Middle/High School Students



The Geoscience Pipeline: A Conceptual Framework

Submitted to:

National Science Foundation

Directorate of Geosciences

4201 Wilson Boulevard

Arlington, VA 22230

Prepared by:

Roger Levine

Raquel González

Mimi Fuhrman

Kerstin LeFloch

September 2002

Revised January 2005

I. Overview

The Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the Geosciences (OEDG) program, is a program funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) that awards grants to projects that are intended to increase participation in geoscience careers by members of groups that have been traditionally underrepresented in geoscience disciplines. Underrepresented groups, in this case, refer specifically to persons with disabilities, African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Native Pacific Islanders.

OEDG grantee projects are implementing a variety of strategies, which are intended to influence the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of underrepresented students at the middle school, high school, community college, college, and graduate student levels. Currently funded projects have proposed project lives that range from one to three years. In order to determine if these projects are successful, one would need to determine whether project activities were responsible for members’ of underrepresented groups’ ultimate employment in the field of geoscience. Such measures are infeasible for most projects because they would require extensive, expensive, multi-year tracking of participants.

In order to develop measures that can be used to assess project effectiveness in the short term, factors that are associated with an enhanced likelihood of employment in the field of geoscience need to be identified and assessed. These factors are based on a model of geoscience career choice, which is the focus of this report. In this model, students from underrepresented groups are envisioned as entering a pipeline that will lead to a geoscience career. (See Appendix A for a model of this pipeline.) Behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that are associated with retention in this pipeline can be used as indicators of project effectiveness. That is, if a project results in students engaging in behaviors that are indicators of retention in the pipeline, then the project is increasing the likelihood of geoscience careers for these students.

II. Methodology

To create the pipeline model and to identify indicators of retention in the geosciences, we began by conducting a review of the literature. We reviewed the general literature dealing with science, technology, engineering, and/or mathematics (STEM) college major or career choice by individuals who are underrepresented group members. A general STEM literature review was conducted due to the dearth of research on retention in the geosciences for members of underrepresented groups. Our initial model was heavily based on indicators of retention in a general STEM pipeline rather than a specific geoscience pipeline. The indicators were divided by four grade levels: K-12, community college, four year college, and graduate school.

In order to refine our model to include indicators specific to the geosciences pipeline, we conducted a pilot critical incident study. The critical incident (CI) technique is a systematic qualitative research method. The procedure allows the interviewer to collect “incidents” or actual behaviors that affected the outcome of a situation. For this pilot study, we looked at behaviors that influenced someone to enter or leave the geosciences. Interviews with ten Principal Investigators (PIs) and one graduate geosciences student were conducted. As part of the CI technique, “incidents” of specific behaviors were written up for each interview, and 112 incidents were collected from the pilot CI study (see Appendix B for several sample incidents.) The incidents were analyzed, and categories were created to group similar behaviors. These categories became the geoscience specific indicators of recruitment and retention that was added to the pipeline model. Our review of the literature and pilot critical incident study allowed us to identify an extensive, but not fully comprehensive, set of indicators for the pipeline model. There are undoubtedly other potential indicators of retention in the pipeline. Nonetheless, it is our belief that the geosciences pipeline model provides an adequate set of indicators OEDG grantees can use to measure their project’s impact on participants.

III. Description of the Pipeline Model (Overview)

Our pipeline model reflects the passage of underrepresented minority students and students with disabilities into a career in geosciences. Outside of the pipeline, different types of individuals and general factors are noted. In our model, we describe these as factors (or people) that decrease the permeability of the pipeline. These individuals, through their behaviors and interactions with students, and these types of experiences, help to keep students in the pipeline. Certain projects may have these kinds of individuals as a focus. For example, some projects may focus on high school teachers. Special short-term indicators will be developed to assess the impact of these projects on these focal groups. (In addition, these projects would be expected, through their impacts on teachers, to ultimately influence student indicator behaviors and attitudes.) The OEDG Program’s goal is keeping underrepresented students in this pipeline.

