Attitudes on Sexuality in China and America: A Cross ...



Attitudes on Sexuality in China and America: A Cross-Cultural StudyLauren KlamaHuman Sexuality Education HSC 3133This paper seeks to examine various sexual norms and practices in the modern, urban mainland of the People’s Republic of China, while comparing it to the United States of America. The main areas of focus are premarital/extramarital sex, sex education, attitudes and policies on abortion and the role of religion on sexual attitudes and practices. For the purpose of this paper sexuality is defined as a person’s sexual character; how people express themselves sexually. One’s culture is “the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices” that characterize everyday life and is shared by people in a certain time or place. ( Merriam-Webster 2009) After 1949 China was divided into the People’s Republic of China, the communist ruled mainland of China, and into the Republic of China, which is present day Taiwan. China covers 3.7 million square miles and is considered the largest country in Eastern Asia. Only 1/10th of the land is cultivated, with 27% of the population living in urban areas and 73% of the population living in rural areas. In 2002 it was estimated that China had a population of 1.28 billion, or 22% of the world’s population. It is considered to have the largest population in the world, which gave way for family planning programs. It is also heavily influenced by traditions. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004)Premarital Sex and Extramarital SexTraditionally, the communist government that ruled China had a tight control over all aspects of its citizen’s lives, including their personal lives. Residents of China had to ask permission from their local officials for things such as birth control to whom to marry. Social and cultural norms still strongly oppose premarital sex; however, as government control loosens so too are people’s attitudes towards sex. A survey taken in January 2005 found that those ages 16-25 on average had their first sexual experience at 17 years of age, while those in older age brackets tend to have their first sexual experiences later in life. CITATION Zhe \l 1033 (Zheng, et al., 2001) Yet according to Chinese law the only moral and legal behavior is heterosexual intercourse within a monogamous marriage. At the same time, sex between consenting adults is not technically illegal. The government tries to regulate pre-marital sex, yet as times change so are opinions on premarital sex. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) In most urban areas premarital sex is no longer taboo, as appose to in rural areas. It is estimated that at least 30% engage in premarital sex. CITATION Mat91 \l 1033 (Matsumura & Ruan, 1991) Premarital sex is considered acceptable if the man and woman plan on getting married. About 50% of newlyweds had premarital sex with their future spouses. While some still find it immoral, a majority of people feel like it is a personal matter and no one has the right to interfere. Studies show that most premarital sexual experiences happen in service sectors and cities, where Chinese youth are working and away from their parents and are more likely to experience and be influenced by the “sexual revolution.” CITATION Zhe \l 1033 (Zheng, et al., 2001)While socially and culturally extramarital sex is frowned upon, according to a poll taken by a Beijing magazine, “one-third of Chinese under the age of 26 had no problem with extramarital affairs”. Extramarital affairs exist in china, yet since they occur with such secrecy there is little statistical evidence available. The best way to gauge these types of relationships would be by looking at the divorce rate. It is thought that 40% of divorces were a result of extramarital relationships. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) A study done in 2008 showed that 20% of males and 4% of females in urban china had had an extramarital relationship in the past year. CITATION Fif08 \l 1033 (Fife & Weeks, 2008) Higher levels of education were shown to increase the incidence of extramarital sex, yet did not affect incidences of premarital sex. CITATION Tre08 \l 1033 (Trent & South, 2008)A 1993 survey showed that in the U.S. individuals 18-26 year old and 27-38 years old all had their first sexual experience on average at age 17. Unlike in China there is no big gap between age groups for when they had their first sexual experience, but the age at when they first had sex is the same with Chinas younger generation. This is because attitudes on premarital sex in the U.S. are more permissive. CITATION Tur03 \l 1033 (Turner, 2003) A 2002 survey showed that by age 20, 75% of the participants had premarital sex. CITATION Fin07 \l 1033 (Finer, 2007) Premarital sex is generally accepted as long as love and emotional commitment exists between partners, and is more common among men than women. One survey found that 41% of people in the U.S. do not think that premarital sex is wrong at all. CITATION Wid98 \l 1033 (Widmer, Treas, & Newcomb, 1998)There is a double standard when it comes to premarital sex but it is becoming more acceptable for both sexes to participate in. Men who don’t have premarital sex are generally frowned upon by their peers, while women are labeled as easy. The primary reason teens abstain from sex is because of religious and moral values. CITATION Tur03 \l 1033 (Turner, 2003) Yet studies show that most Americans have sex before marriage. CITATION Fin07 \l 1033 (Finer, 2007) Extramarital sex in the U.S. is generally frowned upon and a majority of the population considers it always wrong. CITATION Wid98 \l 1033 (Widmer, Treas, & Newcomb, 1998) In the U.S., about 35% of married men and 20% of married women have had an extramarital relationship. CITATION Tur03 \l 1033 (Turner, 2003) In actuality these numbers are probably higher, because the divorce rate is 50% and because this is a self report on engaging in extramarital sex and people might lie due to the touchy nature of the subject. Sex Education Sex education was virtually nonexistent until the Ministry of Education and the State Family Planning Commission made it mandatory in Chinese middle schools in 1988. Even after then, most of the programs that were implemented