Stages of Psychosocial Development



Stages of Psychosocial DevelopmentLacey HastingsStenberg CollegePsychologyNicole NicholasStages of Psychosocial DevelopmentPeople are continually developing throughout life, from ‘womb to tomb’; but how, when or why do we develop? How do we become the people we are? There are many interpretations of how we as humans develop over time, some say nature, some say nurture, some say we go through stages and some say it’s a continuous process. Erikson (1963) believes we go through stages and development results from the continuous interaction of the individual and the social environment (Newman & Newman, 2011). Therefor he introduced the theory of psychosocial development, consisting of eight stages, beginning at infancy to late adulthood. A personMoves from the comfort of competence at each life stage in order to master the challenges of the next stage. Erikson suggests that each stage of life has its own issue or ‘crisis’ that needs resolution, and the individual may move forward, backward, or remain stuck (Marcia, 2010). This paper will focus on these eight psychosocial development stages, the issues that present, tasks involved, and the strengths and adaption or the setbacks that result and how this theory assists in the understanding of mental illness.Erikson’s theory of psychosocial developmental stages, starts with infancy (to 1 year), where the infant faces a crisis that concerns basic trust versus basic mistrust (Fleming, 2004). The crucial social interactions at this stage are with the mother or the mother surrogate. The child needs to learn basic trust and mistrust; if the child’s needs are dependably met, they develop a sense of basic trust (Myers, 2007); and the opposite if needs are neglected. It is suggested that the strength in this stage is hope; the expectation that difficulties in life, presenting whatever challenges they may, will eventually result in a positive outcome (Fleming, 2004), and the consequences or the antithesis of hope is a lack of hope and withdrawal.The second stage in psychosocial development is toddlerhood (1 to 2 years), where the toddler struggles between autonomy and shame/doubt. The toddler tries to gain control over bodily functions, and motor skills; they start to do things for themselves however can become shameful and doubt their abilities (Fleming, 2004). Parents can often increase shame, either unintentionally (lack of patience) or intentionally (anger or ridicule), it is suggested that at this stage parents must establish – and children desperately need – rules or standards of proper behavior (Fleming, 2004). ‘Will’ is the strength in this stage, compulsion- the negative core weakness.The Preschooler (3 to 5 years) is the next psychosocial stage. In this stage the child learns to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent (Myers, 2007). At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. They face the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment and they learn to take initiative. However the child can be discouraged by the parent, and therefor feel guilty for their needs and desires; thus while the basic strength associated with this period is a sense of purpose; the core weakness is inhibition and can result in guilt and potentially aggressive behavior (Fleming, 2004).The fourth stage is elementary school (6 years to puberty), where the child faces the issue of competence vs. inferiority (Myers, 2007). Children are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals, they are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills; therefor Erikson viewed these years as critical for the development of self-confidence (Fleming,2004). If children are not encouraged and praised during this stage, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities (Fleming, 2004). It is suggested that Successful resolution of crisis at this stage stems largely from preparation at earlier stages (Fleming, 2004).The fifth stage of psychosocial development is Adolescence (teen years into 20’s), where the crisis involves Identity vs. role confusion (Myers, 2007). These teen years are a turning point of increased vulnerability and heightened potential (Erikson 1968; as cited in Fleming, 2004). Erikson calls the quest in this stage, ‘adolescent’s search for identity’, teens must learn ‘who they are’. They do so by trying out different roles, or ‘selves’ and integrating them to form a single identity (Myers, 2007). The issues that arise are role confusion; the individual could be confused about who they are and what their ‘purpose’ is. The next stage is Young adulthood (20’s to early 40’s) where the issue of intimacy vs. isolation arises. Intimacy or closeness, and mutual sharing with another are the basic strength of this stage, and isolation is the weakness (Fleming, 2004).Erikson believed that intimacy between two people as a couple was only possible when each had developed a strong sense of identity separately (Fleming, 2004). Once ones identity is established they become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships, with sacrifices and compromises. If