The pipeline is divided into four parts:

(1) Middle/high school

(2) Community College

(3) Four-year college

(4) Graduate school

At all levels, potential indicators are behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes that are associated with an increased likelihood of retention in the pipeline. At the middle/high school level, the selected indicators are behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes that keep students in the pipeline and facilitate their entry into community or college or into a four-year college with a STEM major.

After high school completion, the pipeline diverges into two pathways: community college entry or entry into a four-year college. The community college pathway is of particular relevance, since greater proportions of students from underrepresented groups initially attend community colleges (NSF, 2001). These pathways merge together after community college students transfer to a four-year college or university.

Some people enter geoscience careers immediately after college graduation. For example, geoscience educators at the middle and high school levels can be considered geoscientists for whom a bachelor’s degree is adequate preparation. There is a “faucet” in the pipeline, after college graduation, to acknowledge this successful outcome.

Our pipeline does not require formal declaration of a geoscience major until graduate school. This reflects the belief that many geoscience graduate students majored in other subjects as undergraduates.

IV. Pipeline – Detailed description of indicators

Our pipeline model identifies potential indicators at various stages in a student’s educational career. In addition, it identifies several general factors that promote retention in the pipeline. These indicators and factors are discussed in greater detail in this section.

Middle/High School Students

Students’ interest in a subject precedes career choices (Brown, 1995). This implies that factors and behaviors that create an interest in STEM subjects prior to or during the middle/high school years will facilitate the retention of underrepresented minority students in the pipeline at this stage (and at all other stages).

Course selection. Course selection in high school can be an indicator of underrepresented students’ retention in the pipeline. For example, taking algebra is a good predictor of college attendance (Pelavin and Associates, 1990), while taking high school geometry is a major predictor of college completion, a critical component of keeping students in the pipeline. Another important factor that contributes to students entering STEM fields includes being in the “academic track” (Office of Technology Assessment, 1988). In a critical incident study conducted by Bembry and his colleagues (1998), advanced placement (AP) or honor courses appeared to provide a strong academic foundation for minority students who persisted in science, engineering, and mathematics (SEM) majors in college. Conversely, barriers to SEM careers identified by Clewell and her colleagues (1992) included failure to take higher-level mathematics and science courses in high school; being mathematically unprepared was an important reason why students chose careers outside of SEM.

Other barriers to recruitment in the geosciences, identified in the pilot CI study, were availability and perception of geoscience high school courses. The geosciences are not as widely taught in high schools as biology, chemistry, or physics. According to State Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 2001, published by the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) less than 7 percent of high school students will take a high-school earth and space science course, while approximately 88 percent of high school students will take biology (Ridkey, 2002). When taught in high school, the geosciences are often not a required science course for graduation and as our research showed, not considered a rigorous pre-college science course.

Extra-curricular activities. Extra-curricular activities are a predictor of retention in the pipeline. Extracurricular activities related to STEM majors can provide minority students with a good opportunity to learn more about STEM fields as well as create or maintain interest in these areas. The Office of Technology Assessment (1988) created a list of “important factors that contribute” to students entering STEM fields including participation in early research and in an intervention program. For some scientists with disabilities, hands-on experiences created an awareness of their potential in science (Weisgerber, 1991). These experiences included taking summer or part time jobs relevant to the field, entering science fairs or contests, attending summer science programs, and/or taking field trips.

Our research showed that for the geosciences extra-curricular activities that expose students to the outdoors are a predictor of retention in the field. One Latino PI recalled his experiences as a boy scout; the troop leader would take the troop to interesting rock formations, rivers, and lakes to learn about geological history. This activity had a lasting impact and was cited as a behavior responsible for developing his interest in geology. Several other PIs recalled positive outdoor experiences that initiated their interest in the geosciences.

