Muscles fibres enlarge after training due to a number of reasons. These include the production of more myofibrils. Muscle hypertrophy will occur if an athlete lifts medium to heavy weights during training, such as training for strength, power or a lean body mass. The heavier weights being lifted will cause the muscles to undergo a significant amount of stress due to progressive overload. This enlarges them so that the next time they work they are better prepared for the task; that is, they have adapted.The effect of training on the type of muscle fibres—either fast-twitch (explosive movement) or slow-twitch (longer slower contraction)—relates almost directly to specificity. Low-to-moderate activity will recruit slowtwitch fibres and increase the cross sectional area of these fibres. As the fast-twitch fibres have not been recruited, there is little change in their structure. Continued training for endurance can lead to slight structural changes in fast-twitch fibres, but little evidence has been found to indicate fast-twitch fibres change to slow-twitch fibres. An increase in the number of capillaries to slow twitch muscle fibres will also result in hypertrophy of those fibres. These slow-twitch muscles are characterised by a high aerobic endurance capacity that enhances aerobic ATP energy production system. Our modern lifestyle reinforces the recruitment of slow-twitch muscle fibres in what we do daily. Any training athletes do for fast-twitch fibres must be maintained, otherwise the effects of training will be lost due to reversibilityCQ4 – Core 2Outline the post-performance dietary considerations of an endurance athlete (3)Endurance?athletes, such as a?marathon?runner or a?tri-athlete?need to ensure that their post-performance consumption ?promotes recovery and adaptation, while at the same time promotes their safety.Endurance athletes specifically need to ensure that they replace any fluid lost during performance. This can be achieved by the athlete weighing themselves before and after performance and then consuming the weight in Kg as litres of?water?over the next 12 hours to restore hydration.Endurance athletes also need to replace glycogen stores. This is done by consuming simple sugars soon after the event and a complex carbohydrate meal (such as?brown rice) around 1 hour after performance. This will help to replace the glycogen stores quickly.Protein can also help recovery, to repair any minor muscle tears that may have developed throughout the event. An?egg could provide such protein and should be eaten with the complex carbohydrate meal.What are the advantages and disadvantages of protein supplementation and creatine supplementation for improved athletic performance? (5)Creatine supplementation improves resynthesis of ATP and recovery of ATP stores. This recovery and improved resynthesis of ATP allows for increased repeated bouts of explosive movements as used in Basketball. A negative aspect of using creatine supplementation is sometimes experienced by endurance athletes. For example, they are more likely to experience muscle cramping when taking creatine to improve performance. Protein intake is important for muscle recovery and increased strength, hence its importance for athletic performance for an athlete whose normal diet is lacking protein. Disadvantages of protein supplementation can involve an increase in body weight and increased stress on kidneysDescribe the different recovery strategies used by athletes to improve performance. Provide examples. (8)Elite athletes use a range of strategies designed to enable them to minimise fatigue associated with training and resume full training in the shortest possible time. Recovery strategies can be categorised as physiological, neural, tissue damage or psychological. Physiological recovery strategies are effective in removing the metabolic by-products of exercise through the use of a cool-down period as well as by replacing lost fluids and energy. Physiological recovery strategies are frequently used in sports recovery. A?cool downafter training or competition helps to remove waste products and return the body back to its pre-exercise state. A cool down is a series of low intensity exercises completed straight after training or competition. Cool downs help speed up recovery by continuing the muscle pump needed to take fluid back to the heart and avoids fluid retention in the used muscles. It is the continued removal of fluid, which helps to remove waste products. Cool down exercises could include a light jog, or a slow swim, but need to be specific to the sport and the major muscles used. Another physiological strategy is?hydration, which is the consumption of enough liquid after competition to replace any fluids lost during training or competition. Hydration often involves drinking 500mL of a sports drink, such as PowerAde, and plenty of water (2-3L) over the next 24hrs. Hydration speeds up recovery by enabling the bodies physiological processes to function well, as dehydration can slow down or even stop some of the recovery processes. Hydration also provides more volume to the blood to assist in the removal of waste products. Water is also required in the storage of glycogen, which needs to be restored after exercise.Neural strategies focus on the nervous system and relieving tension. They are useful for sports that generate large amounts of muscle tension, such as American Football or Rugby Union.?Hydrotherapy?is a neural strategy that involves water immersion. There are multiple forms of hydrotherapy, which include:.Contrast immersion – where an athlete moves between warm and cold-water immersion. This causes vasodilation and vasoconstriction, helping to remove waste products and deliver nutrients required for recovery. Even temperature immersion – where the athlete is immersed in warm water to assist with the removal of lactates and improves metabolic activity. Hydrotherapy in warm water helps to relax the nervous system and the muscles they control. It relieves tension and helps speed up recovery so that the athlete is ready to perform again. Massage?is another neural strategy, which reduces muscle tension and relaxes the nerves. Massage helps with mental relaxation, which can lead to a decrease in muscular tension. The benefits of massage for recovery are still not adequately supported by evidence. Proposed benefits include: removal of waste products, increased nutrient delivery, mental relaxation, and