people cannot form these intimate relationships – perhaps because of their own needs – a sense of isolation may result.Middle Adulthood (40’s to 60’s) is the next psychosocial stage, where the crisis is ‘generativity vs. Stagnation’; where people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose (Myers, 2007). Fulfillment in life is central to this stage, and Erikson’s believes this doesn’t necessarily mean a person needs to have children But it does require the ability to care for and about others (Fleming, 2004); the opposite of this being stagnation, or the loss of self in self-absorption.Late Adulthood (late 60’s and up) is the last stage in psychosocial development, and is concerned with Integrity and despair (Myers, 2007). Integrity in the later years of life implies acceptance of a life that was well-lived; however to be fulfilled does not mean that one hasLed a perfect life! It is about self-forgiveness when called for, and taking into account positive and negative factors of one’s past (Fleming, 2004) Despair, however, implies a lack of further hope- a feeling that one has wasted one’s life.According to Erikson’s theory each of our life stages brings a normative crisis, which can be viewed as a tension between one’s competencies and the new demands of society (Newman & Newman, 2011). People try to reduce this tension by using familiar coping strategies and by learning new ones. A positive resolution of each crisis provides a new set of social abilities that enhances a person’s capacity to adapt successfully in the succeeding stage (Newman & Newman, 2011) A negative resolution of a crisis typically results in defensiveness, rigidity, or withdrawal, which decrease a person’s ability to adapt successfully in succeeding stages (Newman & Newman, 2011).Therefor with Erikson’s theory we can have a better understanding of where an individual is at in their psychosocial development. With his theory we know the stages in which a healthy individual is supposed to develop throughout the lifespan, which social abilities they should acquire and thus have a better understanding in determining when there was an unsuccessful resolution of ‘crisis’ or unsuccessful adaption, and the difficulties an individual may be facing (Varcarolis & Halter, 2010). We know that there are many psychosocial factors that influence mental health and that mental illness can be caused or influenced by life experiences, as well as maladjusted cognitive and behavioral processes (Varcarolis & Halter, 2010). With Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development we can have a better understanding of why certain mental health issues and behaviors are present, where they originated, what issues the individual is facing, and what they may need to do to move forward. Let’s take a look some of Erikson’s stages again, and where mental health issues may develop. In the first stage (infancy) with the psychosocial crisis of ‘trust vs. mistrust’ it is suggested that the degree to which a child comes to trust the world, other people and himself depends to a considerable extent upon the quality of the care that he receives(Elkind, n.d.). Therefor if a child’s needs are met when they arise, whose discomforts are quickly removed, who is cuddled, fondled, played with and talked to, develops a sense of the world as a safe place to be and of people as helpful and dependable (Elkind, n.d.). When, however, the care is inconsistent, inadequate and rejecting, it fosters a basic mistrust, an attitude of fear and suspicion on the part of the infant toward the world (Elkind, n.d.). Erikson believes that this the concept of trust versus mistrust is present throughout an individual’s entire life; therefore if the concept is not addressed, taught and handled properly during infancy (when it is first introduced), an individual may be negatively affected and never fully immerse themselves in the world (As cited in RNPedia, 2012). If an individual does not learn to trust themselves, others and the world they may lose the virtue of hope, and it is suggested that if a person loses their belief in hope they will struggle with overcoming hard times and failures in their lives, and may never fully recover from them; thus this would prevent them from learning and maturing into a fully-developed person if the concept of trust versus mistrust was improperly learned, understood and used in all aspects of their lives (RNpedia, 2012). Thus when working with individuals with mental health issues, who may have issues relating to trust, and hope and therefor disrupting their ability to cope and adapt in the world, we can have a better understanding of why this may be; they may never properly learned and understood trust. We can incorporate these social inabilities into interventions and recovery planning, and thus aim to improve the patients coping, adaption and over all wellbeing.When looking at the second stage ‘Early childhood’(2-3yrs) , Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence; Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt (Elkind, n.d.). If denied independence, the child will turn