TABLE OF CONTENTS - Lu
Europe Through the Eyes of Travel Bloggers:
A Eurail Case Study
Master Thesis
Master of Arts in European Studies
Lund University
Sweden
© Larissa Olenicoff 2012
Advisor: Anamaria Dutceac Segesten
Abstract:
This paper seeks to explore what perceptions travel bloggers have of Europe and also what perceptions of Europe they might be transmitting to their readers. Based around Eurail’s Blog Trail 2011 campaign, five blogs were analyzed in an effort to uncover common characteristics of European destinations visited. Through a thematic content analysis, four overarching themes were detected: Europe as a continent of food; Europe as a continent of architecture; Europe as a continent of stereotypes and myths; and Europe as a continent of history, heritage, and culture. The importance of travel, tourism and the travel blogger for Europe and helping to shape a “European identity” is also discussed as is the rise in the utilization of blogs in academia.
Keywords: blogs, travel, tourism, European identity
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT I
TABLE OF CONTENTS II
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. METHODOLOGY 3
3. THEORY 4
4. ANALYSIS 8
4.1 Why Travel and Tourism Matter in Europe 8
4.2 Introduction of Blog Trail 2011 Campaign Participants 11
4.3 Social Media Statistics of Participant Blogs 16
4.4 Countries Visited During the Blog Trail 2011 Campaign 19
4.5 A Continent of Food 20
4.6 A Continent of Architecture 23
4.7 A Continent of Stereotypes and Myths 28
4.8 A Continent of History, Heritage and Culture 35
5. CONCLUSION 46
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX
1. INTRODUCTION
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Over ten years into the 21st Century, social media has become one of the most influential means of spreading information. Twitter, Facebook, Google+, and StumbleUpon are just a few of the major sites where people go to find the most up-to-date and relevant news on virtually everything. On par with these social networking sites are blogs, or Web sites that contain online personal journals with reflections, comments, and often hyperlinks provided by the writer.[1] The information that can be pulled from a combination of all social media outlets can often be invaluable for those seeking honest and unbiased reviews of products, services and destinations. With that said, travel blogs are becoming quite a powerful tool as they present new ways in which individuals can obtain and/or exchange information about tourist destinations from other travelers. With the possibility to interact via email, comments, and online forums, a new method of communication similar to traditional “word-of-mouth” has been created.[2] If communication helps create and shape identity, then it can be said that this online discourse is particularly important for Europe as how it is being discussed can ultimately impact the construction of a European identity.
Since travel blogs are today such an important source of information and are shaping the opinion of travelers, it is no surprise then companies in the travel industry are taking note of this and investing in travel blogs by way of sponsorships. One such recent example is the blog campaign called the Blog Trail launched in late 2011 by for both Eurail and InterRail services. Having won a coveted Mashable Award at the beginning of the year for their use of social media in customer services, it seemed only natural that would turn to the same channels to increase marketing.[3] The Blog Trail 2011 was the official campaign advertised on both and , the online sales channels for European rail passes; the difference between the two sites is that caters to European customers while caters to non-European customers. Bloggers who participated in the Blog Trail 2011 campaign were given a free Eurail/InterRail pass and had the freedom to choose where they would go with it. The only requirement by was that all bloggers write a series of blog posts about their experiences along the way.
The benefit of collaborating with bloggers for such marketing campaigns is that not only will information about products be spread to a wider audience, but that the information is organic and credible. [4] People trust the opinions and experiences of real individuals and seasoned travelers over those who are paid to promote which is what the travel blogging phenomenon has facilitated as they feel more of a connection to them over guide books and websites of country tourism boards. Researchers have also found that analyzing blogs is a way to assess the image of a destination among a particular group which may be otherwise hard to reach, or to expose potential strengths and weaknesses of a tourist destination.[5] This makes the travel blogger a legitimate subject to analyze the image of a particular destination and why I have chosen The Eurail/InterRail 2011 Blog Trail campaign as a case study.
Not only will I seek to uncover what perceptions bloggers themselves have of Europe, but also what perceptions they might be transmitting to their readers. While the case study is rather small in comparison, several overarching themes can be detected throughout all the travel blogs which indicates common characteristics of all European destinations visited. I will discuss these more in depth and also argue why travel, tourism and the travel blogger are important for Europe and the “European identity.
2. METHODOLOGY
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This chapter discusses the selection of the research strategy and stages of the acquisition, organization, and hermeneutical analysis of the research material. For this study various research methods were used to gain insight into the meaning of travel blogs and the role they play in shaping perceptions of Europe taking a constructivist approach. The case study of the thesis was based around the Eurail/InterRail 2011 Blog Trail Campaign in which they sponsored authors of five different blogs with train passes in exchange for unbiased coverage of their journeys. This campaign was publicized on both the Eurail/InterRail News Page and on those individual blogs.
First I identified the five blogs that I was to analyze. They were all chosen because of their visibility on the Eurail News Page and InterRail News Page. They are as follows: Dalene & Peter Heck (); Derek Earl Baron (); Gary Arndt (everything-); Abigail King (); and Andreas Susana (travelwriter.at). Bloggers’ demographic information was researched using Alexa, a toolbar for Internet Explorer and Firefox that tracks the information of its users. The authors’ backgrounds were also explored through the blogs’ About Me/Biography page.
I then moved on to thematic content analysis. In order to carry out a thematic content analysis I collected blog posts from each site utilizing the various tags or dedicated introduction page each blog had given all of the posts written specifically for the campaign. Examples are #Eurail, #Blog Trail, #InterRailTW. I also tracked each blogger’s trip from starting date to ending date and searched through the site archives for all relevant posts published during or around those times. Blog posts have been filtered according to their date; collected posts must have been published during or are pertaining to the period of time when each blogger was traveling through Europe on their Eurail/InterRail pass. An initial reading of these blog posts was an inductive approach to thematic analysis, allowing for themes to emerge rather than pre-defining them. Then, a more in-depth reading of these blog posts provided me with a good idea of proto-themes found throughout. Upon a re-examination of the posts I then determined the final set of themes I used for my thematic content analysis table. Once my content analysis themes were established, another reading of the blog posts occurred and the frequency of themes recorded on my content analysis table. While impact as a whole was not specifically researched for this paper due to the breadth of the assignment, general impressions were certainly explored. Once a thorough evaluation of all blog posts were completed, I then made final deductions based on the frequency of themes and investigated them further in the analytical chapter of my thesis.
