Defining psychological abnormality



AS Psychology:

Unit 2 PSYA2 (May Exam)

Individual Differences Booklet 1 (of 2):

Defining and Explaining Psychological Abnormality

Definitions of Psychological Abnormality

“Abnormality” is a surprisingly difficult phenomenon to define. Many psychologists have tried and four of those attempts appear in this booklet. None have managed to provide a comprehensive definition and each has several limitations.

Here is a general overview of each definition:

Definition 1: Deviation from Social Norms (DSN)

Norms are commonly expected standards of behaving in a society according to the majority. In other words, they are accepted ways of behaving in society.

Sometimes these are written (explicit) and form laws that govern behaviour. Sometimes though, these norms of behaviour are unwritten (implicit) but generally accepted (e.g. not standing too close to people whilst talking to them).

Whether explicit or implicit, social norms allow for the regulation of normal social behaviour. All societies have standards, or norms, for appropriate behaviours and beliefs (expectations about how people should behave as well as what they should think).

This definition, therefore, suggests that abnormality can be seen as someone who breaks these ‘rules of society’ (i.e. someone who doesn’t think or behave in a way that is accepted by that society).

Link this definition to a disorder:

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Limitations of the DSN definition

Definition 2: Failure to Function Adequately (FFA)

“Failing to function” is generally taken to mean that a person is unable to cope with everyday life. Their behaviour is seen as maladaptive (not good for survival), disrupting their ability to work and conduct satisfying relationships and causes personal distress as well as distress to others.

Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) have suggested some key characteristics of ‘failing to function adequately’:

1. Observer Distress (or Discomfort)- Where someone’s behaviour causes discomfort and distress others observing the behaviour.

2. Maladaptive Behaviour- Where someone’s behaviour interferes with their ability to lead a normal life (e.g. agoraphobia) it can be seen as maladaptive or dysfunctional. This characteristic is central to the FFA definition.

3. Unpredictable Behaviour- We rely on the behaviour of people around us being predictable. Behaviour is unpredictable if it does not fit the situation or if it is unexpected and uncontrolled (e.g. sobbing for no reason or laughing at bad news).

4. Irrational Behaviour- If a person’s behaviour doesn’t make sense to other people (difficult to understand) or if others cannot communicate with them in a reasonable way; their behaviour is often classed as irrational.

Link this definition to a disorder:

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Limitations of the FFA definition

Definition 3: Deviation from Ideal Mental Health (DIMH)

This definition stands out by not defining abnormality directly. Instead, it attempts to define a state if ideal mental health (factors necessary for ‘optimal living’). Deviation from these would then be defined as abnormality.

Marie Jahoda (1958) defined ideal mental health through a list of characteristics indicates psychological health and therefore the absence of the characteristics (rather than presence as with the FFA definition) suggests abnormality.

Characteristics for ‘Optimal Living’:

1. Strong sense of self-Identity - A psychologically healthy individual should be in touch with their own identity and feelings.

2. Resistant to stress - Someone with ideal mental health should be resistant to stress and its negative effects.

3. Self-actualisation - The mentally healthy individual should also be focused on the future and on fulfilling their potential (self-actualisation).

4. Autonomy - They should function as autonomous individuals, recognising their own needs and with an accurate perception of reality.

5. Empathy – The individual should show understanding towards others.

The fewer of these qualities you have, the more abnormal you are seen to be.

Link this definition to a disorder:

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Limitations of the DIMH definition

Exam-Style Questions:

1) Outline one definition of abnormality. (3 marks)

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(2) The following are examples of different definitions of abnormality:

A) The behaviour is very different from the behaviour shown by most people

in the population.

B) The behaviour prevents the person from achieving self-actualisation or

personal autonomy.

C) The behaviour means that the person cannot cope with everyday activities.

D) The behaviour is very different from behaviour that is generally regarded

as acceptable.

(a) Write which example A, B, C or D matches each of the definitions in the table.

