PART THREE: YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP PROGRAMS
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Report to the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
Logic Models and Outcomes
for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
By
Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Ph.D.
Zakia Redd, M.P.P.
Project Director, Kristin Moore, Ph.D.
September 17, 2001
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary 3
Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms 5
Introduction 6
Background 6
Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth development? 7
Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs and youth outcomes 10
What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced? 10
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs 12
Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model 12
What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs? 13
Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations 17
Outcome Measurement 17
Summary, Integration and Conclusions 18
Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation 19
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth 24
Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in Entrepreneurship Programs 25
Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic Model 26
Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs 31
References 37
Executive Summary
The primary purpose of this report is to provide a revised logic model and measurable outcomes for the youth entrepreneurship programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation (DCCYIT). The logic model was revised from the initial draft of the Board of Directors of DCCYIT using the framework and terminology developed by the United Way Foundation of America.[1] The report combines both an academic and applied research perspective on youth development, and is intended to complement, not duplicate in any way, the work that has already been completed by the DCCYIT in this program area.
The report focuses on youth entrepreneurship and contains a brief overview of the research literature that informs our conceptualization of the logic model and proposed outcomes. The proposed outcomes cover a range of domains. Valid measures may differ by age and by the purpose of the program. This report can be used as a tool by individual programs to determine which outcomes and measures are most pertinent.
We recommend that funders and practitioners embrace modest expectations for some of these program outcomes; no single program strategy can accomplish all of the outcomes that these programs have been implemented to address. Also, though progress made can be substantial over the long-term, expectations should be tempered regarding immediate change for any one outcome. We urge programs of the DCCYIT to track appropriate outcomes in order to assess program effectiveness. This process should help to improve program quality.
The outcomes identified here are not exhaustive, and they can be measured in many ways. The indicators we have suggested range from simple to advanced assessments. What is easiest to document may not be the most meaningful and accurate measure. In addition, outcome monitoring must take into consideration the issues regarding the different data collection strategies required for children. A large part of the decisions regarding which outcomes are monitored will depend on this factor as well as the costs associated with the various alternatives.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
The nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although some of the programs target specific demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, low-income youth, minority youth, high school dropouts, single mothers age 14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for a productive and independent adulthood. Several outcomes for programs in this area may be used by the DCCYIT for performance tracking. Initial outcomes focus primarily on changes in participants’ knowledge and attitudes. Intermediate and longer-term outcomes are related to new skills acquired, educational and economic achievements, and positive behaviors.
Initial outcomes for youth in entrepreneurship programs are expected to include increases in knowledge and changes in attitudes with regard to the following:
❖ Entrepreneurship
❖ Work readiness and employability
❖ Civic engagement
❖ Interpersonal skills
❖ Academics
Intermediate/longer-term outcomes for youth in youth entrepreneurship programs include increases in:
❖ Life skills
o Problem-solving skills
o Interpersonal communication skills
o Technology skills
❖ Employability and work readiness
❖ Employment and earnings
❖ Academic achievement
❖ Educational Attainment
❖ Positive interpersonal relationships
❖ Civic engagement
❖ Health status
❖ Reduction in risky behaviors
o Low rates of youth crime and delinquency activities
o Fewer arrests
❖ Positive psychological well-being
o Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders
o High rates of optimism and positive sense of self
We have selected these outcomes using a combination of theory and pragmatism. Many of these outcome measures have established scientific validity and reliability, and are sturdy enough to provide guidance to the practitioners of DCCYIT funded programs who wish to use them for assessment.
Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms[2]
Inputs are resources that are dedicated to or consumed by programs. Examples include facilities, staff time, volunteer time, money, and supplies. Inputs also include constraints such as laws and regulations.
Activities are what the program actually does, using inputs, in order to fulfill its mission. For example, providing classes for youth in order to disseminate knowledge/information about job preparation skills, or providing entrepreneurship activities for youth.
Outputs are the direct products of program activities. They are usually measured by the amount of work accomplished, for example, the number of entrepreneurship classes taught, or the number of youth who participated in vocational activities.
Outcomes are benefits for the people served by the program during or after participation. Outcomes include changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behavior, and can be divided into three categories:
Initial outcomes are the first changes for participants, and are very closely influenced by the program. Initial outcomes are often changes in knowledge, attitudes, or skills. For example, an initial outcome for youth who participate in an entrepreneurship class might be an increase in knowledge about the requirements for the establishment of a new business.
Intermediate outcomes are the step between initial outcomes and longer-term outcomes. They can be changes in behavior that result from the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. To follow from the previous example, an intermediate outcome might be that youth are establishing their own businesses or are self-employed.
Longer-term outcomes are the ultimate outcomes a program wants to achieve. They can be changes in participants’ condition or status. For example, if an intermediate outcome is that youth are establishing their own businesses, a longer-term outcome might be that youth are employed have a sense of mastery and self-reliance, and are economically independent.
Indicators are used to help a program know whether the desired level of inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes are being achieved. They are observable, measurable changes, and they must be unambiguous. For example, terms such as “adequate” and “substantial” (i.e., “participants show substantial improvement”) are not specific enough, but finding a change in the number and percent of participants achieving an outcome is specific and measurable.
YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP PROGRAMS
Introduction
This section of the report provides revised logic models and outcomes for youth in Entrepreneurship Programs. We describe why and how youth program interventions focused on entrepreneurship and vocational training are important for adolescent development. We also describe the pathways through which entrepreneurial and vocational training impact youth development, as well as the outcomes that are most likely to be affected by such intervention programs. This theoretical review provides a basis for the identification of outcomes for entrepreneurship and vocational programs that can be tracked and monitored over time by the DCCYIT.
Background
The research on school-to-work transitions and youth entrepreneurship has consistently demonstrated the usefulness and importance of job-readiness and vocational programs for youth development.[3],[4] Data show that about 50 percent of high school graduates continue on to college, and that 25 percent of those that do, actually obtain college degrees.[5] Without any goals or sense of what is required to achieve such goals, many young people end up jobless or in low-wage jobs with little advancement opportunities. It is important for youth to be able to recognize and to create opportunities and to be prepared for them when presented. Increasingly, policy-makers have also recognized the need for youth to attain employment- readiness skills, an education that covers basic skills and prepares youth for work. Such initiatives as the Future Entrepreneurs of America Act [6], and the passage of the School-to-Work Opportunities Act [7], have also been introduced to empower youth. Other relevant policy initiatives of the school-to-work transition include Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Rehabilitation Act, Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, and the Job Training and Partnership Act (JTPA).[8]
According to the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey data, unemployment rates for youth are much higher than rates for other age groups. Fourteen percent to 20 percent of youth aged 15-19 are currently unemployed. Low-income youth as well as Black and Hispanic youth also tend to have much higher unemployment rates.[9] DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs address this unemployment, and work-readiness issues through training and preparing youth for work.
The nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although many of the programs target specific demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, high school dropouts, low-income youth, single mothers aged 14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for productive adulthood. DCCYIT programs provide opportunities and supports that help its participants gain the competencies and knowledge needed to make a successful transition from school to employment or self-employment. These experiences form a basis of knowledge about the function and operation of a business, help young people develop new attitudes towards business and some level of familiarity and comfort with the business environment. In addition to providing youth with the tools and skills needed to start their own businesses or to find gainful employment, many of the programs have the goal of empowering youth by enabling them to provide needed goods and services to the distressed, underserved neighborhoods in which they live. DCCYIT programs provide a combination of training and employment opportunities for youth, such as business start-up training and apprenticeships. They offer youth opportunities to work and interact with caring adults in professional settings. Detailed summaries of these programs are provided in Table 3.1.
Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth development?
The existing research, though limited, shows that school-to-work, entrepreneurship and vocational programs provide a variety of opportunities for youth.[10] The research findings on the impact of such programs on youth are few, and many programs have met with mixed success. [11] There is evidence however, that if these programs are well organized, they can work to positively benefit youth. While anecdotal information is available on the effectiveness of many entrepreneurship programs, rigorous evaluations of the effects of entrepreneurship program participation on youth have yet to be conducted. However, it is clear that these programs provide many opportunities for young people: for example, they provide an environment for youth to interact with caring adults in actual work settings; they incorporate training and on-the-job learning experiences; and they focus on the present employment needs in young people’s lives, as well as on long-term career and life goals. Youth entrepreneurship interventions also try to nurture other skills in youth, including leadership skills (e.g., planning and implementing projects, positive risk-taking, and problem-solving), self-esteem and efficacy (a sense of being able to make a difference), and teamwork.