3. THEORY
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How Europe and Europeans are defined by others is very relevant when discussing the notion of “a European identity”; also relevant are the theories that try and rationalize the inherent or constructed nature of identities. At a very basic level there is the Social Identity Theory which states that an individual’s self-concept is generally a result of their perceived membership in a certain group (or groups) in conjunction with their perception of the value and emotional significance of being associated.[6] Historically, an individual’s identity was often seen as something that was designated by those in power, for example by political or religious leaders; however, in the contemporary world, identity is proving to be a constructed occurrence, very much shaped by an individual’s own experiences and an array of other external forces such as media and globalization. Stuart Hall brings up the interesting point that identities should not be looked at as ‘being’ but actually as ‘becoming’. Cultural identity is an ongoing process due to the world being in a constant state of flux and transformation.[7] If cultural identity is now something that will always be in a state of ‘becoming’ rather than ‘being’, then one should not look at a European identity as something that is preexisting but something that is still in the process of being shaped. With new technological advancements and shifts in power that are happening everyday, the ways in which people feel a belonging to a particular group and the value attached to that will also remain in a constant state of change.
If one considers the influence that media has on the formation of collective and social identities, then the role that travel blogs play in shaping perceptions of “what is Europe?” and “who is European?” to audiences both in Europe and abroad is significant and important to discuss. Collective identities can be identified as a shared and interactive sense of ‘we-ness’ associated with a collective agency and can be attached either to real, ‘imagined’ or ‘simulated’ attributes and experiences. They are fluid and adaptive in order to attain political recognition, legitimacy or other specific aims and can be created around certain traits such as language, ideology, class, ethnicity or religion which often differentiate one group from another.[8] Travel blogs are in many ways a perfect medium in which these real or ‘imagined’ attributes and experiences about Europe and on being European can be communicated. They are often places where the varying languages, ideologies, classes, ethnicities and religions of the continent are not shown as dividing factors, but rather how the fusion of those features make it so unique.
James Carey’s transmission view of communication describes communication technologies as the active and determining forces of culture and identity. Identities are therefore shaped and modified by the ‘impact’ of the technologies.[9] Blogs related to Europe and European culture therefore have the power to impact the idea of a European identity and what is means to be ‘European’, making them very relevant and significant to study in this day and age. If media is helpful in creating new ‘communities’ across their spaces of transmission[10], then perhaps social media and blogs can be helpful in promoting a European cultural identity not only to the outside, but also help to foster feelings on the inside. If a blog author were to discuss traveling through Italy, Austria, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey and Greece on their Europe trip, they in some way geographically and culturally define “what is Europe” to their audience. They create a “European community” that is not entirely the same as the European Union, and by doing so, they are bringing together otherwise disparate groups around the common experience of reading a blog.
Not only can blogs be seen as powerful tools for shaping identities, but also in validating them. Although there are many shaping forces when it comes to a ‘European identity’, perhaps none are as powerful as media and communication. In many ways the idea of Europe would cease to exist if it were not being discussed as a unified entity; not only discussed, but differentiated from the rest of the world based on its common history and culture. How identities are differentiated based on common history and culture will always be debatable and even contentious at times, but one thing is certain: media and technology has been very influential in formulating the world’s perception of a place. In 1946, Max Reed expressed his opinions on this:
The radio not only reports history, it seems to make it. The world seems to originate from the radio. People still see things and events, but they become real only after the radio has reported the event and the newspaper has run a picture of it. The radio apperceives, registers and judges for people. Our souls are immediately connected to the radio and no longer have an inner history, an inner continuity, the radio today is our history, it validates our existence.
(quoted in Morley and Robins, 1995: 130)
Using this quote as a point of departure, it can then be said that social media also has the power to shape perceptions of social reality. Information relayed via Twitter, status updates on Facebook, and blog posts are just as, if not more, powerful than the information reported via radio or television. No longer must one wait for the morning paper or the evening news; we can be constantly exposed to new stories and ideas so long as we have an Internet connection. This means we are able to listen, watch, and read as history unfolds in real time. By saying radio and television has historically validated our existence is to say it has also validated others’ existences. If we extend this to social media, we can then make the inference that new channels of information such as blogs are very powerful influencers when it comes to the validation of identities.
Donald has also discussed the effect of apparatuses of discourse such as mass media on the creation of a ‘nation’. In his opinion, the nation is an effect of these cultural technologies, not their origin; cultural apparatuses produce ‘the nation’. Hierarchically organized values, dispositions and differences are produced by this apparatuses, not a single identity or consciousness. The ‘national’ then defines the culture’s unity by marking its boundaries and distinguishing it from other cultures creating a fictional unity because the ‘us’ on the inside is itself always differentiated.[11] If apparatuses of discourse can produce the cultural unity of a nation by differentiating it from other cultures, then perhaps it is also possible for apparatuses of discourse to produce a common European identity. They can do this by marking its boundaries and differentiating Europe from the rest of the world even though it is still a fictional unity because on the inside the ‘us’ which becomes individual European nations will always be different. Such a demarcation would be nothing new for the European community since its image has been constructed since the Middle Ages by its differentiation from others.[12]
The amount of influence travel bloggers have in shaping the identity of this supra-national community of ‘Europe’ and the impact they have on defining what it means to be ‘European’ would be hard to measure; however, if we look at them as global raconteurs who are in a sense validating the existence of this imagined community, they do prove to be significant. They are the ones telling the story and showing the evidence through their photos and stories that a European identity exists, connecting the “banal” of a European’s existence as is noted by Stuart Hall:
Nations and supra-national communities - if they are to hang together, and construct a sense of belongingness amongst their members - cannot simply be political, economic or geographical entities. They depend on how they are represented and imagined; they exist within, not outside, representation, the imaginary. Stories, symbols, images, rituals, monuments, historic events, typical landscapes, and above all myths, told and retold, lend significance to our humdrum existence by connecting our banal, everyday, lives with a larger, more poetic destiny which predates and will outlive us.[13]
From here we can then presume that images of rituals, monuments, historic events and typical landscapes in the form of photographs and video that are used on blogs can communicate just as much as what the author has written. It is possible they might even have more of an impact considering the amount of time people are spending on obtaining knowledge through visual media is dramatically increasing.
There are many layers and facets to an individual’s identity and when discussing the notion of a ‘European identity’, it becomes much more complex given the diversity that exists across the continent and its tumultuous history. In many ways travel blogs can serve as a place for validation and continued cultivation of this either real or ‘imagined’ community of ‘Europeans’. For travel bloggers, Europe becomes the Other which is very important to the development of a European identity, both internally and externally. From the outside, the travel bloggers I will be dealing with (most of them from North America) are looking at Europe in a way that validates their own identity but in the process also establishes demarcations of Europe necessary for a European identity.[14] Whether they realize it or not, travel bloggers do play a part in the existence of a ‘Europe’ and of ‘Europeans’ simply by publishing discourse on their own thoughts, impressions and experiences of traveling.