(3 marks)

|Definition of abnormality |Example of the definition |

|Failure to function adequately | |

|Deviation from ideal mental health | |

|Deviation from social norms | |

(b) Select two of the definitions in the table and explain one limitation of each definition. (2+2 marks)

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c) Explain two weaknesses of the ‘failure to function adequately’ definition of abnormality. (4 marks)

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(2) Before leaving the house each morning, Angus has to go round checking that all the lights are switched off. He has to do this several times before he leaves and it makes him late for work.

a) Give one definition of abnormality. (1 mark)

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b) Use this definition to explain why Angus’ behaviour might be viewed as abnormal. (2 marks)

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Approaches to Psychopathology

Whereas definitions of abnormality are to do with outlining WHAT abnormality is, approaches to abnormality are to do with trying to explain WHY some people are abnormal. Do not confuse the two!

There are four main approaches to abnormality, one of them is biological (the biological approach) and three of them are psychological (the psychodynamic, behavioural and cognitive approaches):

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Definition:

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Assumptions of the biological approach:

There are two main assumptions that biological psychologists make regarding psychopathology:

Methods used to Investigate the Biological Approach:

Twin studies: have been used to investigate this possibility. For example, pairs of identical (monozygotic) twins are compared to see if one twin has a disorder that the other twin shares. This provides us with a concordance rate (a number to represent the level agreement or similarity between twins in terms of how much they share the same disorder). There are low concordance rates for some mental disorders (e.g. phobias) but quite high concordance rates for others (e.g. schizophrenia).

Family studies: are used to assess whether relatives of people with certain mental disorders (e.g. schizophrenia) have high or low concordance rates. The more closely related the family member is, the more likely they should be to share the same disorder if there is a genetic basis for that disorder.

Adoption Studies: are also particularly useful to biological psychologists. This is because studies like twin and family studies try to suggest if your twin or family member shares a mental disorder, it must be down to genes but in fact, it could be their shared environment that is the important common factor, rather than their shared genes. Adoption studies are useful because they solve this problem.

Adoption studies also try to establish a concordance rate between biologically related family members to see if they share the same mental disorders, only here, when children have been adopted, they have often grown up in very different environments to their biological family members allowing us to disentangle nature and nurture.

Evaluation of the Biological Approach

Exam-Style Questions on the Biological Approach to Psychopathology:

1, “Outline key features of the biological approach to psychpathology” (6 marks)

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2, “One assumption of the biological approach to psychopathology is that abnormality is inherited”

Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the genetic basis of abnormality. (4 marks)

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3, “Explain two criticisms of the biological approach to psychopathology”

(2 + 2 marks)

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4, Outline and evaluate the biological approach to abnormality. (12 marks)

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Background to the psychodynamic approach:

Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach:

Freud’s psychodynamic approach assumes that adult behaviour reflects complex interactions between conscious and unconscious forces operating within the ‘psyche’. The two key elements of Freud’s work on abnormality were his model of the structure of personality (model of the ‘human psyche’) and his detailed theory of psychosexual development in childhood:

1, The psyche and ‘intra-psychic conflict’

The psyche – In Freudian psychoanalysis, the mind, or psyche, is seen as being governed by three main mental processes – innate drives, reason and morality.

The ld: This part of the psyche is instinctual psychic energy that we are born with. The most important aspect of this psychic energy is the libido (sexual energy). The Id operates on the pleasure principle and constantly tries to gratify these instincts through sex and other forms of pleasurable activity, but may also lead to aggression and violence.

The Ego: This part of the psyche represents our conscious self and it develops during early childhood (around 2 years old). It tries to balance the demands of the id for self-gratification with the moral rules imposed by the superego. The ego operates on the reality principle as it constantly balances the demands of the real world against the instinctive drives of the id. Due to this, it is also referred to as the executive of the personality.

The Superego: This is our personal moral authority, or conscience. It develops later in childhood (around the age of 5 or 6) through identification with one or other parent, at which point the child internalises the moral rules and social norms of society.

Intra-psychic Conflict – If, within the psyche, the ego fails to balance the demands of the id and the superego, conflicts may arise and this can result in the development of psychological disorders.