As stated above, few evaluations of entrepreneurship programs have been conducted. However, there have been rigorous evaluations of other employment initiatives targeted towards youth. Many of the DCCYIT have activities that are vocational or employment-based, so we feel that these studies are relevant to the DCCYIT programs. It is important to note, for example, that vocational educators have come to recognize that starting a business is a natural outgrowth of vocational skills training.[12] There are also longitudinal studies that have examined short-term and early adult outcomes of adolescent employment. Experiences from the field have shown that youth who are involved in vocational and entrepreneurial activities through programs or in education settings may experience a variety of positive outcomes:
• Improvements in academic performance. Early evidence from New York City’s Career Magnet Schools[13] indicates that the schools give students a career focus and improve their achievement in core subjects including reading and math.[14] Similar evidence of improved grades was found in other school-based programs.[15]
• Increased problem-solving ability.[16]
• Educational expectations. Students participating in the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects had a higher percentage than those in a comparison group reporting that they expected to finish high school. However, the same proportion of youth in comparison and program groups reported that they expected to attend a post-secondary institution.[17]
• Educational attainment. Youth employment appears to be a predictor of high school graduation, however, it is not clear if this relationship is causal or if people who are highly motivated tend to work while in high school.[18] Studies evaluating the effect of program participation on student educational attainment outcomes have had mixed findings, yet some are able to positively impact high school graduation, GED attainment and/or college enrollment.[19] It is possible that programs increasing employment among youth may have no effect or even a negative effect on educational attainment outcomes. Several studies indicate a positive relationship between moderate amounts of work (20 hours per week or less), and higher levels of subsequent educational attainment. [20]
• School attendance. School-to-work and vocational programs have been effective in increasing school attendance. [21]
• Practical skills. Such programs also improve skills in teamwork, problem-solving, money management, decision-making, personal responsibility and public speaking.[22]
• Growth in the development of leadership.[23]
• Job readiness. Evaluations of entrepreneurship and vocational programs have shown that such programs can contribute to positive outcomes among youth, including life skills, employment readiness and skills.
• Improvements in student’s knowledge of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial attitudes.[24] The New Youth Entrepreneur is an experience-based program for middle and high school age youth with a curriculum that is anchored by core entrepreneurship concepts including opportunity recognition, the marshaling of resources, and initiating a business venture in the face of risk. Programs such as this have been known to enhance self-esteem and build positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship among youth.[25]
• Short-term economic advantages. Programs that provide employment to those who would not be able to find employment are important. Findings on the short-term and long-term earnings and employment effects of evaluated employment initiatives are mixed.[26] However, clear evidence exists that programs are able to increase short-term and long-term employment and earnings for various disadvantaged subgroups, although such outcomes vary by program and by subgroup.[27]
▪ Consistent gains in factual knowledge related to the actual experience.[28] This experience encourages young people to think about their future occupational goals as well as encourage reflection on issues of greater significance for vocational development.[29]
• Social development. Such programs have been know to contribute to social development and maturity (e.g., a sense of social responsibility and political efficacy). [30] The performance of work place tasks, in cooperation with adults, can promote a sense of contribution, being “grown up” and egalitarianism.[31]
• Enhanced social psychological development (self-esteem, ego development, self-efficacy). Such programs can not only help students see the relevance of what they are studying, but also helps them gain the self-confidence many youth lack though their capability to accomplish tasks.[32]
• Improvements in interpersonal relationships. Such programs can reduce the negative influence of peers by exposing young people to constructive adult peer groups.[33]
• Perceived health status. Early evidence from the National Job Corp program indicates that program participants had significantly fewer reports of being in poor or fair health.[34]
In sum, there is substantial evidence that entrepreneurship, school-to-work and vocational programs can positively influence youth development. Such programs can promote positive economic, intellectual, social and psychological outcomes. These types of programs can have positive influences on academic success as a result of “hands-on” experiences which help build self-esteem, feelings of self-efficacy, leadership skills, interactions with others, and promoting an overall decrease in problem behaviors.[35] Youth entrepreneurship programs can also encourage career exploration, decrease overall youth unemployment, and improve self-confidence.[36] Although there is evidence programs have been able to improve youth outcomes, much of the evidence of the effectiveness of past evaluated programs in doing so is mixed. That is, the evaluated programs vary in their effectiveness in improving outcomes of their youth and young adult participants in comparison to non-participants, and these programs vary in their activities and in their target populations. It is also important to emphasize the point that longitudinal youth employment studies can demonstrate a predictive relationship between such programs and youth outcomes, but cannot prove causality.
Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs and youth outcomes
What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?
The question of how youth entrepreneurship and job-readiness interventions affect adolescent development is embedded within a broader set of issues about the nature of youth development, and the growth of competence and responsibility during this phase of life.[37] Employed teens may feel themselves to be more dependable and responsible than those who are not employed and are perceived to be more independent. [38] In general, vocational education during adolescence has generally been felt to be a character-building exercise, and youth who work during this phase of life evidence changes in domains such as self-reliance, self-esteem, and practical knowledge, while showing reductions in problem behaviors such as delinquency and alcohol use. There are three major avenues through which potential entrepreneurship may be influenced: self-perception as a potential entrepreneur; educational preparation; and socialization.
Self Perception as a Potential Entrepreneur: One avenue through which entrepreneurship may be encouraged among youth is through the creation of positive perceptions of entrepreneurship. Once young people perceive themselves as having the potential to be an entrepreneur, the foundation for becoming an entrepreneur is laid. Social psychological models[39] have emphasized that a necessary preexisting condition for becoming an entrepreneur is to be prepared to accept an opportunity. Some researchers have found that preparation is the key element for developing potential entrepreneurs because opportunities can be seized by individuals who are prepared to seize them. [40] One pathway, therefore, for increasing the number of entrepreneurs is to increase the pool of youth who see themselves as “potential” entrepreneurs. The supply of entrepreneurs can, therefore, be strongly affected by providing youth at early ages with positive and self-enabling perceptions about their potential to be an entrepreneur. This supports the realization that entrepreneurship may be feasible as well as personally and socially desirable. [41]
Educational Preparation: Entrepreneurship education is important at the pre-college ages and is an important avenue for achieving impacts on potential entrepreneurs.[42] Such programs provide a business-management –oriented curricula and “hands-on” experience. The participants often construct their own knowledge, make decisions, and bear the consequences of their decisions; to enable these self-actuated processes, students are often guided through firsthand, real-world entrepreneurship experiences by an instructor, who takes on a facilitator roles for the curriculum.[43] Models of entrepreneurial potential emphasize that education improves the perceived feasibility of entrepreneurship by increasing knowledge, building confidence, and promoting self-efficacy [44]. Such education and exposure also improves the perceived desirability for entrepreneurship by showing youth that this activity is highly regarded and socially desirable. When conducted at younger age groups in a supportive environment, it increases youth interest in entrepreneurship, their preparation for it, and enhances self esteem.[45] This educational exposure is particularly important for at-risk and disadvantaged youth since in many cases it provides entrepreneurial role models and opportunities to prepare youth to start a business. [46]
Socialization: Career theories [47] emphasize that socialization plays an important role in contributing to entrepreneurial careers. The schooling years provide a key opportunity to introduce students to entrepreneurship as a career option and as an alternative to more traditional occupations.[48] Socialization and education in entrepreneurship may therefore be of great value because they highlight career options that may not be usually realistically considered. For at-risk youth, it may develop the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that make youth more productive citizens, regardless of what occupation is eventually chosen.[49]
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model
Youth entrepreneurship and vocational education programs are built on validated models derived from learning theory and based on the premise that education can be used as an intervention tool to influence youth attitudes toward entrepreneurship as a career option.[50] While research in this area is limited, the foundation for the design of entrepreneurship and vocational programs are grounded in the notion that if students can improve their motivation to achieve, their locus of control and self-esteem, as well as demonstrate creativity, the more likely they are to avoid self-destructive behaviors such as teen-age pregnancy, drug-abuse, violence and gang participation.[51] Therefore, to be effective in preparing youth for a changing society, vocational education and entrepreneurship education must be complementary. Such programs offer students an incentive for thinking creatively about an industry, and broadening their understanding of career opportunities.[52] Entrepreneurship and vocational education therefore provide students with the opportunity to learn that (1) although a job may be successfully accomplished one day by performing a given set of tasks, different skills and strategies may be required to tackle a new set of tasks the next day; and (2) because businesses are always changing, workers need to find new ways to do a given job or new ways to do a given job better.[53]
The conceptual model that provides a simple framework of how program participation may lead to positive outcomes is provided in Figure 3.1. As aforementioned, evidence exists that many program goals are able to be achieved through the delivery of key training and services to youth and young adults. As is outlined in the conceptual model, DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs provide entrepreneurial training, vocational training, employment preparation and career services, academic support, and opportunities to work with community business leaders and workers in a given field through shadowing and mentoring relationships, and hands-on work experience. Through the provision of these services, youth may be enabled to increase their 1) knowledge of how to start a business; 2) tools for searching, gaining, and maintaining employment; 3) work readiness skills and employability; and, 4) educational credentials and basic academic preparedness necessary for working successfully.
What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs?
There are a limited number of studies that have examined outcomes for youth in entrepreneurship and vocational programs, although many proponents of vocational education have argued that such experiences are generally positive for adolescents. The limited number of experimental studies in this area makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions, however several domains that may be influenced by such programs can be identified. In an effort to identify outcomes for youth that may be influenced, we also borrow extensively from the literature on work and adolescent development. The outcomes that we have identified may be short term or longer term in nature for youth.