4. ANALYSIS
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4.1 Why Travel and Tourism Matter in Europe
The European Commission has identified tourism frequently as a significant contributor to employment and income generation, as well as to social benefits for local communities and for providing a framework for the preservation of distinctive cultures and environments.[15] As such, it is important to understand how tourism benefits the economic well-being of a country, fosters a country’s national identity and helps populations overcome stereotypes and skepticism.
One of the main and most measurable benefits of tourism is poverty alleviation and long-term job creation.[16] This is especially important for the new and future member states of the European Union as many of them are still in the process of rebuilding themselves as a result of the fall of Communism and break-up of the former Yugoslavia. The more a citizen feels economic benefits from their relationship with the European Union, the more likely they will be receptive to its policies and the idea of a European identity. In addition, for many of these nations in the process of rebuilding, tourism is one of the only industries they can rely on to “catch up” given the economic stagnation and destruction of infrastructure they encountered during nearly 50 years of socialism and subsequent years of war.[17]
Another very important aspect of tourism is that a country’s efforts to “brand” themselves can help strengthen its own national identity. This is important for the European Union because it is much less likely that states will adopt a supranational identity if they are still struggling to figure out their own. Nowhere is the need for this more apparent than in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans. Since the fall of Communism, Central and Eastern European countries have been working hard to rebuild their identities and culture after decades of exclusion from the West. Tourism has considerable ideological meaning for the formerly socialist states of Europe that are trying to project and establish distinctly post-socialist identities as a part of the process of re-integration into the political and economic structures of Western Europe. Tourism is most strongly implicated in the issue of identity-building for an external audience in the context of how ‘self’ is presented to “Others” in the international community, and plays a major role in the conditions under which national identities are constructed and sustained.[18] In the case of the Balkans, the ethnic cleansing and social disruption that developed in the 1990s also left the new countries with few national traditions or symbols to reunite their remaining populations upon independence; as a result, many are now creating new “brands” for themselves through tourism that recall the pre-war attractions and ambiance.[19] Given the fact that it is obligatory for EU candidates to highlight a ‘Europeanness’ and disassociation from the ideologies and instability of the recent past, the signs seem to point to a growing European identity within this region.[20] An association with the EU, regardless of a country’s member status, and its portrayed ‘Europeanness’ are both characteristics that are often purposely manipulated by country tourism boards and are easily observable by an international audience. A good example of this is Croatia’s post-war efforts to distance itself from its Yugoslav past by heavily promoting itself as “a young, parliamentary state with a European culture and history” and by only comparing its location and geography to other known European destinations in its tourism materials.[21]
Sometimes however, a country’s efforts to brand itself can have a quite opposite effect on its national identity and relationship with Europe. In the case of England, ‘heritage tourism’ can sometimes place too much of a focus on what the country was as opposed to what it is now which greatly impacts not only a tourist’s perception of a place, but the nation’s perception of itself. By choosing to construct an English national identity using only select periods of history and antique symbols to present itself to tourists, the tourism industry is in a sense marketing only one aspect of ‘Englishness’ that leaves out other important components of the country’s heritage such as language, political affiliation, race and religion.[22] This paints an incomplete picture of England, especially in the present, because its heritage tourism mostly refers to a time when England had divided itself from the rest of Europe by splitting from Rome. It is only when England chooses to reconcile its past with present that it might finally be able to come to terms with its European identity and place in the world.
Another important benefit of tourism for many European countries is that it can help overcome stereotypes and skepticism through increased contact and interaction between different member and future member states. In the case of the Balkans, tourism can be a critical catalyst in overcoming the negative images and suspicion which still hinders the Balkans’ ability to achieve greater political integration and prosperity in an increasingly unified Europe.[23] Tourism gives the opportunity for visitors to experience major change in their beliefs by directly interacting with people from other places and cultures, which in turn can help de-construct social stereotypes.[24] The shift from standardized mass tourism holidays to more individualized and cultural ones has been particularly beneficial for these countries in attracting Western tourists.[25] Once seen as drab and grey, the cloud has been lifted from many parts of Central and Eastern Europe, and consequently more people are finally discovering its rich cultural heritage that was concealed for years under the ugly shadow of Communism.
Travel journalism, whether traditional or new media, is also helping to bridge the mental divide between East and West by helping to promote Eastern countries as desirable destinations to visit and breaking down preconceived notions. In turn, this is helping to expand tourism which gives this region the opportunity to prove to the world that they have shaken off their socialist past and that they are ready to “return to Europe”. Travel as a social field has the ability to bring people together whether it is physically or virtually in a way that can strengthen ties and shape opinions across borders which is a vital component to the fostering of a European identity and in turn survival of the European Union.[26]
4.2 Introduction of Blog Trail 2011 Campaign Participants
One of the interesting things about the Eurail Blog Trail 2011 campaign was the mixed backgrounds of all the bloggers who were featured. There was Canadian couple Dalene and Peter Heck who opted to use their train pass to visit Croatia, Slovenia and Italy; American Gary Arndt who wanted to check various UNESCO Heritage Sites off his list in Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Ireland; American Derek Earl Baron who let his readers determine his path through Central and Eastern Europe; Abigail King from England who wanted to learn more about the Eastern Europe that lie behind what she knew as the Iron Curtain for most of her life; and Andreas Susana who wanted to use his rail pass to experiment with the various trains and train stations around Germany, Switzerland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Italy, the Czech Republic, and his native Austria. Even though the bloggers presented Europe in a different manner because of differences in their personalities and demographic, there were several common themes that could be detected throughout them all.
Before these themes are discussed, it is important to introduce each blog, the blogs’ authors, and to give a more detailed account of the individual journeys that they embarked upon for the Eurail/InterRail Blog Campaign. All participants were given complete control over where they would travel and the content that they produced about their travels through Europe. It must be noted that many of the bloggers’ itineraries ended up changing either before or during their travels; therefore, itineraries and dates mentioned on the Eurail and InterRail website are not all consistent with the final outcomes. This was due to a train strike in the case of Abigail King and personal preference in the case of The Hecks and Derek Baron Earl. Another important thing to mention is that while all the bloggers blogged as they went along, not all stops on their routes were discussed in great detail or even mentioned at all. Some were more organized with their route by providing a detailed map and itinerary of their trip; others were less concerned with informing their readers about their route beforehand and chose to announce it as it happened. In some cases, posts were published weeks after the trip had been completed.