The quality of the experience is also important, as some minority students who left the SEM pipeline commented on negative summer internship experiences that deterred them from entering a SEM major. Most of the negative internship experiences were in engineering (Brown, 1995).

Clearly, some of the projects will provide underrepresented students with these experiences. Nonetheless, an increased prevalence of these types of experiences seems to be associated with retention in the pipeline.

Science instruction. Science instruction is another factor that keeps students in the pipeline. High school teachers often influence students to continue taking mathematics and science courses that will keep students interested in SEM careers. Positive experiences with high school teachers, such as receiving respect, support, and encouragement, were cited in a critical incident study as important in promoting students’ interest in SEM careers (Brown, 1995). Equally, the Office of Technology Assessment (1988) lists having a well-qualified science teacher and being taught using science experiments (hands-on science) as some “important factors that contribute” to students entering SEM majors. In addition, high school teachers’ ability to connect science to real life helps keep students interested in the sciences (Brown, 1995). Several studies focusing on career choices indicate that minority students choose non- SEM over SEM majors because they do not see the relevance or utility of these fields to their daily lives (Rosser, 1993; Thomas, 1984).

Personal characteristics. Certain personal characteristics can reflect a students’ ability and desire to remain in the pipeline. Long-range goals that students set for themselves, such as a goal of attaining a college degree, can indicate students’ ability to remain in the pipeline. In a critical incident study focusing on potential black physicians, students who did not remain in the physician pipeline “frequently lacked family and school support for setting high, and hence long-range, educational goals” (Wilson-Pessano et al., 1985).

Similarly, other personal characteristics appear to support minority students who remain in the STEM pipeline. In a critical incident study conducted by Bembry et al. (1998), minority students who persisted and eventually received a STEM degree were more likely to accept and positively respond to the challenges of a STEM major. Personal characteristics, such as possession of long-range goals, can be indicative of a students maintaining in the STEM pipeline.

Peer pressure. In our critical incident study, one barrier to students enrolling in a geoscience course in high school was peer pressure. As stated by a PI, geoscience courses are sometimes perceived as “something that dummies do.” This often deters college-bound students to take a high school geoscience course, thus making it less likely that they are recruited into the pipeline.

College preparatory activities. In order for middle and high school minority students to continue in the pipeline it is necessary for them to enter and ultimately complete college. Therefore, taking the SAT/ACT (two tests that are often needed to enter college) and/or applying to an Institute of Higher Education (IHE) are not unreasonable indicators of students continuing in the pipeline.

Fiscal abilities. Evidence suggests that the major reason that minority students withdraw from higher education is financial (Hilton, 1988). Awareness of support sources and knowledge of application processes are important for minority student to attend and remain in college. Possession of this knowledge (and/or family resources) are good predictors of students remaining in the pipeline.

Knowledge of geoscience careers. Knowledge of STEM careers has been shown to influence minority students’ career choices. Although not essential for ultimate geoscience career choice, some individuals report that they “always wanted to be a geologist.” Clearly, knowledge of geoscience careers (and positive attitudes about such careers) can serve as indicators of retention in the pipeline.

Community College Students

Since a growing number of high school students and a disproportionately high number of underrepresented students enter community colleges before entering four-year colleges (NSF, 2001), community college students are treated as a separate path in the pipeline.

Major Selection. Selection of a STEM major is a straightforward indicator of minority students remaining in the pipeline. Therefore tracking major selection by community college students can be used as another indicator of students continuing in the pipeline.

Course Selection. As indicated earlier, course selection in higher-level mathematics and science was shown to better prepare minority students for a STEM major. In our critical incident study, taking an introductory geosciences course was a behavior that led some students to enter the geosciences. However, we found that rigorous mathematics requirements were a barrier to retention in the geosciences. Students who were unable to satisfy the mathematics requirements of geoscience majors often switched majors. It is not unreasonable to expect that successful course taking in the STEM fields, with a focus on geosciences and mathematics, in community college will also be an indicator of recruitment and retention in the pipeline.