minimising he effects of fatigue. There are various forms of massage including, Swedish, myofascial, trigger point, and sports. Sports massage is specifically developed to help remove waste products and reduce tension in the muscle.Tissue damage strategies aim to speed up recovery by restoring damaged tissue, particularly muscle. This damage is often found in highly strenuous activities such as rugby league and Australian Rules Football.?Cryotherapy?is one of the tissue damage?strategies and involves the many forms of cool treatments, including ice pack, cold-water immersion and cryogenic chambers. Cryotherapy removes heat from the damaged tissue, decreases inflammation by causing vasoconstriction and decreases pain. Ice packs placed directly over an injury speed up recovery and should be used over 24-48hrs for soft tissue injuries. The application of ice slows down metabolism by lowering the local temperature. This decreases the demand for oxygen and decreases waste products. The decrease in inflammation also reduces secondary damage caused by the inflammation.Psychological strategies focus on mental processes and are used to either calm the athletes brain activity?or to stimulate them. They frequently aim to reduce anxiety in order to?allow the brain to relax, but can be used to focus the athlete’s thoughts on the upcoming event. Psychological strategies such as?relaxation?are used to help decrease heart and respiration rates, while directing the athletes focus either away?from or towards competition or training, depending not the context. An anxious athlete may use relaxation techniques before competition in order to reduce nervousness and allow them to focus on the task. Although some athletes will chose to focus on something other than competition in order to help relieve their anxiety. Other psychological strategies used include, debriefing, rest days and sleep. Psychological recovery strategies are important, as training and performance place stress on an athlete’s mental capacities as well as their physical ones. Psychological strategies improve performance by not allowing the athlete to be held back by past performances. They are particularly important after losing a major competition such as a grand final or the State of OriginCompare the dietary requirements of athletes in TWO sports that have different nutritional needs. Provide relevant examples. (6)AFL and Gymnastics are two very different sports with different nutritional requirements; pre, during, and post competition. Before competition it is very important to ensure the athlete has had adequate nutrition for their sport. In AFL this will include carbohydrate loading, as it is a sport that goes for longer than 60 minutes and has varying intensities that can only be met through the breakdown of glycogen. Carbohydrate loading could be achieved by eating a large bowl of brown rice the night before and a large serving of porridge the morning of the event, along with very low training loads and volume. In addition to carbohydrate loading, the athlete needs to be hydrated, consuming 3-4 L of water the day before, 500ml the morning of the event and 250ml 1 hour before the event. This is different to the gymnast who would need to ensure they are hydrated, but would not require to carbohydrate load because his event is not as long. During the event it is important for the AFL player to maintain his hydration and his blood sugar levels. This will require him to drink regularly throughout the match and given the length of the match he would also benefit from consuming sports drinks with the added electrolytes for hydration and sugars for blood sugar levels. This will improve his performance allowing for sustained higher intensities for longer. In contrast the gymnast would not need to worry about during performance nutrition as his performance will not last long enough to cause dehydration or decrease blood sugar levels. In stead he would perform and then consume nutrients afterwards, unless he was competing multiple times in a day, in which case he would need to consider the timing and content of his foods as they would become more important.Post performance the AFL athlete is going to require larger amounts of protein, carbohydrate and fluids in order to speed up recovery. The protein will help him rebuild and repair damaged cells including muscles, skin and blood vessels that may have been damaged in tackles. The carbohydrate, such as a bowl of pasta or a few slices of brown bread will help replace the glycogen in both the muscle and liver. On the other end, the gymnast will require some protein for repair of damaged tissue, such as eating an omlete to help his muscles recover particularly, but will not require the large amounts of carbohydrate or as much fluid as his performance would not have lasted long enough to deplete glycogen stores or cause dehydration.Assess the value of products containing creatine as supplements for improved performance. (4)Creatine is used in a pair called phosphocreatine which resynthesises the phosphor and ADP. Meaning that the resulting ATP can be once again used for energy. Therefore it is implied that the more phosphocreatine in the working muscles, the better or more advanced and efficient that the anaerobic energy system could beA case study has shown that by consuming large doses of phosphocreatine (which can be found in meat, fish, and chicken) over a large number of days will in fact increase the supply of PC in the muscles and therefore improve performance.Therefore it can be said that creatine supplementation would be beneficial for improved performance in areas of sport that involve using the anaerobic system e.g. 100m sprint, weight lifting and even sports such as soccer etc.Explain how nutritional supplementation affects the performance of athletes. (5)/ Discuss the role of supplementation in meeting the dietary needs of athletes. (6)Supplementation is a fast growing industry, especially in sports competition and exercise. There is an ever increasing range of vitamins and minerals that can be bought at your local supermarket, and protein powders are a gigantic?market, especially since the commercialisation?of gyms. Creatine products are also increasing on the market, with proposed benefits to training and sprint performance. It is important for athletes to know whether any of these supplements will benefit performance, how they will affect their health, the