Dalene and Peter Heck of Hecktik Travels
Dalene and Peter Heck are a couple from Canada who decided to sell their home and start traveling the world back in 2009. Prior to embarking on their Eurail trip, they spent time in Bolivia and Honduras before heading over to Europe for six months. Their blog is a means to share their stories and opinions from their travels around the world.
The Hecks chose Croatia and Italy to travel through because they were their dream destinations and Slovenia in order to experience a place they had never been to. As a traveling couple, most of their posts are geared in many ways to those who might relate to traveling with a partner; however, they did cover such a wide range of topics such as art, history, sports, that these posts were not solely limited to other couples but rather appealing to many other demographics as well. Dalene and Peter published 24 posts in total.
The posts analyzed from their site are the ones they wrote while traveling from Split, Croatia to Naples, Italy on their sponsored Eurail pass. From Croatia to Italy, they made stops in the follow places: Split, Croatia; Zagreb, Croatia; Pula, Croatia; Ljubljana, Slovenia; Bled, Slovenia; Venice, Italy; Bologna, Italy; Bari, Italy; Catania, Italy; Trapani, Italy; Palermo, Italy; Amalfi, Italy.
Gary Arndt of Everywhere Everything
Gary Arndt began his journey around the world in 2007 after selling his home in Wisconsin. He has been to 110 countries and territories around the world and has the goal of visiting as many UNESCO World Heritage Sites as possible. His blog Everything Everywhere, which has a strong focus on photography, was named one of the Top 25 Blogs in the World by Time Magazine and continuously ranks as one of the top travel blogs in the world.
Gary’s main focus during his journey was covering the twelve UNESCO World Heritage Sites he visited. There were a couple update posts and an informational piece on the Isle of Man, but for the most part they consisted of one photo of the Heritage Site, UNESCO’s description of each site, and a bit of personal commentary. All were very cut and dry with little emotion. Gary posted the least amount of blog posts out of all five bloggers with a total of 20 entries.
The posts analyzed are the ones he wrote while traveling from Amsterdam, Netherlands to Drogheda, Ireland on his sponsored Eurail pass. From the Netherlands to Ireland, Gary made stops in the follow places: Berlin, Germany; Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Utrecht, the Netherlands; Cologne, Germany; Brühl, Germany; Eisenach, Germany; Weimer, Germany; Dresden, Germany; Wittenberg, Germany; Leipzig, Germany; Douglas, Isle of Man; Glasgow, Scotland; Liverpool, England; Llangollen, Wales; Gwynedd, Wales; Dublin, Ireland; Belfast, Northern Ireland.
Derek Baron Earl of Wandering Earl
Derek Baron Earl is a self-professed permanent nomad. He left the USA in 1999 on a trip to Southeast Asia and has yet to settle down ever since. Earl, as he likes to be called, has been to over 70 different countries on six different continents and makes quite clear his intention for traveling is not to be able to check off countries of his list but rather to receive first-hand education that only traveling can teach. Sightseeing is much less important to him than the lessons he learns and people he meets along the way. His blog is a mixture of personal travel stories, detailed information about the countries that he has visited as well as useful advice on how others can incorporate a significant amount of travel into their life.
For the Eurail Blog Trail, Earl took the unique approach of letting his readers decide where his journey would take him with the stipulation that most of the countries had to be ones he had not yet visited. Using a more participatory approach with his audience, he then narrowed down the countries with the top votes and from the results planned his final itinerary. His reporting was a narrative of his activities both on and off the train in his selected destinations. Earl posted 23 blog posts in total.
The posts analyzed are the ones he wrote while traveling from Zurich, Switzerland to Bucharest, Romania on his sponsored Eurail pass. From Switzerland to Romania, he made stops in the following places: Zurich, Switzerland; Lucerne, Switzerland; Vienna, Austria; Ljubljana, Slovenia; Zagreb, Croatia; Bled, Slovenia; Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina; Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina; Timisoara, Romania; Bucharest, Romania; Brasov, Romania; Sighisoara, Romania; Sibiu, Romania; Targoviste, Romania.
Abi King of Inside the Travel Lab
Abigail King is an Emergency Medicine doctor turned journalist and photographer. At the core her blog is about finding unusual journeys and learning about the world through travel in order to try and make it a better place. The Inside Travel Lab has been consistently ranked as one of the top travel blogs in the world and her work has been featured on Lonely Planet, National Geographic Traveller, BBC and The Huffington Post.
A native Brit, she coined her InterRail journey through Eastern Europe “The Iron Route” with the purpose of investigating the divides that have historically run through Eastern Europe. Something she admittedly should have known much more about before. Abigail’s posts were perhaps the most reflective out of all five bloggers and really captured the essence of her inquisitiveness as a journalist. She spent more time examining the past versus the present of places than seeing the typical tourist sights. Abigail posted 33 blog entries in total.
The posts analyzed are the ones Abigail wrote while traveling from Istanbul, Turkey to Berlin, Germany on her sponsored InterRail pass. From Turkey to Germany, she made stops in the following places: Istanbul, Turkey; Sofia, Bulgaria; Zagreb, Croatia; Trieste, Italy; Ljubljana, Slovenia; Budapest, Hungary; Prague, Czech Republic; Vienna, Austria; Berlin, Germany.
Andreas Susana of Travelwriticus
Andreas Susana is a writer based in Austria who mainly covers museums, exhibitions and castles throughout Europe. Through his blog he seeks to demonstrate the power of these cultural institutions as the best way to learn about society. It was first established in German, but after the launch of Twitter he began writing more in English and changed his blogging style from long narratives to micro-blogging incorporating the use of tweets, photo posts and much shorter accounts.
Andreas wanted to use this InterRail opportunity to discover just how much can actually be seen from the train as well as around the train stations where he made stops while traveling from the Baltic Sea to the Alps. For the most part, Andreas’ coverage of his journey focused on the actual train travel itself; what kinds of culinary offerings were available on each ride, how convenient were the trains for working and whether or not there were interesting things to see around the train stations such as museums or other cultural curiosities. Andreas posted the most out of all five bloggers with 85 blog entries in total.
The posts analyzed are the ones Andreas wrote while traveling from Hamburg, Germany to Graz, Austria on his sponsored InterRail pass. From Germany to Austria, he made stops in the following places: Brno, Czech Republic; Vienna, Austria; Bolzano, Italy; Merano, Italy; Fortezza, Italy; Innsbruck, Austria; Lübeck, Germany; Hamburg, Germany; Koblenz, Germany; Zurich, Switzerland; Lichtenstein; St. Moritz, Switzerland; Munich, Germany; Bratislava, Slovakia; Budapest, Hungary; Ljubljana, Slovenia; Maribor, Slovenia.