Extra-curricular activities. Similar to middle and high school students, extra-curricular activities related to STEM majors can provide minority students with a good opportunity to learn more about STEM fields as well as maintain interest in these areas. One of the most influential factors for minority students who remained in SEM majors was extracurricular exposure and experiences (Bembry et al., 1998). This was validated in our critical incident study; research experience in the geosciences helped to retain students in the field. Therefore the types of extracurricular activities in which community college students participate (particularly research experiences) can be used as an indicator of remaining in the pipeline.

Four year college preparatory activities. In order for community college students to continue in the pipeline, it is necessary for them to enroll in a four-year institution. Applying to a four-year college or university is a requirement for continuing in the pipeline.

STEM study skills. Perceptions of STEM courses, one’s ability, and of STEM professors are responsible for underrepresented students decisions to remain in or to leave the pipeline. STEM courses often have the stigma of being academically rigorous. In a critical incident study, course requirements, the intense competitiveness among students in SEM courses, longer time-to-degree and the restrictive curriculum of SEM majors, and the time demands of SEM courses were some reasons that minority students avoided SEM majors (Brown, 1995). Minority students’ perception of the difficulty of STEM courses affected retention in STEM majors, but an equally important component of STEM retention was minority students’ “perceptions of their ability to be successful in a SEM major” (Brown, 1995). For example, a major reason many minority students left STEM majors was poor performance in STEM courses (Brown, 1995). Some minority students reported that they could not handle the workload for STEM majors, often leading to self-defeating behaviors (Brown, 1995). Students who were more likely to believe they were well prepared from high school or accepted the challenge of the workload were less likely to switch out of STEM majors (Bembry et al., 1998). Measuring minority students’ performance in STEM courses, their willingness to devote the requisite study required of STEM major, and their sense of self-efficacy (with respect to performance in STEM classes) can all serve as indicators of remaining in the pipeline.

Fiscal abilities. As mentioned previously, financial factors are an important reason for underrepresented students’ withdrawal from higher education (Hilton, 1988). Awareness of support sources including financial support and knowledge of application processes are important for minority students to attend and remain in college and thus in the pipeline. In a critical incident study that focused on black potential physicians, Wilson-Pessano et al. (1985) demonstrated that many potential physicians from lower SES backgrounds lacked the understanding of how a medical education could be “accomplished and financed.” The cost of a medical education deterred many black potential physicians in their sample from pursuing a career as a doctor. On the contrary, some students from lower SES backgrounds rated cost as irrelevant to pursuing a medical education. These students realized that they could not attend medical school without financial assistance and had become aware of the availability of financial support. Since financing higher education is often a barrier for underrepresented students, it is not unreasonable to use knowledge and an understanding of financial resources and the application process as an indicator of students’ ability to remain in the pipeline.

Peer pressure. As mentioned previously, peer pressure can influence a student’s course taking. In one incident, a student switched from a physics major to sociology, because of her friend’s perception that physics was “really weird.” It is not unreasonable to expect that support from peers can be used an indicator of students’ entering and remaining in the pipeline.

Career development activities. Knowledge of STEM careers as well as an understanding of the practicality and application of STEM has been shown to influence minority students’ career choices. In a study conducted by Brown and colleagues (1995), several students commented on their ignorance of SEM careers. A few students stated that they would have considered a SEM career, if they had previously had more knowledge about such careers. A lack of knowledge hinders minority participation in STEM fields in other ways. Several studies focusing on career choices indicate that minority students choose non-SEM over SEM majors because they do not see the relevance or utility of these fields to their daily lives (Rosser, 1993; Thomas, 1984).

Four-year College Students

Entering a four-year college either directly from high school or from a community college is a critical component of students remaining in the pipeline.

