An Overview of Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial ...
An Overview of Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development and the Implications in Psychiatric NursingTrina SkinnerStenberg CollegeAn Overview of Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development and the Implications in Psychiatric NursingEric Erickson, (German-born) American psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist is best known for his theory of the stages of psychosocial development that occur throughout the lifespan of human beings (Wikipedia, 2012). Erickson’s theory consists of a total of eight stages of psychosocial development beginning with infancy, and ending in late adulthood. Each stage of this theory presents a potential conflict for which an effective solution is established that would support a most favorable outcome if the proposed solution were applied to the appropriate stage (Cherry, 2012). The conflict presented at each developmental stage of the theory directly correlates with a marked event in which each conflict revolves around. Each stage of Erickson’s theory “arises because a new dimension of social interaction becomes possible with increasing maturity” (Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981, p. 526). When applied to the field of mental health and wellness, Erikson’s stage theory has the potential to offer significant insight into understanding how and to what extent an individual’s psychosocial development pertains to the prevalence of mental illness, as well as how healthcare provision can draw on aspects of this theory to aid in effective management and treatment of mental illness. Very well-stated thesis.This particular theory is “cast in eight relatively separate “epigenetic” stages, each of which has its own distinctive goal to be attained if “healthy” personality is to be achieved (Erikson, 1959, 1963, 1968 as cited in Rosenthal et al., 1981, p. 526). The eight stages of Erickson’s psychosocial development theory include: infancy, early childhood, preschool, school age, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and maturity (older adulthood).Infancy includes the time of birth to18 months old. The basic conflict outlined in this stage is Trust vs. Mistrust. The pertinent event associated with infancy is feeding, and the possible outcome or solution is as follows; If a child’s caregiver(s) create a supportive, reliable, and affectionate environment, a sense of basic trust will develop within that child. A lack of provision of loving care may result in a child’s mistrust in his/her environment (Cherry, 2012).Early Childhood refers to the duration between 2 and 3 years old. The basic conflict at this stage is one of Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The pertinent event at this stage is toilet training. The solution/outcome vital to this stage is that toddlers develop a sense of independence in terms of the ability to exert control over performance of physical skills. Success in meeting the outcome of this stage will result in a heightened sense of autonomy. Failure may result in feelings of shame and self-doubt in their abilities (Cherry, 2012).The next stage in Erikson’s theory is preschool, children ages 3-5 years old. The basic conflict at the preschool level is one of Initiative vs. Guilt. A pertinent event at this stage of development is exploration. The solution/outcome at this stage requires children begin learning how to assert themselves and take initiative to control and establish power over their environment. Success at this stage will result in a child developing a sense of purpose. A child that attempts to exert an excess of power over their environment may experience disapproval from authoritative figures resulting in feelings of guilt (Cherry, 2012).Primary school age occurs from age 6 to11 years of age. Basic conflict at the primary school stage relates to Industry vs. Inferiority. The pertinent event associated with this stage is school. At this stage of development children learn to apply their minds to new social and academic tasks. Success of this outcome will likely instill a sense of competency and accomplishment in the child. Failure to meet these developmental tasks may result in a sense of inferiority.Adolescence includes ages 12-18 years old. Basic conflict during adolescence relates to Identity vs. Role Confusion. The pertinent event during the adolescent stage is social relationships. At this stage the solution/outcome is critical as Erickson describes this stage as central to his theory as a whole because when an individual reaches adolescence he/she begins to explore and implement various expression of ‘self’ in order to form their personal identity. In order to meet the criteria necessary to succeed in this stage the individual must develop a strong sense of self. If the established sense of self is not “rooted in family, race, or ideology- adulthood becomes very difficult, with genuine intimacy being almost impossible [rendering] stable long-term relationships unlikely” (Rosenthal et al., 1981, p. 526). Young adulthood refers to age 19-40 years old. The basic conflict during young adulthood focuses on Intimacy vs. Isolation. The pertinent event associated with this stage is formation of relationships. At this stage of development “Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated” (Myers, 2010, p. 202). It is important to maintain and awareness that Erikson’s stages are not separate but rather merge from one to the next. Studies indicate that a poorly established sense of sense (as in adolescence who prove unsuccessful in forming a strong personal