4.3 Social Media Statistics of Participant Blogs
The following chapter is a description of the social media statistics for blogs analyzed in this thesis. This is important to include in order demonstrate the reach these bloggers have. Included in the descriptions are amount of Twitter followers, amount of Facebook fans, and their Alexa statistics to show readership figures and characteristics of their general audience. According to their website, Alexa computes traffic rankings by analyzing the Web usage of millions of Alexa Toolbar users and data obtained from other, diverse traffic data sources. The information is sorted, sifted, anonymized, counted, and computed, until, finally, all the traffic rankings are shown in the Alexa service. An Alexa ranking is one of the most well-known indicators of a blog’s traffic in the blogosphere which is why I chose this method of measurement. The blogs’ Alexa rank is based on three months of aggregated historical traffic data from millions of Alexa Toolbar users and data obtained from other, diverse traffic data sources, and is a combined measure of page views and users (reach).[27] The five blogs used for this case study were chosen solely on the basis of their visibility on and under the promoted campaign title Blog Trail 2011. It is important to note that the figures mentioned are changing by the day as the bloggers increase their readership, but it still gives a good snapshot of their social media influence across the various channels. The following figures were all obtained on July 15, 2012.
Everything Everywhere
Everything Everywhere was named one of the Top 25 Blogs in the World by Time Magazine with over 100,000 visitors to the site every month and some 15,000 RSS[28] and newsletter subscribers. The blog’s author, Gary Arndt, has approximately 108,700 Twitter followers and 28,413 Facebook fans.
Everything- is ranked #25,918 in the world according to the three-month Alexa traffic rankings. Visitors to the site spend roughly five minutes per visit to the site and 50 seconds per pageview. The site's content places it in the “Around the World” category. Relative to the overall population of internet users, the site's audience tends to be childless; it also appeals more to highly educated women between the ages of 25 and 45 who browse from home.[29]
Wandering Earl
Wandering Earl sees 65,000+ visitors per month and is consistently ranked near the top of almost every list of Top Travel Blogs, including the Top 100 Travel Websites & Top 150 Travel Blogs for Students. The blog’s author, Derek Baron Earl, has approximately 5,525 Twitter followers and 3,602 Facebook fans.
has a three-month global Alexa traffic rank of 67,995, and the site has a bounce rate of about 51% (i.e., 51% of visits consist of only one pageview). Visitors to the site view 2.8 unique pages each day on average. Search engines refer roughly 3% of visits to . Relative to the overall population of internet users, the site appeals more to users who are childless; its audience also tends to consist of less affluent women and college graduates under the age of 35 who browse from home.[30]
Hecktic Travels
Hecktic Travels is also consistently ranked amongst the Top 100 Travel Websites and has been featured in major newspapers and on . The blog’s authors, Dalene and Peter Heck, have approximately 4,618 Twitter followers and 1,748 Facebook fans.
There are 45,061 sites with a better three-month global Alexa traffic rank than . The time spent in a typical visit to it is about five minutes, with 78 seconds spent on each pageview. The site has a relatively good traffic rank in the cities of Grosuplje (#2), Bled (#5), and Steinen (#12). Compared with internet averages, 's users are disproportionately childless, and they tend to be highly educated women browsing from home.[31]
Inside the Travel Lab
Inside the Travel Lab has been recognized by National Geographic’s Intelligent Traveler and was rated one of the world’s Top 100 Travel Websites. It has also been featured in National Geographic, Lonely Planet Magazine and France Today. The blog’s author, Abigail King, has approximately 6,774 Twitter followers and 1,621 Facebook fans.
's three-month global Alexa traffic rank is 95,606. Search engines refer about 3% of visits to the site. Compared with the overall internet population, this site's audience tends to be childless; they are also disproportionately highly educated women between the ages of 25 and 35 who browse from home. [32]
Travelwriticus
Travelwriticus (the English version of travelwriter.at) sees approximately 5,100 views per month. The blog’s author, Andreas Susana, takes a more micro-blogging approach spending more time posting on Twitter and Facebook. He has approximately 58,538 Twitter followers and 442 Facebook fans.
Travelwriter.at is ranked #1,433,676 in the world according to the three-month Alexa traffic rankings. Search engines refer about 22% of visits to the site. The site's visitors view 2.1 unique pages each day on average. Visitors to Travelwriter.at spend approximately sixteen seconds on each pageview and a total of 54 seconds on the site during each visit.[33] Due to this site’s low ranking on Alexa, further demographics were unavailable.
4.4 Countries Visited During the Blog Trail 2011 Campaign
The countries chosen for each bloggers’ trail were interesting and varied. Though there were several occurrences of overlapping cities and countries, all five blog trips were quite different due to the difference in the bloggers’ personalities and interests.
Gary Arndt/Everything Everywhere: Germany, the Netherlands, England, Wales, Ireland, and the Isle of Man (British Crown Dependency)
Dalene & Peter Heck/Hecktic Travels: Croatia, Slovenia and Italy
Derek Earl Baron/Wandering Earl: Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Romania
Abigail King/Inside the Travel Lab: Turkey, Bulgaria, Croatia, Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Austria and Germany
Andreas Susana/Travelwriticus: Germany, Switzerland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Lichtenstein, Italy, the Czech Republic, and Austria
While there was not one country that all six bloggers visited, five out of the six spent time in Slovenia; four out of six in Croatia; and three out of six in both Germany and Austria.
It is interesting to note how quite a few of the bloggers opted to spend a significant amount of time in post-Communist countries, and while no sweeping generalizations can be made from this, one can observe Western travelers’ growing interest in discovering what these countries have to offer. That then begs the question: what is the effect on their audiences’ perception of “where is Europe”? That Croatia and Slovenia were the two most visited countries on the Blog Trail campaign rather than popular tourist spots in the west such as France or Spain might suggest a shift in the notion of a typical European holiday. If Europe is viewed as an unfinished adventure and a mission that needs to be made, created, and built, then it is interesting to consider how travel bloggers might contribute to that construction by simply by promoting a country as European whether it is an official EU member or not.[34]
4.5 A Continent of Food
Not surprisingly, mentions of food were common throughout all but one blog. There was not one reference to food in any of the posts published on Everything Everywhere, but that can be attributed to the nature of the blog in general which largely focuses on architectural and cultural sites. The common theme of food running throughout all the rest is clearly indicative of Europe’s strong food culture, but upon closer inspection it became quite apparent that food actually plays a much larger role in the demarcation of national identities and in some cases regional identities within the various countries.
One of the best examples of differentiation from other European countries and regionalization of cuisine can be seen in Dalene and Peter Heck’s post, “Italy Is All About The Food”. As the title suggests, the couple found the cuisine of Italy to stand out the most from all the other countries visited in terms of what the country has to offer travelers.