▪ Entrepreneurial Skills
Some studies have indicated that entrepreneurial training among youth can change the psychological tendencies and propensities associated with business ownership.[54] Students receiving entrepreneurial training have been found to have significantly higher motivation to achieve, a higher sense of personal control, a higher self-esteem, are more innovative, have more personal control and higher achievement motivation. Studies have also show that actually starting a business as well as experiencing entrepreneurial education increases creativity in students.[55]
▪ Job-Readiness Skills
Research findings concerning work and practical skills indicate that young people may learn practical skills and work habits from vocational programs as well as exposure to work. These are often skills that are not usually acquired in schools, and include the development of interpersonal competencies-a stronger sense of personal responsibility, learning how to deal with customers, how to get along with co-workers, how to follow directions—and those involving knowledge of the world of work, such as being able to find a job.[56] Findings concerning work and money management are mixed. Although some studies have shown that exposure to work may help speed the development of knowledge about money management and personal finances,[57] in some cases, such wages may be spent on drugs and alcohol.[58]
In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Labor sponsored the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) to define the skills needed for employment, and propose acceptable levels of proficiency.[59] The development of these necessary skills among youth has become the focus of many entrepreneurship programs. Work entails an interplay among a three-part foundation and five competencies. The three-part foundation consists of basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities:
▪ Basic Skills: Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening and speaking.
▪ Thinking Skills: Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing how to learn and reasons.
▪ Personal Qualities: Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity and honesty.
The five competencies are:
▪ Resources: The ability to identify, organize, plan and allocate resources (e.g., time, money, materials, facilities and human resources).
▪ Interpersonal skills: The ability to work with others (e.g., leadership, negotiation, work with diversity).
▪ Information: The ability to acquire and use information (e.g., acquire and evaluate information, organize and maintain information).
▪ Systems: The ability to understand complex relationships (e.g., to understand systems, monitor and correct performance, improve and design systems).
▪ Technology: The ability to work with a variety of technologies (e.g., select technologies, apply technology to task).
At this point, it is still too early to determine the success rate of programs that have attempted to achieve these outcome among youth in their programs.[60] However, efforts in this direction are promising.
▪ Economic Outcomes and Subsequent Labor Market Experience
Some studies have indicated that there is a positive relationship between youth employment and subsequent labor market experiences. Outcomes in this domain are mainly short-term and are often visible in the first few years immediately following graduation from high school.[61] There is ample evidence that adolescents who acquire more work experience earn higher wages in subsequent years.[62] For example, the lack of work experience among young black males accounts for about half of the differences between their wages and those of young white males, five years after graduating from high school.[63] Other research has also pointed to the fact that first school year employment is associated with short-term economic advantages, both with respect to earnings and the likelihood of employment immediately following high school.[64] In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program, it was also found that youth in this program generated employment and earnings gains. Impacts were found to be similar for both males and females.[65]
▪ Psychological Well-Being
There are inconsistent findings on the effects of work and job-readiness programs on youth feelings about themselves and their competencies. Some studies report that work negatively affects self-reliance and self-esteem,[66] while others report different and positive effects for males and females.[67] Several writers have suggested the impact of such programs on adolescent psychosocial development may vary as a function of the characteristics of the adolescent’s employment.[68] Some findings also show that adolescent’s sense of mastery is influenced by the quality of work, although effects are different for males and females. [69]
▪ Education and Academic Achievement
The early research on the effects of working on the educational outcomes of adolescents in school has yielded mixed findings.[70] In some cases, such programs reduce study time and school aspirations for youth. [71] In other cases, such work programs have been found to foster high achievement orientation in boys.[72] Findings from the High School and Beyond[73] study for example have shown that work during the last years of high school affects such outcomes as going to college, high school attendance, parent involvement, senior educational aspirations, and standardized test scores. Of 22 outcomes examined in this study, 17 were significantly affected by working; all but one of these outcomes were negative. In a recent study that examines the influence of the Job Corps[74] vocational training program on youth, it was found that this intervention increases educational attainment. Participants in this program exhibited improvements in literacy and numeracy skills. Involvement in this program also increased the receipt of GED and vocational certificates, although the program had no effects on college attendance.
▪ Risky Behaviors
Studies of the effects of work and mental health do not find strong effects on internalized distress for youth.[75] In general, youth who are exposed to work are neither more nor less depressed than non-workers, once pre-existing psychological states are accounted for. Drug and alcohol use has however been found to be higher among working than non-working youth, especially among those who work long hours. [76] Several studies suggest that working may also be associated with increases in antisocial behavior such as aggression,[77] school misconduct, and minor acts of delinquency. This behavior may also be a consequence of menial, repetitive, unchallenging work that is done in the absence of close adult supervision.[78] In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program on youth, it was found that this program significantly reduces involvement with crime. Participants had reduced convictions, incarcerations resulting from a conviction, and crimes committed.[79]
▪ Social Relationships
Little research has examined the effects of adolescent work on social relationships. However, some studies have shown that working long hours distances adolescents from their parents and results in diminished emotional closeness. [80] However, it is difficult to know whether these findings signify that adolescents who seek autonomy tend to self-select into jobs that require long working hours, or if working long hours, especially in settings where the young people are working mostly with adults, actually leads to premature independence and decreased parental control.[81] Also, we cannot assume that working and participating in a youth entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes. DCCYIT programs that have young people participate in entrepreneurial training or activities in a group setting with peers may have somewhat different effects on social relationships. These programs may encourage parental involvement or try to enhance parental knowledge so that they may assist their children in finding employment opportunities. In contrast, it may be expected that these programs would improve parent-adolescent relationships if parent involvement in their child’s activities is increased.
It is important to note that youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs, such as those sponsored by the DCCYIT, try to provide enriching experiences for young people in which they are exposed to workers in the field who are caring adults who sought to work with or volunteer to teach young people. DCCYIT programs provide mentors and shadowing opportunities for young people. Through these mentoring and shadowing relationships, young people will be exposed to new opportunities and will develop their personal contacts, which are important for attaining employment. Furthermore, research has shown that caring relationships with non-parental adults can lead to positive outcomes for youth. Young people who seek to participate in the youth entrepreneur programs may be considered to be motivated, so participation in the program may improve the peer networks by connecting them with other young people who are interested in participating in productive activities, such as learning entrepreneurial, global employment, and academic skills. Although it may be expected that peer relationships outside of work or outside of the program may be affected by program participation, the effect that a program may have is unclear. One study, for example, found that working had little effect on the quality or quantity of adolescents’ time with friends. [82] Again, we cannot assume that working and participating in a youth entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes.
Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations
The Youth Entrepreneurship logic model has been revised using the framework provided by the United Way of America[83] and is theoretically driven. The DCCYIT provided us with preliminary logic models to which we added inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes. Additional information required to revise the logic model was obtained from DCCYIT program descriptions. Readers are advised to refer to the glossary of outcome measurement terms for an understanding of the terms used in the logic models. Similar to what was done for the identification of early childhood outcomes, and out of school time outcomes, we have used a combination of theory, research and pragmatism to guide our choice of outcomes and measures. In these models, youth outcomes are linked to program activities, goals and objectives. The development of outcome measures in this field of research is rudimentary at best, so we have identified few measures that have been evaluated (not using rigorous randomized trials.) The revised logic model for youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT is presented in Table 3.2.
Outcome Measurement
The measures selected reflect the goals of the programs. Wherever possible, we have selected measures with established validity and reliability, and for which norms are available. While some of these measures are currently being used in local and national studies, others are not. However, we recommend a wide range of measures, ranging from simple to more advanced assessments. What is easiest to document in terms of time and cost (e.g., knowledge and attitude changes concerning youth skills, measured through the use of paper-and-pencil questionnaires) may not be the most meaningful or the most accurate measure. For example, tracking changes in youth knowledge or attitudes about entrepreneurship may not be as important as monitoring changes in entrepreneurial activity. We therefore recommend outcomes that require various techniques for assessment, including standardized tests, and youth reports of their own behaviors or attitudes. The measurement of outcomes may include youth self-administered questionnaires, interviews with teachers, instructors and mentors, observations of youth activities and interactions with peers/co-workers, and reports by independent observers. Assessments of youth outcomes may include standardized tests, as well as multiple measures or sub-scales of a single test. The more precise the measurement technique, the more valid and reliable, the more well-known in the research literature, and usually the more costly. A description of selected outcome measures is provided in Table 3.3.
Summary, Integration and Conclusions
The workplace represents an important setting for the development of youth. Vocational and youth entrepreneurship programs represent an essential vehicle through which the economic self-sufficiency of youth may be improved. Research on this topic is relatively new, and clearly further empirical research is need to clarify some of the mixed result reported in many studies. It is challenging to identify outcomes for performance tracking based on mixed findings. Our review of the small number of evaluations of youth entrepreneurship programs provides preliminary support for the identification of outcomes in the following domains: entrepreneurial skills; job-readiness; academic achievement/performance; psychological well-being; risky behaviors; service activities; and social relationships.
These outcome measures are consistent with the program’s overall objectives and the mechanisms that are targeted for change. For outcome monitoring, we suggest combining information from standardized assessment tools, staff (mentors) assessments, and participant feedback, to assess outcomes.
Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
|Program |Program Objective |Activities |Population |Type of |Length/Intensity |
| | | |Served |Intervention |of Intervention |
|Chinatown Service Center |To provide services to Asian |Training in computer basics (word processing, |Asian immigrant families and |Classes in computer labs. |Job Skills/Interview Skills |
| |immigrant families. To teach |spreadsheet and graphic presentations and |children. | |course (4 weeks). |
| |students about computer |applications) |Families with limited English | | |
| |basics, maintenance. To |Training in computer maintenance |proficiency and low financial | | |
| |assist students with job |(troubleshooting, maintaining, upgrading of |resources | | |
| |searches and interviews. |personal computers and small-scale local |Goal of 20-25 students at a | | |
| | |networks) |time, serving 140 students over| | |
| | |Training in job search and interview skills |the course of a one year period| | |
|WVSA Arts Connection |To provide youth with |Develop Individual Objectives Plans |Youth with disabilities |Training |Intense 12 week training |
| |disabilities training in |Training in global work behavior, |Ages 14-21 |Apprenticeships with |12 week apprenticeships and 10|
| |applied arts, fine arts, basic|work-readiness, and technology-oriented skills. |Up to 40 youth |entrepreneurs and in |week part-time employment |
| |technical skills. To provide |Fine arts training | |businesses |experiences |
| |training that improves |Business start-up training | |Assisted employment |Follow-up employment services |
| |functional literacy and that |Apprenticeships | |Part-time employment | |
| |helps them to master |Parent involvement | |One-to-five ratio | |
| |employment skills and |Mentors | |(instructor-participant) | |
| |independent living skills. To|Follow-up career planning and placement services| |One-on-one mentors | |
| |enhance parents of program |Business plan development (to sell and | | | |
| |participants’ capacity to |distribute participant artwork) | | | |
| |support their children in |Assisted employment opportunities within the | | | |
| |finding employment. To improve|WVSA cottage enterprise. | | | |
| |academic performance and | | | | |
| |work-readiness. To support | | | | |
| |community needs. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Brain Food, Inc. |To improve academic |Food Venture, a small-scale youth |10-40 students |Classroom lessons taught by |Academic year |
| |performance and to increase |entrepreneurial food business, offers: |Students ages 14-18 |local entrepreneurs using |Summer |
| |entrepreneurial and vocational|Hands-on training in the food business | |curriculum designed to teach |Year round |
| |skills and knowledge about |Business planning and business development | |entrepreneurial skills | |
| |food, nutrition, and cooking. |activities | |Hands-on experience | |
| |To provide youth with a sense | | | | |
| |of belonging in the program | | | | |
| |and the community. | | | | |
|Covenant House of Washington |To equip at-risk youth with |Woodworking classes |Youth in Southeast |Courses |Year round |
| |transferable, marketable work |Apprenticeship programs |(Anacostia/Congress Heights) |Training | |
| |knowledge, skills, and |Formal entrepreneurship training |Youth ages 16-21 |Job placement | |
| |experience to increase their |Business planning and writing classes | | | |
| |global employability and |Placement of some youth in apprenticeship | | | |
| |self-employment readiness. To|programs | | | |
| |increase educational |Developing strategic business and marketing | | | |
| |attainment, academic |plans for the CHW woodworking enterprise | | | |
| |achievement, community | | | | |
| |involvement, and health and | | | | |
| |well-being. To decrease crime| | | | |
| |and violence among youth. To | | | | |
| |contribute to economic | | | | |
| |development of the | | | | |
| |Anacostia/Congress Heights | | | | |
| |community | | | | |
|Marshall Heights Community |To improve the economic, |Assessment |Ward 7 youth (serving youth in |Classes |Year round |
|Development Corporation |educational, and social status|On the job training (OJT) |Lincoln Heights, Benning |Training | |
| |of the Ward 7 community and |Job shadowing mentoring |Terrace, East Capitol |Mentoring | |
| |their inhabitants. To develop|Business skills development |Dwellings, Stoddert Terrace, |Hands-on experience | |
| |and expand employment/career/ |Community service |Marshall Heights neighborhoods | | |
| |business/ entrepreneurship |Vocational skills development |so far) | | |
| |opportunities. To create |Job readiness training |Ages 14-21 | | |
| |business development |Job placement |200 youth | | |
| |opportunities. To increase |Academic support or enhancement activities | | | |
| |access to employment support |Arts exposure | | | |
| |networks, employment services.|College preparatory services | | | |
| |To increase employment skills |Entrepreneurial exposure. | | | |
| |and to improve job readiness. | | | | |
| |To increase employment and | | | | |
| |business startups among | | | | |
| |participants. To decrease | | | | |
| |involvement in risky | | | | |
| |behaviors. | | | | |
|Columbia Heights Youth Club |To provide a safe, nurturing |Focus on Health programs: |25 youth |Shadowing |Rigorous 5 week exposure |
| |environment to youth enhancing|Development and implementation of health |Ages 14-18 |Hands-on experience |programs |
| |their social, physical, and |promotion and/or disease prevention project. |Columbia Heights youth | | |
| |intellectual growth. To |Shadowing health professional | | | |
| |expose youth to health careers| | | | |
| |and health practitioners. To | | | | |
| |enhance reading skills, | | | | |
| |comprehension, critical | | | | |
| |thinking, verbal presentation | | | | |
| |skills. To increase high | | | | |
| |school completion, college | | | | |
| |readiness, college entrance. | | | | |
| |To increase knowledge of youth| | | | |
| |and their families about | | | | |
| |health related topics. | | | | |
|Lydia’s House |To provide technology-based |Tech Zone program offers: |Ages 14-21 |20 students in each training |Two training sessions are held|
| |entrepreneurial training, |Biz Tech: online learning system teaches |180 Youth |session. |per quarter |
| |personal development |entrepreneurship, information technology and | |Classroom with computers | |
| |experiences. To provide |workplace concepts. | | |Class held from 8:30-12:00 and|
| |students with access to |Technology training (basic computer literacy, | | |from 6:30-8:30 |
| |technology and business |resume and job preparation, operating systems, | | | |
| |support. To expose youth to |networks, hardware, computer productivity, HTML | | | |
| |career options. To increase |website design, internet project). | | | |
| |employability, work and |Youth leadership training with a focus on school| | | |
| |self-employment. |to work transition | | | |
| |To improve student |Training on the principles of economics | | | |
| |self-esteem, reduce youth |Develop business plans | | | |
| |violence and school | | | | |
| |absenteeism, increase | | | | |
| |educational attainment into | | | | |
| |post-secondary education. To | | | | |
| |increase entrepreneurial | | | | |
| |opportunities among youth with| | | | |
| |disabilities. | | | | |
|Wider Opportunities for Women |To help low-income, |Keys to the Future program offers: |Fort Totten area youth |Individualized support |T-PACE, abuse prevention |
| |disadvantaged young women with|Intake and assessment |At-risk youth (low literacy | |program lasts for 10 weeks. |
| |children achieve economic |Skills assessment |skills, school dropouts, | | |
| |independence and equality of |Career services |homeless, runaways, foster | | |
| |opportunity. |Pre-vocational training |children, pregnant teenagers, | | |
| |To place participants in |Job placement, retention, follow-up services |offenders) | | |
| |high-wage employment. |Stipends for books and college tuition |Low-income single parents | | |
| | |Individual Development Accounts/ financial |Young women ages 14-21 and | | |
| | |literacy training |their families | | |
| | |MELD/Even Start services |Group of 50 receives different | | |
| | |Crisis intervention and consultation |services | | |
| | |Access to T-PACE, abuse prevention and parenting| | | |
| | |program | | | |
| | |23 hour child care program | | | |
Source: Program descriptions from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust corporation website ()
Conceptual Model of
Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth
• The model presented in Figure 3.1 identifies outcomes for youth participating in Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation.
• The large circle in the model represents program elements that are provided to youth by the various Youth Entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT.
• The two smaller rectangles in the model represent short/intermediate and long-term outcomes for youth.
[pic]
|Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in |
|Entrepreneurship Programs |
| |
| |
|Initial/ Intermediate |
| |
|Work readiness and employability attitudes and skills |
|Civic engagement attitudes |
|Interpersonal skills |
|Academic attitudes and knowledge |
| |
|Longer-term |
| |
| |
|Life skills |
|Problem-solving skills |
|Interpersonal communication skills |
|Technology skills |
|Employability and work readiness |
|Employment and earnings |
|Academic achievement |
|Educational Attainment |
|Have positive interpersonal relationships |
|Civic engagement |
|Health status |
|Reduction in risky behaviors |
|Low rates of youth crime and delinquency |
|Fewer arrests |
|Positive psychological well-being |
|Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders |
|High rates of optimism and positive sense of self |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic Model
Bolded items are from the original DC Trust model. Non-bolded items are Child Trends’ additions.