If the ID is not kept in check by the ego then a person

acts on their immediate desires and impulses, whatever

they may be, which can result in destructive behaviour,

pleasurable acts and uninhibited sexual behaviour.

If the SUPEREGO is not kept in check by the ego

then a person deprives themselves of any sort of

desires/impulses (even socially acceptable ones) which

can result in anxiety disorders such as phobias and OCD.

Ego defence mechanisms – One important consequence of

intra-psychic conflict between the id, ego and superego is anxiety. In order to protect (defend) itself against this, the ego tries to maintain its balancing act using what Feud called ego defence mechanisms. The ego has three main defence mechanisms:

|Ego Defence Mechanism |Description |

| |Repression occurs when negative experiences are ‘pushed’ into the unconscious. They do not disappear but the |

|Repression |individual is unaware of them. However, such repressed conflicts can eventually emerge as symptoms of anxiety or |

| |other emotional disorders (e.g. phobias). |

| |Displacement occurs when an unacceptable drive such as hatred is moved (displaced) from its primary target to a |

|Displacement |more acceptable target. E.g. Hatred towards your father is socially unacceptable so the child displaces it, for |

| |instance, on to a brother or sister. |

| |Denial occurs when as individual, child or adult, refuses to accept that a particular event has actually happened. |

|Denial |E.g. The surviving partner of a long, happy marriage may act like their husband/wife was still alive. |

Ego defence mechanisms protect our conscious self from the anxiety produced by unconscious intra-psychic conflict. If they are unsuccessful, this anxiety may reveal itself through clinical disorders such as phobias and generalised anxiety.

There are a number of other ego defence mechanisms than the ones listed above. and one of the aims of psychodynamic therapy (treatment) is to break through these defences to reveal the underlying conflicts and deal with them.

2, Psychosexual development

According to Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, each child goes through a series of stages where the instinctive energy of the id looks for gratification form different areas of the body: the so-called erogenous zones. If the developing child is either deprived or over-gratified at a particular stage they may become fixated at this stage and this will affect their adult behaviour.

1, Oral stage – This lasts from birth to about 18 months. Id impulses are satisfied by feeding, and so the mouth is the focus of this stage. Key activities include sucking initially, and then as teeth develop, biting.

Fixation: ……………………..….. …………………….........................

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2, Anal stage – This takes place from 18 months to about 3 years of age. During this time, gratification focuses on the anus. Key activities revolve around retaining and expelling faeces. This is a significant stage in Freudian theory as for the first time the child can exert some control over its environment. He or she can choose to obey or disobey by expelling or retaining faeces.

Fixation: …………………………………………………………………...

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3, Phallic stage – After the anal stage comes the phallic stage, which lasts from age 3 until age 4 or 5, where the focus is on the genitals and gratification comes through genital stimulation. This is a key stage in sexual development as gender differences are noticed and psychosexual development differs between the sexes.

Fixation: ………………………………………………………………………

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4, Latency period – During this period from four or five up to puberty, psychosexual development enters a latent period, to re-emerge at puberty. At puberty, sexual feelings become less focused on the self and are instead directed at potential partners (friendships).

Methods of Investigating the

Psychodynamic Approach:

Case studies – Much of Freudian theory of psychoanalysis was based on case studies. A case study is a detailed study of a single individual. Case studies offer an in-depth insight into behaviour. Examples of Freud’s case studies include Anna O (who suffered from paralysis on her right side as well as difficulty drinking) and Little Hans (who had a fear of horses pulling carts).

Can you think of any problems with basing theories on case studies in this way though? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Experiments – Although Freud himself opposed the use of experimental methods to test his theory, many psychologists since Freud have used experiments to test his approach. Fisher and Greenberg (1996) reviewed over 2,500 experimental studies of Freudian hypotheses, with many of Freud’s major claims, receiving experimental support.

One major problem with experimentally testing Freudian ideas though, is that whether the participants show evidence of Freudian causes of abnormality or not, either way the findings can be used to support Freud. Can you think why?