Sure, Italy has some spectacular scenery, art, and maybe just a bit of interesting history, but let’s face it. Whenever we thought of Italy, the first thing that came to mind was the food. We were licking our chops several days before getting into the country, and we were never disappointed.
Pete Heck
The post goes on to detail some of the most memorable meals they had during their time in Italy, and it is within these descriptions that one can notice a perceived regionalization of Italy, even by non-Italian observers. When it comes to describing all the pizza they had over the course of their trip, they make mention that every region in Italy makes theirs in a slightly different way. They cited the example and showed a photo of the pizza they had in Trapani, Sicily, differentiated from the rest in that it isn’t made with traditional tomato sauce, but rather the crust is lined with olive oil, garlic and plum tomatoes.
Abigail King also makes mention of Italy’s superior culinary reputation in her post “Sweet Treats & Sauerkraut: Three Flavors of Trieste, Italy”. She writes how she arrived into Trieste daydreaming of ravioli, rich ragu, and everything one would deem as “typical Italian”, but it all comes to an end once she steps foot in the famous restaurant Buffet da Pepi. Instead of pasta or pizza, she is surprisingly served a slice of hot pork with a side of sauerkraut – the restaurant’s specialty. While this may come as a shock to most readers unaware of Trieste’s long and complicated history, she goes on to explain that the city was under Habsburg rule until the end of the First World War which is why one can find a hint of Austrian influence in this region of Italy. In her other post, she details how the birth of Berlin’s infamous currywurst dish coincided with the birth of a very important period in modern European history – The Cold War:
According to legend, Herta Heuwer took the pork sausage from Germany, the ketchup from the occupying Yanks and the chilli powder from the occupying Brits (via the Indian subcontinent, I suppose) to create what is now the city’s most popular dish. Variations then developed – and still linger – between the old lines of east and west.
Abigail King
Another example of the regionalization of food comes from Wandering Earl who wrote an entire post on his attempt to eat what he describes as “the world’s largest Wiener schnitzel” one evening in Vienna. Schnitzel can be found throughout the rest of Austria and in Germany, however the distinction of “Wiener”, or Viennese, clearly shows this national dish as one that is regionalized. For example there is also Salzburger schnitzel which unlike the Wiener schnitzel, is stuffed with mushrooms, bacon, onions, and herbs.[35]
Andreas Susana touched upon food a few times when comparing the dining cars on his various train rides. What was interesting, though not surprising, is that the dining cars served national dishes depending on which country was operating the train. This is not to say one can always find Austrain food while riding in Austria; many of them run across borders and it could be possible to have a German train in Austria, for example. For the most part though, one can expect to find cuisine of the country they are traveling through.
A detail I really love: On my way from Hamburg to Munich a lady boarded the ICE and sold Brezel until she left the train at the next station.
I was told in summer they are selling ice cream instead. Nice idea, isn't it? Is there a similar service in your region too?
Andreas Susana
All of these examples serve to show Europe as not just a continent of countries, but a continent of regions. Each place differentiated not by borders, but rather their traditions. This is very telling if one considers food to be central to a person’s sense of identity and sense of collective belonging.[36] Italy, known for having particularly strong and proud people, was identified by two out of the five blogs as being a place known for its great food culture. Could there not be a direct correlation then between a country’s pride and its culinary traditions? It has also been shown that historically certain features of cuisine have remained in place even when the original language of a culture has been forgotten.[37] That suggests that regardless of where borders are drawn and how national or supranational identities change over time, the cuisine found in certain places will always remain the same. People will always differentiate themselves based solely upon their food traditions and eating habits. While Europe does indeed have a strong food culture, it is a regional phenomenon rather than pan-European and therefore nothing that would serve to strengthen the idea of a European identity.
4.6 A Continent of Architecture
A theme that was discussed quite often by all five bloggers was architecture; however, it was done so in a contradictory manner. In some cases, architecture was seen as a unifying subject while in others it marked national and regional differences. The significance of such semiotics is important to discuss as a means for examining the perceived European environment. That people can speak of a place’s ambience or character due to its physical surroundings indicates that it leaves an impression and means something, especially since these things are produced socially, culturally or materially. As a result, the physical surroundings of a place such as its architecture are open to interpretation and investigation. Cities are at once capable of being looked at as a set of signs with a much deeper meaning that make up a particular urban space; the design of its architecture as contributing to the social construction of discourses of belonging associated with other cities, states, and various communities.[38]
When it comes to architecture, a social constructivist viewpoint would suggest that the social meanings attached to it emerge from dependent historical associations, not from anything innate in the aesthetics of the style.[39] With that said, the unifying features of architecture can be directly related to Europe’s common history – centuries of common history that have previously contributed to feelings of a European identity and solidarity.[40] This is important to consider for not only Europeans, but also for non-European observers.
An observer’s perception of a place can be influenced in many ways by its architecture. Take for example the following excerpt from the blog post on Inside the Travel Lab entitled “This is what democracy looks like”:
Both inside and out, the opulence, elegance and extravagance of Hungary’s government buildings are difficult to overstate. Gilded leaves, midnight blue, high vaults, ornate ceilings, an intricate gothic exterior modelled on London’s Houses of Parliament and even some polished brass holders for ministers’ cigars. Just like that last sentence, it’s a lot to take in.
Abigail King
What is interesting here is the author’s comparison of Hungary’s Parliament buildings in Budapest to the United Kingdom’s Houses of Parliament in London. As a post-socialist country and a place very much considered “Eastern European”, one with little knowledge about Hungary’s history prior to it being a part of the U.S.S.R. might not expect to see similarities in government buildings. That she also titled the post “This is what democracy looks like,” suggests to the average reader that perhaps the East is not so different from the West after all – another example of how travel bloggers and journalists could have the power to influence the perception of a particular place.
In the Inside the Travel Lab excerpt above, Gothic architecture was also mentioned. This is significant as Gothic architecture can be observed on three of the other blogs as well, and in three different European countries. It is referred to on Wandering Earl when the author writes about the time he spent in Brasov, Romania in the post “Impressions of Romania”:
Of course, it was quite a unique experience to spend a few days roaming around the town itself, soaking up the atmosphere in the Piata Sfatului (central plaza) with it’s impressive Council Building and the nearby Gothic-style “Black Church”, exploring both the Romanian and Hungarian sections of town, hiking from the White Tower to the Ecaterina Gate and even up to the top of Tampa Mountain for the swell views of the city and surrounding countryside.
Derek Earl Baron
Gothic architecture is the focal point in a post on Everything Everywhere about a visit to the Cologne Cathedral:
The Cologne Cathedral is one of the most iconic symbols in all of Germany and certainly the most well known important religious building in the country. It towers above the city of Cologne as one of the largest and most important gothic cathedrals ever built.