Major Choice. As noted above, selection of a STEM major is a straightforward indicator of minority students remaining in the pipeline. Equally important is retention in a STEM major (Brown, 1994; Bembry et al., 1998). Initial choice is important, but many college students change their majors.

Our research also showed that obtaining information about geosciences major was important in recruiting students to the geosciences. We collected several incidents where students sought information about geoscience majors from professors, advisors, and other students before ultimately choosing a geosciences major. Obtaining information about a geosciences major is therefore another indicator of recruitment into the pipeline.

Course selection. As previously noted, course selection, including an introductory geosciences course, is an indicator of students remaining in the pipeline.

Extra-curricular activities. As noted above, one of the most influential factors for minority students who remained in SEM majors was extracurricular exposure and experiences (Bembry et al., 1998). Therefore, the types of extracurricular activities (especially research experiences and internships) in which underrepresented students participate can be used as an indicator of remaining in the pipeline.

Field trips. Our research identified several indicators of recruitment and retention that appear to be geoscience-specific; one such indicator is participation in field trips. The geosciences is unique to other STEM fields in that it is common to conduct geoscience research in the field. Our critical incident study identified participation in field trips as a method to recruit and retain students in the geosciences. A PI spoke about field trip activities that introduced him to different aspects of the geosciences. Field trips also made the material more relevant. Geoscience research field trips often involve camping and overnight stays. These trips promoted socialization, providing students an opportunity to bond with other geoscience majors as well as with faculty. Participation in a field trip is another indicator of recruitment and retention in the geosciences pipeline.

Geosciences Faculty. Another geoscience-specific indicator that emerged from our research was the behavior of faculty in the geosciences department. Several incidents were collected about the accessibility of geoscience faculty at the undergraduate level. Geoscience faculty with open door policies and the small size of geoscience programs often provided a lot of interaction between students and faculty. Field trips provided additional opportunities for informal interactions between professors and students. Faculty were also instrumental in recruiting students into the major. In one incident a student spoke with a geoscience professor, who invited the student to attend a gathering for majors, encouraged her to take his class, and enroll in the major. The student ultimately became a geoscience major.

As mentioned earlier, exposure to inquiry based learning is important to encouraging interest in the geosciences. Professors who brought geological examples into the classroom, encouraged class participation, and utilized textbooks with references to the local area, were cited as engaging students in the geosciences, potentially recruiting or retaining students in the major. Geoscience faculty also assisted students in finding employment in the geosciences. Since obtaining a job in the geosciences is important to remaining in the pipeline, it is not unreasonable to assume this is an indicator of retention in the pipeline. The experiences students have with geosciences faculty can therefore be another indicator of recruitment and retention in the geosciences.

Geosciences department. Informal interactions and social activities of the geoscience department were other geoscience-specific behaviors identified in our research. Respondents mentioned the informal interactions with other geoscience majors and graduate students and social activities sponsored by the department as behaviors important to retaining them in geoscience. One respondent reported that students interacted more cooperatively and less competitively than other majors, creating a sense of community. Positive informal interactions and social activities in the geosciences department are indicators of students staying in the pipeline.

Graduate school preparatory activities. After graduation from college, one can remain in the pipeline by either accepting a job in the geosciences or by entering into a geosciences graduate school program. Therefore, taking the Graduate Record Exams (GREs) and applying to geosciences graduate school programs are indicators of students staying in the pipeline.

Fiscal abilities. As already stated, financial reasons are a significant motive for minority students to withdraw from higher education (Hilton, 1988). Awareness of support sources, including financial support for college and graduate school, and knowledge of application processes are important for minority students to remain in the pipeline.

STEM study skills. Similar to community college students and as mentioned above, perceptions of STEM courses, one’s ability, and of STEM professors could help retain underrepresented students in the pipeline. Minority students’ perceptions of the rigors of STEM courses, their belief in their own ability to handle the workload, and their willingness to devote the necessary time for successful performance all are associated with retention in the pipeline.