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Evaluation of the Psychodynamic Approach

Typical Exam Questions on the Psychodynamic Approach:

1, “Outline key features of the psychodynamic approach to psychpathology”

(4 marks)

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2, Outline and evaluate the psychodynamic approach to psychopathology

(12 marks)

THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Background to the Behavioural model:

Assumptions of the behavioural approach:

According to behaviourists, there are three main forms of learning:

1. Classical conditioning – learning by association

2. Operant conditioning – learning by reinforcement (punishments and rewards)

3. Social learning – learning by watching others in society be rewarded

Classical Conditioning

This is learning behaviour by association and involves unconditioned (natural) responses or reflexes. Although it seems a long way from complex human behaviour it does appear to have a role in some forms of psychopathology.

The case study of ‘Little Albert’ (Watson and Rayner, 1920):

Link to a disorder:

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2. Operant Conditioning

This is learning behaviour by reinforcement. Skinner (1974) was the major figure in developing this theory which suggests that we learn through a process of rewards and punishments. Although it sounds simple, Skinner was able to show that quite complex patterns of behaviour could be learned or modified by schedules of reinforcement (the pattern of rewards and punishments used to ‘shape behaviour’ through, for example, continuous or occasional rewards and reward withdrawal).

Punishment discourages certain behaviours and decreases the probability that the behaviour will be repeated. In terms of psychopathology, this can result in adaptive behaviours being discouraged.

Link this to a disorder:

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3. Social Learning Theory

Bandura extended the idea of operant conditioning by demonstrating that human participants could learn by watching others being rewarded for particular behaviours. This learning by observing another’s actions and their consequences is known as vicarious learning. People tend to imitate models that are rewarded but will not imitate models that are punished. This can result in maladaptive behaviours being reinforced.

Methods of Investigating the

Behavioural Approach:

Experiments – Because the behavioural model concentrates only on observable behaviours, the most appropriate method of testing behaviourist assumptions is the experiment. This is because it is easy to manipulate an independent variable (e.g. reward or no reward) and directly observe the effect it has on the participant (in terms of observable learning). Experiments have been used widely by behaviourists to demonstrate the effects of learning on behaviour.

Animal Studies – The same basic laws of learning apply to both human and non-human animals. As a result, behaviourists often conduct research on non-human animals, such as rats and pigeons, and make generalisations to human behaviour. Much of the behavioural approach to psychopathology, such as the principles of classical and operant conditioning has been established through the study of non-human animals.

Can you think of any problems with using non-human animals for research in this way?

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Evaluation of the Behavioural Approach

Exam-Style Questions on the Behavioural Approach to Psychopathology:

(1) Outline key features of the behavioural approach to psychpathology

(3 marks)

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2, Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the behavioural approach to abnormality. (4 marks)

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THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Background to the Cognitive model:

Cognitive psychologists are heavily influenced by the behavioural approach but, for them, rather than abnormal behaviour being a result of a simple stimulus-response mechanism; it is the thinking in between stimulus and response that is responsible for the feeling component of the response.

Therefore, the cognitive approach assumes mental disorders can be linked directly to distortions in the thinking process.

Assumptions of the cognitive approach:

1 Cognitive Bias

Cognitive psychologists believe human behaviour is heavily influenced by schemata. Schemata are organised systems of knowledge that we use to understand and interpret the world. Many of these schemata relate to how we see ourselves (e.g. ‘I am confident and self-assertive’). Schemata develop on the basis of early experience. Traumatic or unhappy experiences early in life may lead to the development of negative schemata (e.g. insecure attachment may lead to the schemata of ‘I am not loved and will always be alone’).