|Inputs |Activities |Outputs |Outcomes |
| | | |Initial |Intermediate |Longer-term[84] |
|Program staff, materials, |Outreach to bring youth into |Youth are brought into the |In-school youth in the program:|In-school youth in the program: | |
|equipment, and other |the program |program through outreach | | |Increased enrollment in GED or other |
|non-personal services | |efforts | |Youth are getting better grades in |educational programs |
| |Assessment of the needs and | |Youth increase the hours that |school | |
|Youth ages 14-21 from |interests of youth in the |Youth are instructed in how to |they are in a safe environment | |Decreased youth crime, as evidenced by|
|low-income families |program |develop and operate a small |during out-of-school time |Youth school attendance is improved |contact with juvenile justice system |
| | |business | | | |
|Funding, resources |Education and training to youth| |Out-of-school youth in the |Out-of-school youth in the program: |Increased school attendance (for |
| |in how to develop and operate a|Youth participate in mentoring |program: | |in-school youth) |
|Infrastructure in place |small business |sessions with local business | |Youth increase enrollment in GED or | |
|(e.g., space in buildings)| |leaders |Youth increase the hours that |other education programs |Improved school grades and |
| |Connecting youth with | |they are participating in an | |standardized test scores (for |
|Mentors |supportive services in the |Small business are started by |educational or career |All youth in the program: |in-school youth) |
| |community |youth individually or as a |developmental activity | | |
|Health and business | |group | |Youth plan and start their own |Increased school advancement from |
|professionals (for |Providing mentoring and | |All youth in the program: |businesses |grade to grade (for in-school youth) |
|shadowing) |guidance from local business |Seed grants and loans are | | | |
| |leaders |provided to youth to start |Youth participate in the |Youth career competencies are |Decreased teen pregnancy |
|Tutors/Trainers | |their own businesses |planning and operation of a |enhanced and SCANS[85] skills are | |
| |Providing seed grants or micro | |small business |improved |Youth are self-employed, develop their|
| |business loans to youth for |Youth are instructed in | | |own strategic business, marketing |
| |starting their own businesses |personal financial planning |Youth increase their knowledge |Youth are participating more in civic|plans, and start their own businesses |
|Constraints on the | | |of starting and operating their|life | |
|program: |Instructing youth in personal |Number of sessions conducted on|own business | |Youth exhibit a healthy work |
| |financial planning |entrepreneurship program | |Youth exhibit an increase in customer|self-concept |
|Language barriers | |activities |Youth increase their knowledge |service skills, interpersonal | |
| |Entrepreneurial training | |of personal finance |communications skills |Youth are economically self-sufficient|
| | |Number of participants served | | | |
| |Apprenticeships/job shadowing |in entrepreneurship program |Youth are knowledgeable about |Youth exhibit an increase in |Youth are psychologically |
| |opportunities |activities; and percentage of |how to develop a businesses |employment and self-employment |well-adjusted |
| | |activities attended | | | |
| |Classes on financial | |Youth are knowledgeable about |Youth experience an increase in |Youth have improved health status |
| |management, principles of |Number of sessions conducted on|how to write a business plan |earnings | |
| |economics |the planning and operation of a| | |Youth possess practical skills and job|
| | |small business |Youth are knowledgeable about |Youth experience a decrease in |readiness characteristics—--SCANS |
| |Training in research, product | |financial management |unemployment levels (increased |skills ( possess the knowledge, skills|
| |development, and marketing |Number of participants served | |employment and job retention) |and experience necessary to increase |
| | |in sessions on the planning and|Youth have knowledge of | |their employability) |
| |Training in business planning |operation of a small business; |work-related concepts |Youth experience an increase in basic| |
| |and writing |and percentage of activities |(professionalism, etc.) |academic skills |Youth are developing healthy social |
| | |attended | | |relationships |
| |Training and hands-on | |Youth have knowledge of social |Youth exhibit an increase in computer| |
| |experience in specific trade or|Number of participants |networks and community |skills |Youth are performing academically and|
| |business field (health, |attending sessions on |resources (business networks, | |have improved educational outcomes |
| |woodworking, technology, arts) |employment activities; and |contacts) |Youth exhibit an increase in | |
| | |percentage of activities | |interview skills |Youth exhibit reduced risky behaviors|
| |Community service and |attended |Parents of participants are | | |
| |involvement activities | |knowledgeable about and |Youth exhibit an increase in |Youth exhibit self-esteem, a sense of |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on|involved in youth activities |employability/ work readiness (SCANS |mastery and self-reliance |
| |On-the-job training (providing |employment activities | |skills) | |
| |hands-on experience) | |Youth are knowledgeable about | |Youth complete high school |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on|employment opportunities in the|Youth exhibit an increase in positive| |
| |Classes on computers (word |youth employment/ |health field, fresh produce |risk-taking skills |Youth are employed; employable and |
| |processing, etc.) |entrepreneurship training |market and other fields to | |economically independent |
| | |activities |which they are gaining exposure|Youth are increasing their | |
| |Parental involvement and | | |associations with positive peers |Youth use the necessary channels to be|
| |training |Number of participants served |Youth are knowledgeable about |involved in productive activities |used in seeking employment; and |
| | |in youth employment/ |classes in computer basics, | |becoming self-employed |
| |Career/ employment services |entrepreneurship training |maintenance and training and |Youth exhibit an increase in | |
| |(job search, job placement, |activities; and percentage of |job search and interview skills|motivation |Youth use relevant job search and |
| |interview skills) |activities attended | | |interview skills to obtain employment |
| | | |Youth are knowledgeable about |Youth exhibit an increase in | |
| |Classes on work concepts, |Number of youth served in |training opportunities in youth|leadership skills |Youth are involved in community |
| |employment skills (promptness, |sessions on business planning |employment/ and | |service |
| |professionalism, etc.) |and writing and the development|entrepreneurship training |Youth have increased earnings (for | |
| | |of strategic business and |activities |programs offering paid training and |Youth are preparing for college |
| |Academic assistance for youth |marketing plans; and percentage| |hands-on experience) | |
| |in school to ensure competency |of activities attended |Youth are knowledgeable about | | |
| |in basic skills | |training opportunities in |Youth experience increased levels of | |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on|technology, fine arts, business|employment | |
| |Provision of stipends for |business planning and writing |start up, follow-up career | | |
| |school/ training |and the development of |planning and placement, global |Youth are becoming involved in their | |
| | |strategic business and |work behavior, and work |communities | |
| | |marketing plans |readiness | | |
| | | | |Youth are taking advantage of | |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on|Youth are knowledgeable about |employment opportunities in the fresh| |
| | |computer basics, maintenance |training and employment |produce market | |
| | |and job search and interview |opportunities in the fresh | | |
| | |skills |produce market, food, and |Youth increase their use of | |
| | | |woodwork |computers, training, job search and | |
| | |Number of youth participating | |interview skills | |
| | |in sessions on computer |Youth are knowledgeable about | | |
| | |basics, maintenance and job |the existence of apprenticeship|Youth are increasing their use of | |
| | |search and interview skills; |programs |relevant support networks | |
| | |and percentage of activities | | | |
| | |attended |Youth are knowledgeable about |Youth increase use of work readiness | |
| | | |training opportunities for on |skills, technology skills, fine arts | |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on|the Job Training (OJT), job |skills | |
| | |global work behavior, work |shadowing mentoring; community | | |
| | |readiness, |service, college preparation, |Youth increase use of follow-up | |
| | |technology, fine arts, business|job placement and academic |career planning and placement | |
| | |start up, and follow-up career |support and/or enhancement |services | |
| | |planning and placement |activities | | |
| | | | |Youth are participating in | |
| | |Number of youth participating |Youth are knowledgeable about |employment opportunities in the fresh| |
| | |in sessions conducted on global|training opportunities in the |produce market, food, and woodwork | |
| | |work behavior, work readiness, |health field | | |
| | |technology, fine arts, business| |Youth are participating in training | |
| | |start up, and follow-up career |Youth are knowledgeable about |in apprenticeship programs | |
| | |planning and placement; |the existence of training | | |
| | |percentage of activities |opportunities in youth |Youth are participating in training | |
| | |attended |leadership |opportunities for On the Job Training| |
| | | | |(OJT), job shadowing mentoring; | |
| | |Number of training sessions |Youth are knowledgeable about |community service, job readiness, | |
| | |conducted on the fresh produce |the training opportunities in |college preparation, job placement | |
| | |market, food, and woodwork |literacy, parenting, crisis |and academic support enhancement | |
| | | |intervention and child care |activities | |
| | |Number of youth participating | | | |
| | |in training sessions on the | |Youth are participating in literacy, | |
| | |fresh produce market, food | |parenting, crisis intervention and | |
| | |business, and wood work; | |child care programs | |
| | |percentage of activities | | | |
| | |attended | |Youth are becoming more engaged in | |
| | | | |school | |
| | |Number of youth employed in the| | | |
| | |fresh produce market | |Youth are involving themselves in | |
| | | | |community activities. | |
| | |Number of youth participating | | | |
| | |in apprenticeship programs | |Youth are increasing their | |
| | | | |self-reliance, self-esteem and | |
| | |Number of | |mastery orientation | |
| | |sessions conducted on On the | | | |
| | |Job Training (OJT), job | | | |
| | |shadowing mentoring; community | | | |
| | |service, job readiness, college| | | |
| | |preparation, job placement and | | | |
| | |academic support enhancement | | | |
| | |activities | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |Number of youth participating | | | |
| | |in training sessions on | | | |
| | |On the Job Training (OJT), job | | | |
| | |shadowing mentoring; community | | | |
| | |service, job readiness, college| | | |
| | |preparation, job placement and | | | |
| | |academic support enhancement | | | |
| | |activities; percentage of | | | |
| | |activities attended | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on| | | |
| | |health promotion, disease | | | |
| | |prevention and the shadowing | | | |
| | |of health professionals | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |Number of youth participating | | | |
| | |in sessions conducted on health| | | |
| | |promotion, disease prevention | | | |
| | |and the shadowing of health | | | |
| | |professionals; percentage of | | | |
| | |activities attended | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on| | | |
| | |youth leadership and percentage| | | |
| | |of activities attended | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |Number of youth participating | | | |
| | |in sessions conducted on youth | | | |
| | |leadership | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |Number of sessions conducted on| | | |
| | |literacy, parenting, crisis | | | |
| | |intervention and child care | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |Number of participants served | | | |
| | |in sessions conducted on | | | |
| | |literacy, parenting, crisis | | | |
| | |intervention and child care; | | | |
| | |percentage of activities | | | |
| | |attended | | | |
Program activities were based on information from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site ().
Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
|OUTCOME |MEASURE |DESCRIPTION |
| |
|INITIAL OUTCOMES |
|Youth gain knowledge and competency in the following domains: |
|Entrepreneurship |Enumeration of youth knowledge of entrepreneurial |Measures youth perception of small business; |
| |principles and processes. |knowledge about competitive markets and government; |
| | |comparisons between small and large businesses; |
| | |interest in starting a business; and comparisons |
| | |between small and large businesses; know how to write|
| | |a business plan, conduct a market search, etc.; self |
| | |report |
|Career service resources |Enumeration of knowledge of career services resources |Measures knowledge of career services resources; self|
| | |report |
|Finance |Enumeration of youth knowledge of various facets of |Measures personal finance knowledge, knowledge of |
| |economics and finance |business financial management, and knowledge of |
| | |economic principles; self report |
|Safety |Measure of perceived safet. |Measures feelings of safety during out-of-school |
| |Source: Add Health Survey |hours; self report |
|Productive use of time |Enumeration of time spent in productive activities; Source:|Measures the number of hours spent in productive |
| |National Household Education Survey (NHES), Maryland Study |activities (educational, work preparation, community |
| |of Adolescents (MADIC) |service, work); self report |
|Employment readiness (knowledge of |Measure of knowledge of workplace concepts |Measures how prepared they are for entering the |
|workplace concepts) | |workforce given their knowledge of workplace concepts|
| | |and job expectations. Measures knowledge about steps |
| | |needed to take to reach goals (work experience, ed. |
| | |requirements, training); self report |
|Community network resources |Measure of knowledge of community resources; Source: |Measures knowledge about community resources and |
| |Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC) |knowledge of business networks; self report |
|Job search skills |Measure of knowledge of how to conduct a job search |Measures how to research jobs, prepare for |
| | |interviews, fill out applications, interview |
| | |techniques; self report |
|Community needs for goods and services |Measure of knowledge of community needs for goods and |Measures knowledge of community needs for goods and |
| |services. |services; self report |
| |Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC) | |
|Training and employment opportunities |Measure of knowledge of training and employment |Measures knowledge of training and employment |
| |opportunities |opportunities that are available; self report |
|Opportunities for academic support or |Measure of knowledge of academic support and enhancement |Measures knowledge of academic support or enhancement|
|academic enhancement |activities opportunities |activities available in a certain region; self report|
| |Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC) | |
|Computer basics |Measurs of knowledge of basic computer functioning. |Measure given to 14 year olds to measure practical |
| |Source: International Association for the Evaluation of |computer knowledge; self-administered |
| |Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional Information | |
| |Technology Test and Computer Attitude Test (FITT)[86] | |
|Social services |Measure of knowledge of the availability of social services|Measures knowledge about family and social services |
| | |available in a certain region (about financial aid, |
| | |parenting and other courses offered, child care |
| | |services, crisis services); self report |
|Leadership training opportunities |Measure of knowledge of leadership training opportunities |Measures knowledge of leadership training |
| | |opportunities; self report |
|Knowledge about specific field of training|Measure of knowledge about the specific field in which they|Measures knowledge about the specific field in which |
| |are being trained |they are being trained (technology, health, |
| | |woodworking, food produce/ markets); self report |
| |
| |
|INTERMEDIATE/LONGER-TERM OUTCOMES |
|ENTREPRENEURSHIP/JOB- READINESS SKILLS: |
|Youth are developing their own strategic businesses, marketing plans, and starting their own businesses |
|Entrepreneurship participation |Measure of youth participation in entrepreneurial |Measures youth participation in a small business or |
| |activities |youth business ownership; self report |
|Initiative |Measure on Initiative. |Measure of youth perception of initiative; self |
| |Source: Response Decision Instrument (RDI) |report |
|Motivation |Measure on motivation. |Measure of intrinsic motivation; self report |
| |Source: Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) | |
|Self-reliance |Measure of self-reliance. |Measure of perceived competence; self report |
| |Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS). | |
|Goal setting skills |Measures of goal setting. |Measure of perceived competence and goal-setting; |
| |Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS). |self report |
|Analytical thinking skills |Measures of youth perception of their analytical skills; |Self-report |
| |opportunities for use of analytical skills | |
|Self-efficacy |Measures of self-efficacy. |Measure of self-efficacy; self report |
| |Source: Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) | |
|Self-concept of ability |Measures of self-concept. |Measure of self-concept; self report |
| |Source: Self Perception Profile of Ability (SPPAI) | |
|Autonomy |Enumeration of youth perception of their autonomy; |Self report |
| |opportunities to be autonomous | |
|Time management skills |Enumeration of youth perception of their management skills;|Self report |
| |opportunities to manage | |
|Leadership skills |Enumeration of youth perception of their leadership skills;|Self report |
| |opportunities for use of leadership skills | |
|Financial management skills |Enumeration of youth perception of their financial |Self report |
| |management skills; opportunities for use of financial | |
| |management skills | |
|Problem-solving skills |Enumeration of youth perception of their problem solving |Self report |
| |skills; opportunities for use of problems solving skills | |
|Positive risk-taking |Enumeration of youth perception of their risk-taking |Self report |
| |skills; opportunities for risk taking | |
|Critical Thinking skills |Enumeration of youth perception of their critical thinking |Self report |
| |skills; opportunities for critical thinking | |
|Computer skills |Measures of computer skills. |Measure given to 14 year olds to measure practical |
| |Sources: International Association for the Evaluation of |computer knowledge; self report |
| |Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional Information | |
| |Technology Test and Computer Attitude Test (FITT)[87] | |
|Computer use |Enumeration of youth access and use of computers[88]: |Measure given to youth to provide information on |
| |location-school, home, other |access to and use of computers; self report |
| |frequency-number of days used in past week, month; | |
| |purpose-homework completion, research, games, etc. | |
| |type-internet, word processing, etc | |
| |Source: Census October Current Population Survey (CPS) | |
|Work habits (professionalism) |Enumeration of promptness, proper dress, hygiene, behavior | Self-report and ratings by program staff or person |
| |in workplace setting |supervising the young person’s work in |
| | |apprenticeship, internship, etc. |
|Mastery and Coping |Measure of coping skills. |Attitudinal measure of self-worth and self |
| |Sources: Mastery and Coping Sub-scale (MCS), from the Self |confidence; self report |
| |Image Questionnaire for Young Adolescents | |
|Work experience |Enumeration of youth of years or months of prior work |Self report of young adults |
| |experience | |
|Employment |Enumeration of youth of their employment status (employment|Self report of young adults |
| |status, number of months, years working or unemployed) |The employment measures are appropriate for all |
| | |adults’ aged 16 and older, regardless of school or |
| | |work status. |
|Job search skills (resume/cover letter |Enumeration of youth use of resumes, cover letters, |Self report of young adults |
|writing, interviewing skills, research |interviews and job search skills to obtain employment | |
|skills) | | |
|Self-employed/ business owner |Enumeration of youth who are self-employed |Self-report of young adults |
|Earnings |Enumeration of youth earnings |Self report of young adults (Earnings: Wages, salary,|
| | |fringe benefits gained through employment) |
|Productive activity |Enumeration of youth currently working, in school, and/or |Self report of young adults |
| |in jobs and routine activities | |
|PRACTICAL SKILLS- Youth Exhibit SCANS skills[89] |
|Basic Skills: Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening and speaking; |
|Thinking Skills: Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing how to learn and reasons; |
|Personal Qualities: Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity and honesty. |
|Basic Skills |
|Reading |Enumeration of youth beliefs about reading ability |Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, |
| | |value/interest, performance, expectations; self |
| | |report |
|Writing |Enumeration of youth beliefs about writing ability |Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, |
| | |value/interest, performance, expectations; self |
| | |report |
|Performing mathematical operations |Enumeration of youth beliefs about mathematics |Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, |
| | |value/interest, performance, expectations; self |
| | |report |
|Thinking Skills | | |
|Creativity |Measure of youth beliefs about creativity; Participation in|Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, |
| |creative activities (music, theater, and other activities) |value/interest; self report |
|Decision making |Measure of youth beliefs about decision making; Attitudes |Measure of perceived ability to make correct |
| |about being involved in decision-making |decisions; self concept of ability; self report |
|Solving problems |Measure of youth beliefs about the ability to solve |Measure of perceived ability to solve problems; self |
| |problems |concept of ability; self report |
|Personal Qualities | | |
|Responsibility |Enumeration of youth beliefs about their levels of |Measure of responsibility; Time log; self report |
| |responsibility; management of tasks/chores | |
|Self-esteem |Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory; |Measure of youth self-esteem; self report |
| |Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale | |
|Sociability |Enumeration of youth who have difficulty working with other|Self report of youth behavior |
| |children; Knowledge of and respect for other groups | |
|Self-management |Measure of youth beliefs about their perceived |Measure of perceptions of self management; self |
| |self-management |report |
|ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT/PERFORMANCE: |
|Youth exhibit improved academic performance and educational outcomes; complete high school and prepare for college |
|Educational Attainment |Educational Attainment Measure; |Measure assesses school enrollment status, number of |