were poor in quality. A survey conducted on college students in 2002 reported that 47% had received no school based education in regards to sexual behavior, yet all had taken a class that discussed reproduction (usually in middle school). The main sources for females to receive information on this subject were parents, radio and reading material while the main sources for men were the internet, friends and personal experience. It wasn’t until 2002, when the government officially required middle schools to teach sex education with the Population and Family Planning Law of the People’s Republic of China that informative sexual education textbooks were published that dealt with sex, drugs and contraception use. CITATION LiY04 \l 1033 (Li, Cottrell, Wagner, & Ban, 2004) These books also teach students how to “deal with sexual harassment, take emergency contraception measures, and keep away from drugs,” while also covering “ AIDS, venereal diseases, “on-line love,” and premarital sex.” CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) The biggest issue with teaching Chinese youth about sex is that many older teachers tear out the pages about sex from the textbooks because they are too embarrassed to talk about the subject still. It is reported that 74% of parents surveyed did not give their children any sex education at all while 50% admitted they were too embarrassed to do so; 28% gave simple explanations while only 3% gave detailed explanations of sex. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) Parents as well teachers are slowly getting over their embarrassment and opening up about sex.Another big step China has taken to promote sexual education in 2002 was the distribution of the 10-lecture series, Sex Education for Children in Primary and High Schools. It is the first sex-related program that aims at teaching young people about “basic sex knowledge, self-protection, sex hygiene, and how to deal with their developing sexuality.” There are three variations, one for each level of schooling: primary, junior and senior high. This series is supposed to assist teachers and parents in teaching the youth about sex while reducing the awkwardness associated with the subject. CITATION LiY04 \l 1033 (Li, Cottrell, Wagner, & Ban, 2004)Sexual education in America is generally taught from middle school to high school. About 60% of teens have had some sexual education in schools with only 1/3 receiving a “comprehensive” program. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) As of 2006, 35 states mandate sex education or education about STIs and AIDS. One third of public school districts leave policy decisions up to the individual schools or teachers while two thirds have a policy to teach sex education. 35% of schools require abstinence only programs be taught while 51% stress abstinence only as the best option but do talk about contraceptive use to students. The South has over half of the district with an abstinence only program while in the Northeast it’s only about 20%. CITATION Fac06 \l 1033 (Guttmacher Institute, , 2006)An importance factor to note is the government supports abstinence only education and offers three federal programs to fund this type of education, spending around $176 million. These programs promote teaching that sex outside of marriage is harmful and wrong and don’t allow teachers to teach about contraceptive use, except to promote their failure. There are no federal programs at all that promote an all-inclusive sex education. CITATION Fac06 \l 1033 (Guttmacher Institute, , 2006)Despite all this support from the government for abstinence only programs, there is evidence that these types of programs don’t work and people are taking note. “82% percent of adults support a comprehensive sex education that teaches students about both abstinence and other methods of preventing pregnancy and STIs.” CITATION Fac06 \l 1033 (Guttmacher Institute, , 2006) Views are changing.In America there are also outside agencies that help promote sexual education. These organizations, called youth-serving agencies, include the American Red Cross, The Boys and Girls Club and the Girl Scouts to name a few, and have reached over 200 million youths each year. They host such programs as the “Black Youth Project” and an “AIDS Prevention Program” to help educate the population on facts about sex and preventative measure to take to protect oneself. CITATION Fac06 \l 1033 (Guttmacher Institute, , 2006)Abortions in China – Attitudes and PoliciesIn the late 80s China passed the “one couple one child” policy to help control their ever increasing population. If a woman is pregnant and already has one child, she will be asked to terminate her unplanned child. For Chinese women, abortion is a legal responsibility. It is estimated that at least 1/3 of Chinese women have had an abortion. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) That’s not to say that all women terminate their children willingly. Some are forced to abort their babies because it is the law and they did not get prior consent from the government. These “coerced abortions” were more prominent in the 1980s when the “one couple one child” policy was introduced but lately laws have been passed to give citizens more say in family planning. CITATION Pas07 \l 1033 (Yage, 2007)Selective abortions have now have a trend to be sex oriented. Due to the traditional nature of China and their preferences for male heirs, women will selectively abort female fetuses in order to have a male as their one child. It is estimated that in the last two decades of the 20th century, several million female fetuses were aborted. CITATION Mil01 \l 1033 (Miller, 2001) This had led to a surplus of males and a shortage of females in the population. Due to this in 1994 a law was passed that no longer allowed doctors to perform sex screening on fetuses. Not only are females being targeted for selective abortions but so too are people with birth defects. Chinese law dictates that before people who have severe hereditary or congenital mental retardation can marry, they must be sterilized in order to protect the population. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004)America on the other hand has no policy on the number of children a couple can have. The case of abortion is debated more on a religious and ethical level. The 1973 case of Roe vs. Wade ruled that abortion is the woman's decision to make, thus making abortion legal. This being said, there are strong restrictions on the type and timing of abortions, unlike in China. The decision to legalize abortions has produced two conflicting sides to abortion, “pro-choice” and “pro-life.” Pro-choice focuses on the female’s right to have control over her own reproductive status, while “pro-life” focuses on speaking for the unborn child. Many organizations exist that support both sides, with more conservative religious groups advocating the “pro-life” argument. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004)Abortions are becoming one of the most common surgical procedures performed. In 1994 one in five women had an abortion. It is thought that if this trend continues then approximately half of American females will undergo an abortion, which is actually more than Chinese women. American attitudes towards abortion generally views abortion as okay if the child endangers the mother’s life, had serious physical defects or is the case of rape/incest. CITATION Fra04 \l 1033 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) In 2002 approximately 40% of Americans approved of legal abortion if the mother does not want it.The Role of Religion on Sexual Attitudes and PracticesChinese attitudes on sex are influenced by a number of prominent religions. While quite a few people claim to have no religion, the main ones that people follow are Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. CITATION Mat91 \l 1033 (Matsumura & Ruan, 1991) Taoism, the major indigenous religion of China, has positive ideas in regards to sex. It focuses on the importance of using sexual techniques for individual benefit. It also incorporated the concept of Yin and Yang, a unifying concept in Chinese culture. According to Taoist doctrine, in order to achieve personal immortality one must use appropriate sexual methods, such as prolonged sexual intercourse and sexual intercourse with multiple partners. It was in this manner that the man obtains nourishment from the female essence. Masturbation is discouraged and semen should be used only for procreation. The aim of sex was for the man to cause the woman to orgasm (thus absorbing her Yin) while preventing ejaculation (giving up his Yang). It is thought by absorbing Yin from many females, while holding on to his Yang, increases the man’s chance to impregnate his wife. CITATION SoH05 \l 1033 (So & Cheung, 2005) Confucianism is the oldest religion in China, and has been influencing the culture for years. While many believe Confucianism to be sex negative, that is actually a false assumption. Mencius, a major Confucius philosopher, remarked that “to enjoy sex is the desire of human beings;” thus Confucianism is actually sex positive. It focuses on the importance of marriage and filial obligation. Filial duty includes such ideas as respecting parents and ancestors, producing children and dissuading moral unrighteousness, to name a few. CITATION Mat91 \l 1033 (Matsumura & Ruan, 1991)Buddhism on the other hand teaches that sensual pleasures are "filthy, coarse, and ignoble" and "should not be pursued, developed, or cultivated; they should be feared." CITATION Bod00 \l 1033 (Bodhi, 2000) He thought that sensual pleasures provided much suffering and despair and prevented one from progressing spiritually. Yet the precepts behind Buddhism are meant to be interpreted on the personal level, with sex neither being repressed nor being exaggerated, but rather under the control of ones will and in its proper perspective. Although most Buddhist schools forswear sexual desire, in truth Buddhism has little effect on the sexual attitudes of modern Chinese. CITATION Mat91 \l 1033 (Matsumura & Ruan, 1991)America on the other hand is more of a melting pot when it comes to religion. This is due to the fact that America is composed of people from all backgrounds and ethnicities. The main religion that I am going to focus on in Christianity, because in a recent study done in 2008, 76% of adults consider themselves Christian. CITATION Kos08 \l 1033 (Kosmin & Keysar, 2008)Christianity is viewed as a sexually repressive religion, but this is mainly when you focus on sex out of wedlock. Two main fundamental truths of Christianity include “marriage [as] the only proper arena for sexual activity” and that “marriages must be faithful for the love of spouses to thrive.” CITATION Smi96 \l 1033 (Smith, 1996) Christianity condones premarital and extramarital sex but believes that sex between married couples is a duty; “Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth,” God commanded. God is promoting sex and reproduction but in the context of marriage. Other sexual practices that the Bible forbids are adultery, homosexuality, incest and bestiality. Sexual practices such as masturbation, internet pornography, contraceptives, sexual role playing and sex toys are currently being debated as to what is considered “sinful.” The scriptures say nothing specifically about things such as oral sex but do condone sodomy. A study done in 2005 revealed that religious views in general mainly effect American’s sexual attitudes when it comes to making decisions about premarital sex. The more religious a person considers themselves to be the more conservative their views on sex tend to be, from fewer sexual experiences to a less liberal attitude when it comes to sex. CITATION Bec05 \l 1033 (Beckwith & Marrow, 2005)References BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 Beckwith, H., & Marrow, J. A. (2005). Sexual attitudes of college students: the impact of religiosity and spirituality. College Student Journal , 1-9.Bodhi, B. (2000). 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Attitudes toward nonmarital sex in 24 countries . The Journal of Sex Research , 349-358.Yage, P. L. (2007, April 23). Cases of Forced Abortions Surface in China. (L. Lim, Interviewer)Zheng, Z., Zhou, Y., Zheng, L., Yang, Y., Zhao, D., Lou, C., et al. (2001). Sexual behaviour and contraceptive use among unmarried, young women migrant workers in five cities in China. Reproductive Health Matters , 9, 118-127. ................
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