Negative schemata, when activated lead to Negative Automatic Thoughts (or NATs). In the cognitive approach, negative automatic thoughts are irrational and maladaptive; no one need always be alone, no one is unsuccessful at everything. They can be identified in the cognitive biases that depressed people apply when they interpret situations. Cognitive biases prevent the person focusing on the positive side of life and reinforce negative views.

|Cognitive Bias |Explanation |

|Minimisation |The bias towards minimising success in life. For example, putting an excellent exam result down to luck on the day.|

|Maximisation |The bias towards maximising the importance of even trivial failures. For example, failing to complete a difficult |

| |task as a sign of general stupidity. |

|All or nothing |A tendency to see life in terms of black and white and ignoring the middle ground. For example, believing you are a|

|Thinking |success or a failure, rather than good at some things and less good at others. |

2, Negative triad

One of the clearest examples of the cognitive approach to psychopathology is Beck’s model of depression, known as the negative triad (sometimes also referred to as the cognitive triad).

Beck uses the term negative triad to refer to the three main forms of negative thinking – negative views of:

1) The self (‘I am worthless’),

2) The world (‘Everything is against me’)

3) The future (Nothing will ever change’).

Beck argues that this triad of negative thoughts will lead to negative emotions and this may result in depression.

Methods of Investigating the

Cognitive Approach:

Experiments – Like the behavioural model, assumptions of the cognitive model can be tested experimentally. For example, Thase et al (2007) compared cognitive therapy with antidepressant drugs.

Meta-analysis – Meta-analyses are used to investigate the cognitive approach as well. This involves looking at the findings of a number of studies in order to reach a general conclusion.

Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach

Further Exam-style Questions on ‘Approaches’

1) (a) The following are four approaches to the understanding of mental

disorders.

A Psychodynamic

B Behaviourist

C Cognitive

D Biological

In the table below, write down which approach, A, B, C or D, is associated with each assumption. (3 marks)

|Assumptions about abnormality |Approach |

|People become ill because of negative thoughts. | |

|People become ill due to an imbalance of neurotransmitters. | |

|People become ill due to unresolved unconscious conflicts. | |

b) Select one of the approaches, A, B, C or D, and explain one strength of this approach. (3 marks)

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2) Which two of the following statements (A-E) apply to the behavioural approach to psychopathology? Tick the two correct boxes. (2 marks)

|A |Unresolved conflicts in childhood affect adult behaviour. | |

|B |All behaviour is learned in the same way. | |

|C |Abnormal behaviour is caused by faulty thinking. | |

|D |The same basic laws that explain animal behaviour can also explain human behaviour. | |

|E |Irrational thoughts lead to abnormal behaviour. | |

The Case Study of ‘Robert’

Robert was an underweight 8-year-old who had always been very reluctant to go to school. Every school night he ate very little, and even that was brought up later. He became increasingly anxious as the evening wore on. When he couldn’t get to sleep he would cry, and his mother would come and sit with him and tell him stores.

In the morning Robert got up early and paced up and down

or sat in a corner, occasionally rushing to the toilet to be sick.

When it was time to go to school he had to be pushed out of the house, though often his tears and complaints of feeling unwell led his mother to relent and allow him to stay home.

If Robert did go to school, there was some comfort in the fact that his mother would visit at playtime, bringing milk and biscuits. She came because that was part of the ‘deal’ about going to school, but also because she would otherwise worry about Robert.

Robert surprisingly got on quite well with the other children and was well liked, despite crying on the way to school and often acting like a baby. He was good at athletics and quite bright. He did not like being away from home for anything – he did not go to play at friends’ houses. But it wasn’t just being away from home that caused the problem – Robert was simply terrified of school.

Try and apply the three definitions of abnormality to Robert’s case…

DSN:

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FFA:

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DIMH:

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Would you class any of these people as abnormal??

Write Yes or No in the first column if you could define any of the cases as abnormal according to one or more of the definitions we have looked at.

Method of defining abnormality

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| |Yes / No |DSN |F2F |DMH |

|Peter likes to sit next to people on the | | | | |

|bus even when plenty of other seats are | | | | |

|available | | | | |

|Sara is a child genius who took her maths | | | | |

|A-level at the age of 5 | | | | |

|Sammy talks to his pets | | | | |

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|Pamela is so stressed at work that she | | | | |

|takes 6 months off | | | | |

|Paula believes that someone is watching her| | | | |

|every move | | | | |

|Frank is a cannibal | | | | |

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|Neville is afraid to leave the house | | | | |

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|Tommy finds it impossible to form | | | | |

|relationships with other people | | | | |

CHARACTERISTICS ACTIVITY!