| |Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997[90] |years of school completed, attainment of certificates|
| | |and higher degrees; school records; self report |
|Arts participation, skills, and knowledge |Measure of arts assessment covers participation, skills and|From the National Assessment of Educational Progress |
| |knowledge. |(NAEP), measure developed to track arts skills, |
| |Source: National Assessment of Educational Progress |knowledge and exposure to arts education among |
| |(NAEP).[91] |school-aged youth; self report |
|Academic achievement |Academic achievement. |An assessment of school achievement. Tests in |
| |Source: Metropolitan Achievement Test[92] |reading, comprehensive, mathematics, and language. |
| | |For grades K-12. Examiner administered; grades |
|Academic skills |Academic skills and achievement. |For K-12th graders, covers basic academic subjects |
| |Source: Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills[93] |and is used to measure skills of students within |
| | |states. |
|Academic achievement |Academic achievement. |Covers basic subjects and used to measure skills of |
| |Source: Stanford Achievement Tests 9th Series edition |students within states |
| |(SAT-9 or Stanford 9)[94] | |
|Grade Repetition |Measure of grade repetition. |A survey designed to measure a wide variety of health|
| |Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health |related and other factors among adolescents in grades|
| | |7-12. Data are collected from parents, students, and|
| | |schools administrators. |
|Grade Repetition |Measure of grade repetition. |Data are collected from parents, students, and school|
| |Sources: National Household Education Survey (NHES);Panel |administrators. Includes questions on whether a |
| |Study of Income Dynamics-Child Supplement (PSID-CS).[95] |student repeated a grade in school. |
|Suspended/Expelled |Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. |Parent/teacher/child report. |
| | |School records. |
|School functioning |School functioning. |An 11-item rating scale measuring children’s |
| |Source: Child classroom adaptation Index (CCAI) |functioning and performance in the classroom. |
| | |Teacher self-administered. |
|School Engagement |School Engagement Scale. |Revised scale of the Rochester Assessment Package for|
| |Source: National Survey of American Families (NSAF)[96]; |the National Survey of America’s Families (parent |
| |Survey of Program Dynamics (SPD) |report) and the Survey of Program Dynamics (child |
| | |report); for children 6 to 17 years of age; four |
| | |items assess degree to which student cares about and |
| | |puts effort into his or her schoolwork |
|Homework Completion |Questions on whether the child always does his or her |RAPS-S includes a parent report variable on whether |
| |homework; questions on number daily and weekly hours spent |the child always does his or her homework; school |
| |on homework in each week, youth completion of homework |engagement scales measure quality of homework and |
| |Source: Rochester assessment package for school students |other schoolwork. |
| |(RAPS-S)[97] | |
| | | |
|Academic Self Concept |Questions on specific subject and general academic |This four-item questionnaire assesses individuals’ |
| |self-concept.[98] |perceptions about the competence within a given |
| |Source: Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents |academic domain. The scale can be used to assess |
| | |academic self-concept in any academic subject (e.g., |
| | |math, English, science). The responses are provided |
| | |on a six-point Likert scale ranging from True to |
| | |False. It has been used with children in grades 7-12,|
| | |but may be adaptable. Self report |
| | | |
| | |Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents |
| | |assesses students’ general academic self-concept. It|
| | |is recommended for use with 9th to 12th graders |
|Suspended/Expelled |Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. |Parent/teacher/child report of suspensions/ |
| | |expulsions. |
| | |School records. |
|College Preparation |Measure of participation in college preparation activities |Measures participation in college preparation |
| |and readiness |activities; measures steps taken to prepare for |
| | |college; self report |
|Parental involvement in adolescent |Enumeration of parents who have contacted their children’s |Parent/ teacher/child interview |
|learning |teachers of schools for any reason having to do with their | |
| |children | |
|PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING: |
|Youth exhibit increases in self-esteem, a sense of mastery, self-reliance and positive identity formation |
|Social identity | Social Identity subscale. |Measure to assess the positivity of one’s social |
| |Source: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure |identity |
|Self-esteem |Measures of self-esteem. |Self report |
| |Source: Rosenberg Self- Esteem Scale | |
|Ego identity |Measure on ego identity. |Measures 8 domains: Occupation, religion, politics, |
| |Source: Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status |philosophical life-styles, friendship, dating, sex |
| |(EOM-EIS) |roles, and education. Has been used with |
| | |adolescents, young adults, and adults. |
|Optimism |Optimism scale . |Scale measures optimism, an indicator of mental |
| |Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97)|well-being. Has been used with adolescents and young|
| | |adults. |
|Social behavior |Adaptive Social Behavior Inventory. |Checklist provides profile of behavioral problems |
| |Source: Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL) |(eight or nine scales) and social competence (three |
| | |scales). Provides standard scores. 100-item version|
| | |of ages 2 to 3. 113-item version for ages 4 to 16 |
| | |with separate norms for ages 4 to 5, 6 to 11, and 12 |
| | |to 16 by gender. Parent interview. |
|RISKY BEHAVIORS: |
|Youth exhibit reduced risky behaviors: drugs, alcohol use, violent behaviors, crime and delinquency |
|Substance Use |Alcohol, tobacco, and drug use. |Measures six categories of self-reported health risk |
| |Sources: Substance Use in the Past 30 Days Index; |behaviors among adolescents: behaviors contributing |
| |Monitoring the Future (MTF) |to intentional and unintentional injuries: tobacco |
| | |use, alcohol use, drug use, and frequency of use |
|Problem Behaviors |Measures of problem behavior. |Measures problem behaviors such as running away from |
| |Source: Problem Behaviors Index |home, damaging property, theft, and physical fights; |
| | |self report |
|Parental Limits |Measures of youth obedience (parents). |Measures youth assessments of limits set in home and |
| |Source: Breaking Parental Limits Index |frequency of breaking such limits/rules; self report |
|Adolescent Violence |Measures on adolescent violence. |Measures general violence (fighting, hitting, etc.), |
| |Source: Youth Risk Behavioral Survey |school violence, weapon carrying |
|Delinquency |Measures of delinquency. |Measures truancy, and participation in delinquent |
| |Source: The Self-Reported Delinquency Measure |behavior; self report |
|Health status |Enumeration of youth perceptions of health status; Access |Measures perceived health status; self report |
| |to health services | |
|SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS: |
|Youth develop healthy social relationships |
|Social relationships |Measures of social relationships. |Measure of connectedness that assesses the quality of|
| |Source: Inventory of Parent and Peer Relationships |the social support network; self report |
|Peer support |Peer support measures. |Measures companionship, help/support, security, |
| |Source: Friendship Quality Scale |closeness; self report |
|Negative peer social context |Peer social context measures. |Measures whether peers negatively influence them and |
| |Sources: The Peer Orientation Scale and |measures peer attitudes, values, beliefs, and |
| |The Peer Delinquency Scale |behavior; self report |
|Peer relationships |Enumeration of youth who have friends and are a part of a |Self report of youth peer behavior |
| |positive social network. | |
|Parent-child relationship |Measures of parent-child relationship. |Lax Control subscale (56 item) of the amount of |
| |Sources: Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory |discipline and permissiveness or laxness occurring in|
| | |the home. Also measures parent-adolescent conflict |
| | |and connectedness. Self report. |
|Parent adolescent communication |Measures of parent-adolescent communication. |Measures the emotional support that adolescents seek |
| |Source: The Parent-Adolescent Communication Form |and receive from parents; self report |
|Social Skills |Measures of social skills. |Measure of perceived social skills; teacher report |
| |Source: Social Skills Rating System | |
|Adult-Youth Relationships |Youth behave and relate to other youth and adults (better, |Self report of youth behavior |
| |slightly less well, or much less well) than other children |Self-reported perceived amount of support received |
| |their own age |from friends, family, teachers, and others |
| |Perceived Social Support from Friends and from Family | |
|Conflict negotiation skills |Measures knowledge of and use of conflict negotiation |Measures ability to use communication tools for |
| |skills |avoiding and negotiating conflicts; self report |
|Resiliency |Measures resiliency |Measures ability to overcome difficult circumstances;|
| | |self report |
|Social dilemmas |Youth use problem-solving skills to address social dilemmas|Measures children’s behavior with adults; self report|
| |with peers | |
|SERVICE ACTIVITIES/COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT: |
|Youth are increasingly involved in community service |
|Civic Engagement |Enumeration of youth who participate in school and |Self report |
| |community activities, community service, social and | |
| |political action activities | |
|Volunteering |Enumeration of youth involved in productive activities |Enumeration of youth activities. |
| |during non-school hours |Time use log. Self report |
|Productive Use of Non-school time |An enumeration of youth involvement in productive use of |Self report |
| |non-school time | |
|Community Involvement |An enumeration of youth involvement in volunteering; |Self report |
| |community service; youth groups | |
Other Sources:
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site (). (Program Objectives).
Eccles, J. Templeton, J. & Brown, B. (forthcoming). A developmental framework for selecting indicators of well-being during adolescent and young adult years. Draft Report.
Networks for Youth Development. (1998). The handbook of positive youth outcomes. Second Edition. New York: Youth Development Institute, Fund for the City of New York.
Ripke, M., Huston, A.C., Eccles, J., & Templeton, J. (2001). The assessment o psychological, emotional and social development indicators in middle childhood. Prepared for Conference on Key Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing the Picture conference, June 14-21.
Roth, J.L., Borbely, C.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). Developing indicators of confidence, character, and caring in adolescents. Prepared for Conference on Child and Youth Indicators: Accomplishments and Future Directions. New York: Center for Children and Families, Teachers College, Columbia University.