identity), “those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression” (Cherry, 2012).Middle adulthood concerns ages 40-65 years. The basic conflict of the middle-aged adult focuses on Generativity vs. Stagnation. The pertinent event at this stage of development being Work and parenthood. In this stage adults feel a need to create and nurture things that will outlast their mortal existence. In middle age people generally develop a passion for contributing to the world, usually through raising children and/or in regards to vocation. Success at this stage of development results in feelings of accomplishment and increased self-esteem and self confidence. Failure to accomplish the task set out in this stage may result in an individual’s perceived lack of purpose in life (Myers, 2010, p. 202).Finally, the last stage of psychosocial development maturity (65 years – death), is discussed. The basic conflict identified during maturity is one of Ego integrity vs. despair. The pertinent event associated with this stage of the theory is reflection on life. In this final stage of development, older adults self reflect on their lives and depending on their view of perceived self accomplishments or failures may develop a sense of self satisfaction or feelings of emptiness and despair. Success at this stage may invoke feelings of wisdom, whereas failure may trigger feelings of bitterness, regret, and deep sadness (Cherry, 2012).Erikson’s proposed theory of psychosocial development has come under a considerable amount of scrutiny and criticism (source). One of the major drawbacks of this theory that critics tend to focus on is the lack of empirical evidence to support it (source). From an experimental standpoint Erikson’s critics contend that his theory has “relied for validation more upon subjective clinical impression and logical argument than on empirical data” (Rosenthal et al., 1981, p. 526). Nonetheless, Erickson’s stage theory of psychosocial development remains an important element of the discipline of psychology in regards to human development and continues to maintain a wide range of global supporters despite such criticisms as stated above (source).Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development offers a valuable opportunity to enhance healthcare provider’s comprehension of psychiatric nursing theory and practice in caring for individuals living with one or more diagnosed mental illnesses. In order to validate Erikson’s theory it is critical that the reader understands that a lack of mastery in one stage of development has the potential to inhibit healthy growth and development in each stage to follow. According to Rosenthal et al, (1981), “Each stage arises because a new dimension of social interaction becomes possible with increasing maturity” (p. 526). Based on Rosenthal’s statement it is reasonable to conclude that comprehension of the symbiotic nature of Erikson’s stage theory, as one stage moves on to the next, is crucial to those employed in the mental health discipline’s ability to develop increased knowledge and understanding of the process in which an individual’s psychosocial being evolves throughout their lifespan. Rosenthal, et al. (1981) state that “focusing on only one stage…researchers fail to do justice to Erikson’s theoretical formulation, which clearly implies that resolution of the core conflict of earlier developmental stages can be influenced in part by crises characteristic of a late developmental period” (p. 534). Good literature support.Although the eight stages of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory are interrelated and to some extent arguably dependent on one another, it is interesting to note that Erikson himself regards the stage of adolescence as “central to his theory because when the individual reaches this stage, the usefulness of identification as a mode of adjustment ends and identity formation proper begins” (Erikson, 1968, as cited in Rosenthal, et al., 1981, p. 526). Disruption in one’s ability to establish his/her identity during adolescence will inevitably result in a weakened sense of self and disintegration of one’s personality. Under these circumstances an individual may suffer a disconnect from their authentic selves, perpetuating an underlying question of ‘who am I?’. Stuart (2009) examines the inability to successfully maneuver from one stage of psychosocial development to the next, as it relates to the prevalence of mental illness, particularly personality disorders. According to Stuart (2009), individuals who fail to complete separation from their mother (or primary guardian) during infancy and are unable to develop autonomy in early childhood are likely to repeat this developmental crisis during the stage of adolescence. Behaviors that are characteristic of such crises include “clinging, depression accompanied by rage and defended by acting out, detachment and withdrawal” (p. 374). In considering the influence of mental disorder on identity formation, one author suggests that “[o]ur identity is inherently social in that others are involved in its construction” (Author, year, p. ___). Social identity (how individuals identify themselves within the social groups they are included), is said to be carefully managed by way of ‘impression management’ in an attempt to control some influence over how this identity is constructed (Gray 2002, p. 542, as cited in “The Influence of Mental Disorder on Identity”, n.d., para. ___ ). People may be considered deviant in the event they become unable or unwilling to “act in accordance with the rules of impression management. Because social identity is directly related to how others perceive somebody, deviance