(FFA and DIMH Characteristics)

The last 2 definitions of abnormality contain a list of characteristics:

• The failure to function adequately definition (FFA) uses a list of qualities that, when present, indicate psychological abnormality.

• The deviation from ideal mental health definition (DIMH) definition contains a list of qualities for ideal mental health. Therefore the absence of these qualities suggests abnormality.

Draw a table with 2 headings “failure to function” and “deviation from ideal mental health”. Put each of the following characteristics into the appropriate definition.

1. Self-actualisation - The mentally healthy individual should also be

focused on the future and on fulfilling their potential (self-actualisation).

2. Observer Distress - Where someone’s behaviour causes

discomfort and distress to the observer.

3. Strong sense of self-Identity - A psychologically healthy individual should

be in touch with their own identity and feelings.

4. Resistance to stress - Someone with ideal mental health should be

resistant to stress and its negative effects.

5. Irrational Behaviour- If a person’s behaviour doesn’t make sense to other

people (difficult to understand) or if others cannot communicate with them

in a reasonable way; their behaviour is often classed as irrational.

6. Autonomy - They should function as autonomous individuals, recognising

their own needs and with an accurate perception of reality.

7. Unpredictable Behaviour- We rely on the behaviour of people around us

being predictable. Behaviour is unpredictable if it does not fit the situation

or if it is uncontrolled (e.g. laughing about bad news).

8. Empathy – The individual should show understanding towards others.

9. Maladaptive Behaviour- Where someone’s behaviour interferes with their

ability to lead a normal life (e.g. agoraphobia) it can be seen as

maladaptive or dysfunctional.

LIMITATIONS ACTIVITY!

(Limitations of the definitions of abnormality)

In groups of 3 or 4 decide which criticism goes with which definition? Write DSN, FFA or DIMH next to each limitation depending on which definition you think each limitation goes with…

1. The list of characteristics in this definition are ethnocentric and ignore collectivist cultures

2. This definition does not take into account the problem that behaviour that looks like maladaptive is admired and respected by many.

3. this definition ignores the fact that acceptable behaviour changes over time

4. this definition does not distinguish between social deviance and psychological disturbance

5. the list of characteristics in this definition are too demanding, making most people abnormal

6. this definition ignores the fact that what is deemed ‘acceptable behaviour’ changes over time

7. Failing to function does not always indicate psychological abnormality.

8. A problem with this definition is that psychological disorders may not prevent a person from living a relatively normal everyday life.

9. This definition ignores the fact that what is seen not being able to live a normal everyday life looks very different depending on the culture you are in.

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3 Definitions Of Abnormality

Background to the biological approach:

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The brain is the focus for most biological psychologists as it is the processing centre controlling all complex behaviour. It is argued that, in theory, all behaviour, normal and abnormal, can be related to changes in brain activity.

Brain scanning techniques such as PET or CAT scans are often used to find evidence for the physical basis for psychological abnormality. The biological model is favoured by medicine and psychiatry - the branch of medicine that specialises in mental disorders.

The Psychodynamic Approach

(psychological)

Specification:

• Definitions of abnormality, including deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health, and limitations associated with these definitions of psychological abnormality

• Key features of the biological approach to psychopathology

• Key features of psychological approaches to psychopathology including the psychodynamic, behavioural and cognitive approaches.

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1. The brain

As all behaviour is associated with changes in brain function, psychopathology will be caused by changes in either the structure or function of the brain. This might involve changes in the size of brain structures, or in the activity of brain neurotransmitters and hormones.

For example, biological psychologists suggest that mental disorders may be due to an imbalance of chemicals in the brain. In other words, there may be too much or too little of a certain neurotransmitter or hormone (i.e., bio-chemicals). These bio-chemicals can affect mood and behaviour, potentially causing mental illness.