Peer pressure. As mentioned previously, peer pressure can influence a student’s course taking and can be used as an indicator of students’ entering or remaining in the pipeline.

Career development activities. Similar to community college students, knowledge of STEM careers as well as an understanding of the practicality and application of STEM will keep students in the pipeline. Role models and mentor also play an important role in retention in the STEM fields. In addition, for those minority students in the pipeline who will not continue to graduate school, knowledge of geosciences careers and students’ abilities to locate and to apply for these jobs can be considered an indicator of students remaining in the pipeline.

Graduate School Students

In order for students to remain in the pipeline they must either graduate from a STEM major and work as a geoscientist or continue to graduate school with a specialization in the geosciences and later pursue a career as a geoscientist.

Professional socialization. Professional development in a career requires training in the behaviors appropriate for members of the profession. Both research experiences and attendance at professional conferences provide important socialization experiences. It is not unreasonable to expect that graduate minority students’ attendance at conferences, an important aspect of the sciences, and their research experiences in graduate school will be indicators of remaining in the pipeline.

Geosciences Faculty. Interactions with the geoscience faculty can also be an indicator of graduate students remaining in the pipeline. As mentioned previously, PIs cited the accessibility and informal interactions with geoscience faculty as a reason for remaining in the field. Similar to undergraduates, the experiences graduate students have with geosciences faculty can be another indicator of retention in the geosciences.

Fiscal abilities. As already stated, financial reasons are a significant motive for minority students to withdraw from higher education (Hilton, 1988). Awareness of support sources, including financial support for graduate school, and knowledge of application processes are important for retention in the pipeline.

Career development abilities. As mentioned previously, knowledge of geosciences careers and students’ abilities to locate and willingness to apply for geosciences jobs are indicators of remaining in the pipeline.

General Factors

There are several general factors in our model which are said to decrease the permeability of the pipeline. These factors (primarily key individuals) can have lasting impacts on career choice, and can express their influence at almost any (or all) parts of the pipeline.

Outdoor Experiences. Outdoor experiences are another geoscience-specific factor that was identified through our research. Due to the topic area of the geosciences, it is not surprising that a love of the outdoors was cited as motivation to enter the geosciences. Incidents like experiencing an extraordinary geosciences event, such as a lightning storm, or an interest in nature and rocks were mentioned as reasons that drew some geoscientists into the field. Learning about geosciences through informal education also initiated interest in the field. Some indicators of remaining in the pipeline might be minority students’ exposure and appreciation for the outdoors.

Role models. Role models have an unquestioned impact on career choice and development. Role models and meeting or observing a scientist or engineer are cited as factors that affect entry into SEM (the Office of Technology Assessment, 1988) and of retention of SEM college majors (Bembry et al, 1998). Other evidence also suggests that mentoring is important in keeping minority students in SEM (Brown, 1994; Rowe, 1977; AAAS, 1992). Minority students who had faculty role models cite this as key to choosing and staying in SEM majors (Brown 1994; Rowe, 1977; AAAS, 1992). Some indicators of students remaining in the pipeline might be minority students’ knowledge and understanding of STEM careers as well as interactions with role models and mentors.

Familial factors. Parental and familial factors play a large role in career choice and development. A substantial proportion of black physicians have one or more parents who are also physicians (Wilson-Pessano et al., 1985). Knowledge of professions is strongly associated with parents and family members who are members of that profession. In addition, parental attitudes about career choice clearly influence college major decisions (Bembry et al, 1998). These attitudes can either decrease or increase the permeability of the pipeline.

However, familial attitudes and beliefs are dynamic. That is, projects can change the knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of family members and thereby influence retention in the pipeline. Parental support, such as collecting rocks with a child, can also encourage an interest in the geosciences. In addition, families are also sources of fiscal resources that can play a crucial role in college and graduate school attendance decisions.