Gary Arndt
[pic]
While no mention is made of Gothic architecture on Hecktic Travels, it can be identified in a couple of photo posts. It is quite possible that if a reader was not informed the first photo was taken in Dubrovnik, Croatia and second one in Venice, Italy, they might assume they were located in the same city as their features are so similar.
[pic]
[pic]
Observing Gothic architecture in four very diverse Europe countries - Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Croatia – is proof that regardless of differences in culture, undeniable similarities in their surroundings suggests a common history which is an integral part of a collective European identity. The history of Gothic architecture is important to mention considering it originated in none of the countries discussed above. It was developed during the first half of the twelfth century in the towns of the Paris Basin, and from there the style spread out over large parts of Europe. The gothic style was seen as the symbol of the glory days of Christianity and became popular once again during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.[41] Given that Gothic architecture is quite often a feature of European churches and cathedrals, this implies a Christian continent regardless of the fact that Europe has never been entirely Christian though religion has always been used there as a means to unite. These examples serve to show that architecture is in many ways a general expression of European civilization and can lead to the perception of a united Europe based on perceived similarities encountered across the continent.[42]
Conversely, architecture can also signal national and regional differences as was shown on Wandering Earl in the blog post entitled “Eurail Adventure: Vienna to Ljubljana”:
And while the Slovenian scenery also differed greatly from that of its neighbor to the north, I was unable to really pinpoint the differences through my exhaustion-induced haziness. But by simply glancing at the architecture, and even the people that I observed in the streets and gardens of the towns we passed, I definitely sensed that I was now in Southeastern Europe, a part of the world I had never been to before.”
Here the changing architecture was the main thing that signaled to Derek Baron Earl that he had finally entered into Southeastern Europe; however, this is somewhat of a generalization as architecture can change dramatically even within one country’s borders depending on its regions. To the audience, one might assume that it is easy to identify oneself in a new European country simply based on changes in architecture. Either way, such observations from a train are more aesthetic in nature and historical associations not easily discernable to the average tourist, but it does exemplify how architecture can be both a uniting and dividing element in regards to European landscape.
4.7 A Continent of Stereotypes and Myths
Tourism can play a major role in overcoming stereotypes and skepticism. Sometimes however, it can also help perpetuate them. Historically, travel narratives in any medium have always relied on stereotypes to structure the accounts of one's observations and experiences. This is particularly true when trying to assess national character and characteristics.[43] In the digital age when information and impressions can be transmitted to people without them physically having to be somewhere, travel bloggers become influential messengers when it comes to breaking stereotypes and dispelling myths about certain places. All of the travel bloggers analyzed for this study mention a particular stereotype and either confirm or disprove their validity. This illustrates Europe as a continent of stereotypes and myths. Take for instance Gary Arndt’s commentary on his visit to the UNESCO listed 17th Century canal ring area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht:
I think in many ways, Amsterdam gets a bad rap. So many people associate Amsterdam as a European version of Las Vegas with its red light district and marijuana cafes. Yes, those things do exist and you will see them in spades when you walk out of the train station, but you don’t have to walk far to find a different city.
Amsterdam is one of the best museum cities in the world. It is easily the best city for bicycling on Earth.
In Internet travel accounts, it is very common to see such a pattern of mentioning a stereotype, or commonly held belief, and then following it up with either an affirmation or a denial as a means to reveal the reality of a place. [44] Above, Gary tries to dispel the common misconception of Amsterdam as being a city of prostitutes and coffee shops selling marijuana. While he affirms that both can indeed be found, he makes it a point to highlight the rich culture that can be found there as well. Below is another example of such a pattern with stereotypes as seen in the blog post “Why Aren’t You in Bologna?” on Hecktic Travels:
“Why are you in Bologna?” Our new friend Giorgia asked, at our first meeting over coffee, “Why did you choose Bologna over Rome, Florence and others?” Several times over the course of the next few days she would repeat this same question, and enthusiastically relay our path to others that we met. She found it very hard to believe that our Italy travel itinerary did not include the other hugely popular Italian spots.
We explained our journey and the fact that we have been to Rome and Florence before. We confessed that Bologna hadn’t originally been on our map until a good friend had told us that it was certainly worth a stop.
Popular for business meetings and conventions, Bologna has all the infrastructure to host outsiders, but very few actual tourists. After three days in the city, we became completely perplexed as to why this is. It has all the charm you’d expect from an Italian metropolis, and more…
Dalene Heck
Here we see another commonly held belief being discounted by Dalene Heck: that a country’s most popular and most visited cities somehow have more to offer tourists. Not only does she state that it has charm and everything one would expect from an Italian metropolis, but she goes on to demonstrate this with brief descriptions of the city’s great selection of food, charming atmosphere, beautiful architecture and even more food drilling the point even harder.
On the Rhaetian Railway travelling from Chur to St. Moritz. A storybook landscape, isn't it?
Andreas Susana
In many ways, touristic stereotypes emerge from what Dennis Porter calls "an anxiety to map the globe ... produce explanatory narratives, and assign fixed identities to regions and the races that inhabit them".[45] While in many senses travel is a conduit for a deeper understanding of places and people, mentioning and therefore perpetuating stereotypes remains a means for travelers and travel bloggers alike to describe their experiences. In order to demonstrate knowledge gained, travel narratives will often incorporate “truth markers” which essentially underline a commonly held belief or stereotype, and work "to cement the bond of the tourist and attraction by elevating the information possessed by the tourist to privileged status".[46] While most situations were more trivial in nature, there were a couple that really stood out as being more significant and indicative of something much deeper. A good example of this phenomenon comes from the blog post entitled Halloween in Transylvania: My Lucky Graveyard Escape on Wandering Earl:
The three of us were the only guests in the guesthouse and after a quick chat over hot tea in the communal kitchen, we had decided to venture outside in search of a memorable Halloween experience in the land of Dracula…
We then crossed the river using the footbridge located below the Old Town, with only the distant moonlight to guide us across. And as we reached the other side, we noticed that the town seemed quiet, too quiet, with not another person around, something that we were definitely not expecting on Halloween in Transylvania.
…And while there were no pumpkins, no costumes and no indication whatsoever inside of it being Halloween, there were a few grumpy staff members who proceeded to serve us hearty portions of chicken goulash and polenta and who kept our mugs filled with plenty of Ursus beer.