Stagner, M.W. & Zweig, J.M. Indicators of youth well-being: Taking the long view. Paper Prepared for Conference on Key Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing the Picture, June 14-15. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.
U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Note: Many descriptions of outcomes scales and measures, including those from the footnoted compendium prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, were abstracted directly from their respective websites.
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-----------------------
[1] United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press. See glossary of outcome measurement terms for details.
[2] United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press.
[3] National Research Council (1998). Protecting Youth at Work. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
[4] Kourilsky, M.L., & Esfandiari, M. (1997). Entrepreneurship education and lower socioeconomic black youth: An empirical investigation. The Urban Review, 29(3), 205-215.
[5] Panel on High-Risk Youth. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high risk settings. Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
[6] The Future Entrepreneurs of America Act (H.R. 1331) was introduced in the 106th Congress to promote entrepreneurship education in grades 7 through 12.
[7] The School-to-Work Opportunities Act was passed in 1994 with the goal of reinvigorating entrepreneurship and vocational education programs which include coops, youth apprenticeships, and mentoring programs in which students participate in paid employment.
[8] Lowry, C. M. (1990). Helping at-risk youth make the school-to-work transition. ERIC Digest. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education.
[9] U.S. Department of Labor. Report on the Youth Labor Force. Revised, November 2000. Washington, D.C.: Author.
[10] Kourilsky & Esfandiari, 1997.
[11] Rasheed, H.S. (2000). The Effects of Entrepreneurial Training and Venture Creation on Youth Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Academic Performance. College of Business Administration, University of South Florida: Florida.
[12] Ashmore, M.C. (1990). Entrepreneurship in vocational education. In Entrepreneurship Education: Current Development, Future Promises. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
[13] Crain, R. Heebner, A. & Si, Y.P. (1992, April). The Effectiveness of New York City’s career magnet schools: An evaluation of ninth grade performance using an experimental design. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
[14] Jobs for the Future. (1995). Promising Practices. A Study of ten school-to career programs. Cambridge, MA: Author.
[15] Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000). Evidence of positive student outcomes in JROTC career academies. Santa Monica, CA: RAND; Hughes, K., Baily, & Mechur, M.J. (2001). School-to-work: Making a difference in education. New York: Institute on Education and the Economy, Teacher’s College, Columbia University.
[16] Leffert, N., Sairo, R.N., Blyth, D.A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the case: Measuring the impact of youth development programs. Minneapolis, MN: The Search Institute.
[17] Farkas, G., Sit, D., Stromsdorfer, E., Trask, G., & Jerret, R. (1982). Impacts from the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects: Participation, work, and schooling over the full program period. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Farkas, G., Olsen, R., Stromsdorfer, E., Sharpe, L., Skidmore, F., Smith, D., & Merrill, S. (1984). Post-program impacts of the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.
[18] D’Amico, R. (1984). Does employment during high school impair academic progress? Sociology of Education, 57, 152-164; U.S. Department of Labor (2000, November). Report on the Youth Labor Force. Washington, D.C.: Author.
[19] Jekielek, et al. (2001).
[20] Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). The relationship of youth employment to future educational attainment and labor market experience. In Report of the Youth Labor Force. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
[21] Valiquette, E. (1998). State Strengthening Community Project Overview. Available (On-line) http: 4h/cyfar/stst/ctcom5ov.htm; Kemple, J.J. & Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and work-based learning activities through employer partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G. & Quint, J. (1990). Career Beginnings impact evaluation: Findings from a program for disadvantaged high school students. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000).
[22] Valiquette (1998).
[23] Hamilton (1990).
[24] Walstad, W.B. & Kourilsky, M.L. (1996). The findings from a national survey of entrepreneurship and small business. Journal of Private Enterprise, 11(2), 21-32.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Jekielek, S., Hair, E., Moore, K., & Cochran, S. (2001). Employment initiatives and youth development: A synthesis. Draft Report prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, DC: Child Trends; Panel on High Risk Youth (1993).
[27] Schochet, P.Z., Burghardt, J., & Glazerman, S. (2000). National Job Corp study: The short-term impact of Job Corps on participants’ employment and related outcomes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor; Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc; Farkas, et al. (1984); Kemple, J.J., Poglinco, S. & Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and work-based learning activities through employer partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G., Bos, H., Doolittle, F., & Toussaint, C. (1993). Jobstart: Final report on a program for school dropouts. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.
[28] Hamilton, S. (1990). Apprenticeship for Adulthood. New York: Free Press.
[29] Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M.D. (1995). Work, family and adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.
[30] Hamilton (1990).
[31] Mortimer, et al. (1996).
[32] Lerman, R.I. (1999). Improving links between high schools and careers. In D.J. Besharov (Ed.), America’s Disconnected Youth: Towards a Preventative Strategy. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, CWLA Press.
[33] Lerman, R. (1996). Building hope, skills, and careers: Making a U.S. youth apprenticeship system. In I. Garfinkel, J. Hochschilld, & S. McLanahan (Eds.), Social Policies for Children (pp.136-172). Washington DC: The Brookings Institute.
[34] Burghardt, et al. (2001).
[35] Leffert, et al. (1996).
[36] Leffert, et al. (1996).
[37] Steinberg, L. & Cauffman, E. (1995). The impact of employment on adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.
[38] Brown, B. (2001). Teens, jobs and welfare: Implications for social policy. Washington, DC: Child Trends.
[39] Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. Kent, D. Sexton, & K. Vesper (Eds). The encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72-90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
[40] Krueger, N.F. & Brazeal, D.V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(2), 91-104.
[41] Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).
[42] Ibid
[43] Ibid.
[44] Krueger & Brazeal (1994).
[45] Kourilsky, M.L. (1995). Entrepreneurship education: Opportunity in search of curriculum. Business Education Forum, 50(10), 11-15.
[46] Development Associates, Inc. (1993). Awareness and attitudes of minority youth and young adults towards business ownership. Report of the Minority Business Development Agency, U.S. Department of Commerce.
[47] Dyer, W.G. (1994). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(2), 7-21.
[48] Kourilsy (1995).
[49] Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).
[50] Rasheed (2000).
[51] Ibid.
[52] Eric Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education. (1991). Vocational Education and Small Business Development. Digest No.118. (On-line) Available: databases/ERIC_Digests/ed338899.html
[53] Ashmore, M.C. (1989). The power of entrepreneurial vision. Vocational Education Journal, 64(8), 28-29.
[54] Rasheed (2000).
[55] Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).
[56] Steinberg & Cauffman (1995).
[57] Jonston, Bachman, & O’Malley (1982).
[58] Greenberg, E. & Steinberg, L. (1986). When teenagers work: The psychological and social costs of adolescent employment. New York: Basic Books.
[59] U.S. Department of Commerce (2000). What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor.
[60] Lerman (1999).
[61] Steinberg & Cauffman (1995).
[62] Pergamit, M.R. (1995). Assessing school to work transitions in the United States. Discussion Paper. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (Report: NLS 96-32).
[63] Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M.D., Ryu, S., Shanahan, M.J., & Call, K.T. (1996). The effects of work intensity on adolescent mental health, achievement and behavioral adjustment: New evidence from a prospective study. Child Development, 67(3), 1243-1261.
[64] Mortimer et al. (1996).
[65] Burghardt (2001).
[66] Steinberg, L., Fegley, S. & Dornbusch, S. (1993). Negative impacts of part-time work in adolescence: Replication and elaboration. Developmental Psychology, 17, 304-313.
[67] Yamoor, C. & Mortimer, J. (1990). Age and gender differences in the effect of employment on adolescent achievement and well-being. Youth and Society, 22, 225-240.
[68] Greenberger, E., & Steinberg, L.D. (1986). When teenagers work. New York: Basic Books.
[69] Mortimer et al. (1992).
[70] Bachman, J. G., Bare, D.E., & Frankiew, E.I. (1986). Correlates of employment among high school seniors. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
[71] Mihalic, S.W. & Elliott, D. (1997). Short and long term consequences of adolescent work. Youth and Society, 28(4), 464-498.
[72] Stevens, C.J., Ruchtell, L.A., Ryu, S., & Mortimer, J.T. (1992). Adolescent work and boys’ and girls’ orientation to the future. The Sociological Quarterly, 33(2), 153-169.
[73] Marsh, H.W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic goals? Sociology of Education, 64, 172-189.
[74]Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.
[75] National Research Council (1998).
[76] Ibid.
[77] Ibid.
[78] Ibid.
[79] Burghardt (2001).
[80] Manning, W.D. (1990). Parenting employed teenagers. Youth and Society, 22, 184-200.
[81] Steinberg & Cauffman (1993).
[82] Greenberger et al. (1980).
[83] United Way of America (1996). Measuring program outcomes: A practical approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press.
[84] The longer term outcomes of the DCCYIT (bolded in black), are derived from, DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation: Early Childhood Development Outcomes, Out-of-School Time Outcomes, Youth Entrepreneurship Outcomes. Provided to Child Trends during personal correspondence with Keith Watson.
[85] U.S. Department of Commerce. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor.
[86] Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[87] Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[88] Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[89] U.S. Department of Labor. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, DC: Author.
[90] Redd, Z. (2001). Educational attainment. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[91] Redd, Z. (2001). Arts participation, skills, and knowledge. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[92]
[93] Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[94] Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[95] Redd, Z. (2001). Grade repetition. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[96] Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[97] Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
[98] Brooks, J. (2001). Academic self-concept. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
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