STEM teacher behaviors. At all grade levels, the behaviors of teachers can have a substantial impact on student’s decisions to remain in or to exit the pipeline. Teachers who can show the relevance of their STEM courses will facilitate retention in the pipeline.

At the post-secondary level, minority students’ perception and interactions with STEM faculty affects STEM major retention. Minority students who persisted in SEM majors interacted with SEM faculty outside of the classroom. It was suggested by Rodriguez (1993) that there may be a “rub-off” effect that keeps students interested in SEM. Those students who know how to “‘work the system’ -- e.g., visiting with faculty during their established office hours and initiating conversations with faculty after class” are more likely to have a positive relationship with professors, keeping the students interested in STEM courses. Similarly, a growing body of evidence suggests that the time faculty spend teaching and advising students is important to student achievement and retention (Rotberg, 1990).

College classes must show the relevance of SEM careers to underrepresented students who are often unfamiliar with these career fields (Brown, 1994). Collea (1990) believes it is important for college courses in SEM to show applied science and engineering solutions to practical problems, thus enabling minority students to see the broader applications of a technical career.

Another important dimension for retention is quality of teaching (Brown, 1995). In a critical incident study, students who did not remain in STEM majors often commented on the poor quality of teaching by professors that eventually discouraged them from continuing to take STEM courses (Brown, 1995), resulting in their exiting the pipeline.

Geoscience awareness. Many students are never exposed to the geosciences. Conversely, many geoscientists report that an early experience with geoscience -- a chance encounter, a field trip, meeting a geoscientist -- played a critical role in their career choice. Knowledge of geoscience can be an indicator of retention in the pipeline.

Mentors. “Mentors” typically refer to senior members of a profession who support the career development of junior members. The prototypical example is the graduate student’s advisor, who, in addition to teaching technical knowledge and skills also serves as a source of professional socialization. The mentor teaches the professional norms and the informal skills (grant writing, paper writing, presentation skills, and the other skills) that are invaluable for career success. However, mentors also can assist secondary students and/or undergraduates and facilitate their professional development in the earliest phases of career development.

Economy. The job market in the geosciences affects recruitment and retention in the pipeline. From our research, we learned that the booming oil market in the 1980s saw an increase in the number of geoscience majors, and the subsequent downfall of the market brought a decrease in the number of geoscience majors. This is a factor that projects do not have control over. However, understanding the job market and career opportunities available to students graduating with a geosciences degree can help to recruit and retain students in the pipeline.

V. Summary

The pipeline model provides a useful conceptual framework for short-term assessment of the success of projects whose goal is increasing the prevalence of underrepresented students in geoscience career fields. It is our hope to continue development of this framework. However, for the immediate task at hand, this framework can be used to identify candidate measures to assess short-term project impacts, as a function of the population (i.e., grade level) being targeted by the project.

For example, for middle and high school projects, candidate measures would include course-taking behaviors (and performance), participation in extracurricular activities, college preparatory activities, and assessment of knowledge and abilities to obtain needed financial support and of the presence of long-term goals and career plans. Similarly, the model can be used to identify candidate measures for projects targeted for post-secondary students.

A listing of candidate measures will be prepared, indicating approaches that might be used for their procurement. The feasibility of their implementation -- that is to say, the ease with which the grantee projects can collect these data -- needs to be determined. Nonetheless, there appear to be a core of measures that should be impacted by these projects and that should be fairly easy to assess.

Bibliography

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Appendix A

Geosciences Diversity Conceptual Framework: The “Pipeline” Towards Careers in the Geosciences

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Appendix B

Sample Critical Incidents

*A. POSITIVE CRITICAL INCIDENT FORM

1. What led up to the situation?

I was a biology major and I knew I did not want to go to med school. I took intro biology and chemistry in college and hated the whole pre-med thing. It was a very unsupportive environment. I was looking at some liberal arts options.