against his/her urges to manipulate and discriminate; Shame develops with the child's self-consciousness and it suggested that left over doubt may become paranoia (Davis & Clifton, 1995). Therefor we can have a better understanding when working with individuals who may demonstrate behaviors such as self-consciousness and paranoia, that these may come from earlier stages in development, and according to Erikson, can be corrected (Varcarolis & Halter, 2010).When we look at the adolescence stage and the crisis of Identity vs. role confusion, we can see the importance of forming an identity, which from Erikson’s perspective refers to a sense of which one is as a person and as a contributor to society (Hoare, 2002; Sokol, 2009). The formation of identity is a major event in the development of personality and associates with positive outcomes; it provides one with a sense of well‐being, a sense of being at home in one’s body, a sense of direction in one’s life, and a sense of mattering to those who count (Erikson, 1968; as cited in Sokol, 2009). Therefor role confusion can lead to a very different human experience; it causes the individual to seriously question one’s essential personality characteristics, one’s view of oneself, and the perceived views of others (Bosma et al., 1994; as cited in Sokol, 2009). Consequently, the individual experiences extreme doubt regarding the meaning and purpose of their existence, leading to a sense of loss and confusion (Sokol, 2009). This also gives us further understanding into some of the complications throughout psychosocial development that may lead to mental health issues, and why certain behaviors may be presenting.In just looking at the above examples and the negative impacts un-resolution of stages can bring to individuals, we can see how Erikson’s theory provides us with better understanding of the complications leading to mental health issues, and a better understanding of where an individual may be ‘stuck’ or what crisis they may be facing and what stage they are at in their psychosocial development. It is important to note that in individuals who develop a mental illness, this can lead to complications and may prevent the continuation through psychosocial stages- and thus may give us a better understanding of why certain behaviors are presenting, what internal crisis they may be facing, and how to incorporate this into interventions and planning for furthering adaption and wellbeing. For psychiatric nurses Erikson’s developmental model can be used as an important part of patient assessment (Varcarolis & Halter, 2010). Analysis of behavior patterns using Erikson’s framework can identify age appropriate or arrested development of normal interpersonal skills (Varcarolis & Halter, 2010). Thus a developmental framework helps a nurse know what types of interventions are most likely to be effective; and treatment approaches and interventions can be tailored to the patient’s developmental level (Varcarolis & Halter, 2010).With Erikson’s Stages of psychosocial development, we have the groundwork for what crises present themselves throughout a lifespan, what social experiences influence the positive or negative outcomes of crisis, and how a healthy person should develop psychosocially and which social abilities/adaption should be acquired. In using Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, we then have groundwork for understanding where individuals are at in their psychosocial development, and thus a better understanding of those with mental health issues, the factors contributing, the behaviors presenting and the complications or crises they are facing. With Erikson’s theory we have a better understanding of which treatment and interventions are most effective, with knowing what developmental level a patient may be at; and thus which skills, and social abilities we need to assist patients with in order to resolve their crisis and continue in their stages of psychosocial development.ReferencesDavis, D. Clifton, A.(1995). Psychosocial Theory: Erikson. Haverford Education. Retrieved from: , D. (n.d.). Erik Erikson’s Eight Ages of Man. Social Services Competency Based Training [SSCBT]. Retrieved from: , J.S. (2004). Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Stages. Retrieved from: , J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In Handbook of stressful transitions across the lifespan (pp. 19-34). Springer New York. Retrieved from: , D. G. (2007). Psychology (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2011). Development through life: A psychosocial approach. CengageBrain. com. Retrieved from: . (2012). Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development. Complete Nursing Notes and Community. Retrieved from: , J. T. (2009). Identity development throughout the lifetime: an examination of Eriksonian theory. Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1(2), 14. Retrieved from: , E.M., Halter, M.J. (2010). Foundations of psychiatric mental health nursing: A clinical approach. St. Louis, MI: Saunders Elsevier. ................
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