“Normal” people abide by societies rules, therefore….

Unacceptable behaviour is abnormal.

“Normal” people do normal things, e.g. get out of bed, go to work…

Those that can’t cope with daily life are abnormal.

Having social relationships, and an accurate view of the world is normal…

The absence of these things is abnormal.

The characteristics are too idealistic…

This means the criteria for optimal living are set too high. Evidence to support this comes from Maslow (1968) who argued that only a few people ever achieve ‘self-actualisation’. This is a limitation because if this is true, most of us would be considered abnormal based on the requirements of this definition.

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The Cognitive Approach (psychological)

Can you think of a mnemonic to help you remember the key characteristics?

O -

M -

U -

I -

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The Biological Approach (not psychological)

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What key skills will I cover in this booklet?

Communication: C2.1a, C3.1a, C3.1b

ICT: IT2.1, ICT2.3

Psychopathology

“I’m Freud and I believe that abnormalities result from unconscious processes rather than physical causes.”

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The

Behavioural Approach (psychological)

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Social norms differ between cultures…

Does not distinguish between deviant behaviour and mental disturbance…

There are many behaviours that are clearly socially deviant but are not considered to be psychological abnormalities. (e.g. a drink-driver has broken a social norm (and the law) but psychiatrists would not class them as psychologically abnormal as such). This is problematic because the deviation from social norms definition would class them as abnormal

The definition is ‘ethnocentric’…

This means the criteria may be based on and limited to one culture.

Psychological research often identifies two types of culture:

Individualistic: Cultures that place their emphasis on personal achievement

Collectivist: Cultures that strive for the greater good of the community.

Which culture would be seen as abnormal according to Jahoda’s criteria? Why?

For example, they can be seen as reflecting Western, individualistic culture (e.g. North-American) and not collectivist cultures.This is a problem because it means the definition may be biased and whole cultures may be seen as ‘abnormal’ because of this.

Can you think of a mnemonic to help you remember the characteristics?

S –

R –

S –

A –

E –

2. Genetics

The development of the body, including the brain, is heavily influenced by genetics. Biological psychologists tend to assume that most behaviours, normal and abnormal, involve a component genetically inherited from the biological parents.

Biological psychologists, then, are very much on the nature side of the nature-nurture debate. There is research evidence from a range of sources suggesting psychological abnormality is passed on through family lines.

Psychopathology: is the term psychologists use to refer to the study of mental illness.

Reductionistic…

This means the approach reduces the complex issues down to its most basic elements or parts. For example, it suggests that complex mental disorders are caused solely by our biology. This is a problem because it ignores the role of the environment, such as our childhood and the stressors within our lives and, as a result, the biological approach may be too simplistic.

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Social norms change over time…

Behaviour that looks like FFA is admired and respected by many…

Equally, psychological disorders may not prevent a person from functioning…

Failing to function does not always indicate psychological abnormality…

This means that sometimes people ‘fail to function’ due to external factors rather than anything to do with the person themselves. For example, holding down a job and supporting a family may be impossible due to economic conditions or workplace discrimination. This is problematic as these environmental factors may cause the failure to function rather than any psychological abnormality.

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Evidence to support genetic explanations…

Kendler et al. (1985) found that relatives of schizophrenics were 18 times more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia than would normally be expected. It was concluded that genes seem to play an important role in whether or not a person will develop schizophrenia.

Why is this positive?

Modern techniques have identified biological aspects of many psychopathologies…

This means psychologists have identified biological symptoms in a range of mental disorders. For example, depression seems to be associated with low levels of the neurotransmitter, serotonin, while schizophrenia has been linked to increased levels of the neurotransmitter, dopamine. In addition, brain scans have revealed that some patients with schizophrenia appear to have brain pathology (i.e. loss of tissue in certain areas of the brain).

Why is this positive?

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Deterministic…

This means that the approach suggests our behaviour is ruled by genes or by chemical imbalances. For example, according to this approach, if a person develops a mental health issue, this may have been ‘pre-programmed’ and there is nothing the person can do to avoid it. This is problematic as it ignores the human characteristic of free will.