will have an impact on identity” (The Influence of Mental Disorders on Identity, n.d., para. ___). This particular author argues that labeling and subsequently institutionalizing an individual with mental illness and concluding the individual demonstrates deviant behavior, is further detrimental to identity formation as previously established examples of maladaptive development during the adolescent stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Interesting. This brings up the idea of identifying as a “mentally ill” person. How does the sick role effect one’s identity (perhaps another paper!). In considering individuals living with chronic mental illness, Stuart (2009), explains that “Although an effort has been made to decrease long-term institutionalization, many people continue to resist integrating disabled people into their community. This involuntary isolation may result in a variety of maladaptive social responses as the person tries to cope with loneliness” (p. 376). This statement is relevant to the significance of Erikson’s stage theory in mental health as it mirrors a point expressed earlier when considering possible outcomes in a situation where the task of one (or more) stages is incomplete. Recall that, individuals lacking a strong sense of self generally fail to develop healthy committed relationships and are therefore at an increased risk for developing psychological disturbances such as emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression (Cherry, 2012).Finally Rosenthal, et al. (1981) state that “focusing on only one stage…researchers fail to do justice to Erikson’s theoretical formulation, which clearly implies that resolution of the core conflict of earlier developmental stages can be influenced in part by crises characteristic of a late developmental period” (p. 534).In conclusion, Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development continues to produce a profound effect on the discipline of psychology offering deep insight into the progression of the human experience. Regardless of criticisms directed towards this developmental theory, it is difficult to deny that it will ever be possible to truly offer therapeutic disease management to those affected by diagnoses of mental illness if there is no concept of psychosocial development to reference throughout the care process. Erikson’s stage theory may not be by all accounts flawless, however it certainly serves as a valuable tool in beginning to understand the complexities and progressive nature of psychiatric illness.ReferencesCherry, K. (2012). Erickson’s psychosocial stages summary chart. Retrieved from , K. (2012). Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Retrieved from Erikson. (2012). Retrieved from , D. G. (2010). Psychology (9th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust to intimacy: A new inventory for examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10(6), 525-537. , G. W. (2009). Social responses and personality disorders. In Principles and practice of psychiatric nursing (9th ed., pp. 369-387).n.a. (n.d.). “The influence of mental disorder on identity”. The horizon of reason. Retrieved from Introduction to PsychologyEssay Part IIMARK ASSIGNEDMARK EARNEDCOMMENTSAPA 5%APA format for body of paper, references with consistent and complete identification of sources using APA 6th Edition.54.5Minor formatting errors as marked.Structure and Scholarly Presentation (15%)Well structured paper, logically & coherently developed including a rational progression of ideas (e.g., via consistency and appropriateness of headings, and intelligent use of sentence and paragraph sequencingLength: 1000 words (+/- 10%)1010Logical and coherent organization of ideas with appropriate sentence and paragraph sequencing.Appropriateness of word choice and language including spelling, punctuation and grammar55Excellent writing style, accurate spelling, punctuation and grammar. Minor changes as noted.Content (80%)Accuracy and depth of analysis of the relevance of nature or nurture to mental illness and RPN practice OR how developmental theory aids in understanding of mental illness. 4545Effective and accurate discussion of Erikson’s theory as it relates to our understanding of mental illness. Focus on adolescence provided opportunity to develop ideas with great depth. This was balanced by statements re the importance of viewing the stage in the greater context of the developmental theory. Excellent.Evidence of critical thinking & reflection, with ideas well developed throughout paper & well supported by literature.1515Evidence of critical thinking and reflection throughout. Ideas were well-developed in accordance to guidelines re length.Literature was used effectively to support claims. I would encourage you to try to avoid using outdated sources whenever possible.Overall level of insight, originality, creativity, and/or polish in dealing with the subject discussed.1515Essay demonstrates a high level of insight into subject matter, strong analytic skills, creativity and polish. Effective and appropriate revision to thesis & conclusion section providing the reader with summary statement concluding points in part I and II.55Effective and inclusive thesis and conclusion.TOTAL99.525/25COMMENTS:Trina,Excellent work on part II! It fit seamlessly with part I resulting in a well-balanced discussion and analysis of Erikson’s developmental theory as it relates to understanding mental illness. You have strong writing abilities, analytical skills, and present your ideas in a creative, clear and engaging manner. -Nicole Nicholas RPN, BA ................
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