2. What happened? What did (you/person) do?

I just walked into the geology department and talked to an advisor.

3. (IF NOT OBVIOUS): How did this --influence someone to choose/consider a Geosciences major?

He listened and gave me good feedback. I took his class that fall.

*A. POSITIVE CRITICAL INCIDENT FORM

1. What led up to the situation?

As a child I was interested in rocks and fossils.

2. What happened? What did (you/person) do?

My parent encouraged this interest. [They bought me books about rocks] and fossil and helped me to collect rocks.

3. (IF NOT OBVIOUS): How did this --influence someone to choose/consider a Geosciences major?

Having the books and collecting the rocks made we want to know more about rocks and fossils.

*B. NEGATIVE CRITICAL INCIDENT FORM

1. What led up to the situation?

When I was in college, years ago, some male professors discouraged women from entering the geosciences.

2. What happened? What did (you/person) do?

My structural geology teacher said women weren’t capable of handling the coursework for structural geology.

3. (IF NOT OBVIOUS): How did this --discourage someone from choosing/considering a Geosciences major?

I was really struggling with the subject and it made me question whether I was capable of becoming a geologist. I’m not sure if these things happen any more though.

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← Parental support

– Material

– Behavioral

– Emotional

Peer Pressure

Knowledge of Geosciences Careers

Middle/High School Students: factors to remain in “pipeline”

Fiscal Abilities

← Awareness of support sources

← Knowledge of application process

College Prep Activities

← Taking SAT/ACT

← Apply to IHE

Personal Characteristics

← Long-range goals

← Self-efficacy

Science Instruction

← Inquiry-based instruction

Extra-Curricular Activities

← Research experiences

← Science camp

← Outdoor activities

Course Selection

← Math (algebra)

← Math (Geometry, pre-Calculus

← AP courses (and grades)

← Geosciences

Peer Pressure

Community College Students: factors to remain in “pipeline”

Career Activities

← Knowledge of Geosciences careers

Fiscal Abilities

← Awareness of support sources

← Knowledge of application process

Study Skills

← Willingness to defer gratification

← Ability to work in groups

← Self-efficacy

4 year college prep activities

← Apply to 4-year college

Extra-Curricular Activities

← Research Experiences

Course Selection

← Elective STEM courses

← Required STEM courses

← Taking introductory Geosciences courses

Major Selection

← Choice of STEM major

Geosciences Faculty

← Accessibility

← Informal interaction

Graduate School Students: Factors to remain in “pipeline”

Career development abilities

← Job search skills

← Knowledge of Geosciences careers

Fiscal Abilities

← Awareness of support sources

← Knowledge of application process

Professional socialization

← Attendance at conferences

← Research experiences

Career in the Geosciences

Peer Pressure

Geosciences Department

← Informal interaction

← Social activities

Geosciences Faculty

← Accessibility

← Informal interaction

← Recruiting Geosciences majors

← “Good” teaching skills

← Employment assistance

Field Trips

Course Selection

← Elective STEM courses

← Required STEM courses

← Taking introductory Geosciences courses

Four-year College Students: Factors to remain in “pipeline”

Career Activities

← Job search skills

← Knowledge of Geosciences careers

– Salary

– Outdoor/activities

– Travel

Study skills

← Willingness to defer gratification

← Ability to work in groups

Fiscal Abilities

← Awareness of support sources

← Knowledge of application process

Grad School Prep Activities

← Take GREs

← Apply to grad school in Geosciences

Extra-curricular activities

← Research experiences

Major Choice

← Choice of STEM Major

← Retention of STEM Major

← Obtaining information about Geosciences major

← Experiencing extraordinary Geosciences event

← Interest in nature

← Learning about Geosciences (informal education)

← Geosciences job market

Mentors

Role Models

Economy

Outdoor Experiences

Familial Factors

STEM Teach Behaviors

Geosciences Awareness

Factors that decrease the permeability of the “pipeline”

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