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Influential…

This means the approach has stimulated lots of further research and influenced a number of psychologists. For example, Ainsworth’s research into attachment types. This is positive as it has improved our understanding of psychopathology and Freud remains one of the most influential psychologists of all time.

Support for repression…

Many studies have found that adults that suffered sexual abuse during childhood have gone on to experience adult anxiety, depression and eating disorders. This supports the psychodynamic approach as it suggests the early traumatic experience had been repressed and was revealing itself in the form of psychological disorders.

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Unscientific…

This means many of the concepts proposed by psychodynamic psychologists cannot be directly observed and measured. For example, concepts like the Id, Ego and Superego and processes such as repression cannot be scientifically tested. This is problematic because psychologists believe that a good approach should provide an opportunity to be empirically tested.

Freud’s theory lacks temporal validity…

This means his theory of normal and abnormal behaviour was developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Vienna and so aspects of it are clearly related to this historical period. For example, the culture of the time may have far more sexually suppressed than today’s much more sexually liberal societies in the Western world. This is problematic as it brings into question the usefulness of Freud’s theory in modern day society and the approach may not generalise to modern times.

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Requires a subjective judgement on how many criteria need to be lacking before we are seen to be ‘deviating from ideal mental health’…

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“We’re the behaviourists and we believe that all behaviour – both normal and abnormal – is learned”

A Blank Slate

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Behaviourism insisted that psychology should be the study of observable behaviour rather than the inner workings of the mind. Unlike mental processes, behaviour can be directly observed. This provides the foundation for a scientific psychology based on empirical evidence – ‘hard facts’ which can be observed and measured in the laboratory.

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Reward encourages certain behaviours by means of rewards.

In terms of psychopathology, a psychological disorder is learned when a maladaptive behaviour is reinforced.

Link this to a disorder:

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Link this to a disorder:

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Scientific…

This means the approach focuses on observable and measurable behaviour. For example, the phobia developed by Little Albert was clear for all to see and measure. This is positive because it allows concepts such as classical conditioning to be demonstrated scientifically and has resulted in a large amount of empirical support for behavioural theories.

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Reductionistic…

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Extrapolation..

This means that much of the laboratory evidence for behaviourism comes from studies of non-human animals. For example, rats have been widely used by behaviourists such as B.F. Skinner to demonstrate conditioning. This is a problem because, since humans and animals are very different, it’s difficult to generalise non-human animal findings to humans.

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Deterministic…

This means the model suggests that our behaviour is ruled by environmental factors outside of our control. For example, rewards and punishments in operant conditioning might determine whether we develop a mental disorder.

Why is this a problem?

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“We’re the cognitive psychologists and we believe that abnormality is caused by errors in thinking”

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Therapy based on the cognitive approach as effective as drugs in treating depression:

This means research indicates that therapy which aims to change the way in which people think is effective. For example, research has shown cognitive therapy is as effective as Prozac in treating depression. This is positive as it suggests that the causes must at least in part be due to errors in thinking.

Support for the negative triad

This means there is plenty of evidence to support Beck’s theory of thinking and depression. Evidence to support Beck has indicated that compared to non-depressed people, depressed individuals are more negative in terms of themselves, the world, and the future. This is positive as it suggests the negative triad is an accurate illustration of depressed thinking.

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Blames the patient…

This means the cognitive model suggests the disorder is simply seen to be in the patients mind and recovery lies in changing that and this may lead to situational factors being overlooked. For example, family problems may be ignored. This is a problem because it may be unhelpful to place a large burden of blame on a person prone to negative thoughts and depression

Difficulties in establishing cause and effect:

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Extension Material

AO1

AO2

AO1

AO2

AO2

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12 Mark Question on the Behavioural Approach:

AO1 (6 marks) – Description of the assumptions of the approach

AO2 (6 marks) – Evaluation of the model, using the AO2 points from the speech bubbles

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The future

The self

The world

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