possible side effects and whether the athlete should?take them.Athletes with a well balanced diet will not need to take supplements, however, there are many athletes who do not eat a balanced diet, and many who do not know how to balance their diet. There are occasions when supplementation is?warranted, especially in athletes who are deficient in particular vitamins and minerals, such as iron or B-vitamins.Case for Case Against VitaminsSome athletes feel that strenuous exercise produces stress, and may require antioxidant vitamins (specifically, vitamin C, vitamin E and beta-carotene). Supplementation should not be a response to a desire for improved performance, but rather arise out of special needs — for example, ill health or the unavailability of a normal diet while travelling (E.g. scurvy due to lack of vitamin C) Can be wasteful and expensive is body has no use for it – b/c body excretes excess vitaminsSuper-supplements of megadoses can be dangerousBody can store Vitamin A and D – excess can cause joint painExcess vitamin A can cause nausea, loss of appetite, skin dryness fatigue etc.Fruits and veggies are a better sourceResearch shows super doses do not improve performanceIntake of excessive quantities is not necessary Potentially dangerous MineralsIron:Helps deliver oxygen to the working muscles and enhances adaption to endurance trainingLack of iron impairs aerobic capacity CalciumInadequate consumption can weaken bones, increase the risk of stress fractures and inhibit proper muscle functioning, particularly in high impact sports involving running or jumping.Under-consumption of calcium can lead to osteoporosis.Calcium absorption diminishes with age.Female athletes have a higher needs and usually fall short of adequate intake.IronSupplementation is generally deemed unnecessary because diet can provide adequate levels required.Calcium Supplementation is generally deemed unnecessary because diet can provide adequate levels required.ProteinSupplementation in specific cases such as strength athletes, endurance athletes in heavy training and possibly adolescents undergoing a growth spurt, the majority of the population, including athletes, are well served by a balanced dietEndurance athletes in training require extra protein to cover a small proportion of energy costs of their training and to assist in the repair recovery processNOTE – research does not support the idea that athletes require massive amounts of protein in their diet Research supports the idea that most athletes do not need or benefit from protein supplementation..Surveys reveal that most athletes consume well in excess of 1.2–2.0 g/kg body mass per day, making supplementation both needless and wasteful. In addition, many protein supplements contain additives that have no health benefit and may increase the risk of certain cancersHigh amounts of protein can increase the amount of calcium excreted in the urine and possibly contribute to osteoporosis. Excess protein must be eliminated. The processing and filtration of additional urea can interfere with kidney function.Increase calcium excretion in urine and increase the risk of osteoporosis.Decrease the intake of vitamins and minerals.Protein cannot be stored like CHO and the processing and filtration of additional urea can interfere with kidney functionIncrease the risk of certain cancer CaffeineWhile much of the evidence relating to caffeine and performance is still inconclusiveGood for cognitive function, anaerobic performance and aerobic performanceCaffeine does appear to improve cognitive processes, such as alertnessMany studies report improved concentration, ‘clear headedness’, improved memory and reasoning following consumption of mild amounts of caffeine.Enhances endurance performance because it promotes an increase in the utilisation of fasts as an exercise fuel and ‘spares’ the use of limited muscles stores of glycogen Studies agree that caffeine does not appear to enhance performance in short-term high intensity activities such as sprinting. Diuretic properties of caffeine, suggesting that it should be avoided as it may contribute to dehydrationNot good for athletes working in hot, humid environments, but in general, for athletes accustomed to its use, the link with dehydration is not well supportedCaffeine-containing drinks have a diuretic effect cause an athlete to become dehydrated.Impairment or alteration of fine motor control and technique, over-arousal (interfering with recovery and sleep patterns).Excessive caffeine intake can lead to a fast heart rate, excessive urination, nausea, vomiting, restlessness, anxiety, depression, tremors, and difficulty sleepingCreatine ProductsCreatine cannot be stored in the body, the idea of supplementation is supported by many athletes, particularly those who are involved in predominantly anaerobic programsGood for vegetarians ie. small amounts 2-3 grams taken a couple of times each day and congested with carbohydrate and water provide the best resultsUse of creatine products can raise creatine levels in muscle by 20–30 per centThe benefits, while only marginal, will be with those in explosive type activities rather than those in endurance type eventsMuscle hypertrophy is more easily achieved when training is assisted by creatine supplementation Accelerates gains in muscle size and strength.There is a 5-8% uptake in anaerobic capacity, especially when performing repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise for 6-60 seconds.Prior creatine loading enhances glycogen storage and CHO loading in a trained muscleCan increase creatine storage by up 25% and in some athletes 50%.HELPS FOR SHORT BURSTS NOT ANYTHING LONGERMany researchers have found little, if any benefit. There is no evidence so far to support the claim that fat metabolism is improved. The body is unable to store excess amounts of creatine so supplementation has little effect on athletes who already consume high amounts of protein.Not for enduranceBelieve the sub- stance might be directly related to muscle crampsCauses increases in weightLarger doses of creatine may have health risks including the possibility of developing renal disease Creatine users may be more susceptible to cramps, muscle spasms and even pulled muscles.A transient (brief) increase in body weight during the initial loading week (water). This consistently disappeared during the following 7 days ................
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