After an hour and half, with stomachs satisfied and courage superficially increased, we returned to the streets, seeking that Halloween excitement we had come to find. But alas, our search was fruitless. The town of Sighisoara remained empty, with no sign of activity, no gatherings and not a party anywhere to be joined. We stood on a lonely street corner, with the lip-cracking wind smacking against our faces and our minds dreaming of the warm beds awaiting us back on the other side of the river.
Without saying a word to each other we lowered our heads and began to walk in the direction of our guesthouse, heading back, forced to accept that Halloween night in Transylvania would be a bust.
Derek Earl Baron
Here again is shown the typical pattern of mentioning the stereotype and then following it up with a denial of the perception.[47] Derek Earl Baron and his friends were certain that there would be some kind of Halloween celebration occurring in the heart of Transylvania on October 31st as they were in the alleged birth place of Vlad the Impaler (Dracula). In the end however, their quest for festivities was fruitless and they head back towards their guesthouse somewhat disappointed. Not only does this story serve to break the stereotype that Transylvania is only associated with Dracula which many people tend to believe, but it also shows Derek Earl Baron’s readers how he gained this inside knowledge only after going there as a means to legitimate his passion for travel. While it may seem trivial to consider the association that many people make between Transylvania and Dracula, this association actually perpetuates Romania’s “Otherness” and thwarts the country’s attempts to demonstrate that it belongs with the West. There is a continued focus on what Romania was rather than what it is now and striving to become.[48]
Another instance of dispelling a European myth comes from an excerpt from Inside the Travel Lab. Here Abigail King finds out just how touchy the subject of communism and the “Iron Curtain” is in Slovenia, a country that has been considered a part of the East for many years by Westerners:
The House of Terror in Budapest recreates the interrogation rooms and actual execution dungeon in a chillingly effective manner. Thousands, if not millions, died under Stalin’s watch in the forced labour camps, or gulags, but I’m getting ahead of myself in terms of the #ironroute journey, not to mention travelling far too far east.
I was in Ljubljana, in Slovenia, and I was trying to find out more about that period of time.
Evidently, I wasn’t very good at explaining myself.
“We were never behind the iron curtain,” said a woman named Petra, in a manner designed to close all further communication.
“I never thought you were,” I replied, hesitant, apologetic and a tiny bit confused.
Slovenia, at that time formed a part of Yugoslavia, a country under what “the West” would probably call communist control, but what everyone I met within Slovenia firmly described as socialism.
Yugoslavia was not, emphatically not, part of the USSR. (In fact, their leader, General Tito, fell out with Stalin soon after the end of the Second World War and their countries never quite forgave each other.)
“Sure, OK, there were differences,” said Martin Šušteršič, a stunningly well-informed man with a habit of speaking at the rate of rapid machine gun fire. “And Tito was a dictator, yes, but a fairly gentle one. Better than Mussolini (who ruled nearby Italy) and certainly gentler than Gorbachev, whom the West applauded in later years.”
Abigail King
This is a perfect example of the dilemma these post-socialist countries face when it comes to tourists’ interest in the legacy of communism. Attempts to relegate the communist period to the past are hindered by the growing interest among tourists in the material and intangible legacies of communism. While most people in these countries want to put this period of history behind them, they are instead being met with various challenges in doing so. Not only is the marketing of the communist legacy a source of foreign revenue for some of these places, but it also provides the chance to present its national story, a practice that is invaluable to helping rebuild national identities in the post-communist period.[49]
In the instance described above there is a conflicting message that the local Slovenians ended up relaying to Abigail King. On the one hand, Petra makes it a point to completely disassociate Slovenia from the common perception that many in the west hold of the country having been a communist country; on the other hand, Martin speaks somewhat positively about Yugoslavia’s former dictator, Tito. As is shown, de-constructing identities created during the socialist period can be complicated by some ‘nostalgia’ that remains with older generations. For all the rest eager to move past this however, tourism remains a powerful force in which a country can present its own unique character and identity to foreign visitors and promote itself in a more positive light. Not only to change outdated perceptions, but also to increase their knowledge and understanding of a country.[50] An excerpt from the same blog post on Inside the Travel Lab demonstrates how travel bloggers can be influential in shaping perceptions:
I got in touch with Petra again, to try to clear up the misunderstanding.
“It is a bit touchy with the ex-Yugoslavia thing since there is a lot of misunderstanding from (mostly western) foreigners.”
Ah, yes. The ex-Yugoslavia thing. An even rawer, more recent event, one that deserves another look at another time.
Petra continues. “How could they understand if they haven’t lived it?”
“May I quote you on that?”
“Of course, but please with an addition. There are however more and more conscious and informed journalists such as yourself.”
Abigail King
One more final and poignant example of Europe being a continent of stereotypes and myths comes again from the blog post entitled “Amid The Ruins Of War In Bosnia & Herzegovina” on Wandering Earl:
From the moment I entered Bosnia and Herzegovina, until the moment I crossed the border into Serbia some 10 days later, I had no choice but to constantly think about the 1992-1995 Bosnian War. There’s no avoiding it, no matter what your motivation for traveling to this region, not when almost every single building in the country is
covered with bullet holes, when the aftermath of heavy shelling and deadly bomb explosions are still ever so present and when the situation in Bosnia during the years since the war ended has clearly been filled with immense challenges and struggles for the 3.5 million inhabitants of this country.
Derek Earl Baron
In the beginning of this entry Derek Earl Baron states that his expectations of confronting war while in Bosnia-Herzegovina were met from the moment he entered the country. To the informed reader aware of the Bosnian War that occurred from 1992-1995, these observations do not come as a surprise. In a sense he is affirming the stereotype of the Balkans as being a region still afflicted with the aftermath of war and widespread destruction. This cannot be denied. It is what he says however in the end of the same entry that is noteworthy:
As I walked around Sarajevo, from Bascarsija to Kovaci, from Bistrik to Mejtas and over to Grbavice, day after day amid the ruins and results of the Bosnian War, trying to understand this land and its people, through both its history and its present-day situation, I naturally found myself feeling quite distraught quite often.
However, at times, as I struggled to accept how cruelly humans can act, I must say that it seemed as if I was the only person dwelling on the fact that life in Bosnia and Herzegovina, from the start of the war up until today, has been extremely difficult to say the least. With the widespread destruction that took place, this region lost almost all of its industry, leaving it unable to compete with other countries and severely struggling in terms of its economy and the ability of its citizens to create new lives for themselves.
But, no matter where I looked, who I met or where I went, I seemed to always end up surrounded by Bosnian people who, despite what they have lived through, have opted to greet and spend each day with such a positive attitude, with so much laughter and with the brightest of smiles.
Derek Earl Baron
As mentioned before, tourism can be a medium to overcome the negative perceptions and distrust which is impeding the Balkans’ ability to integrate and prosper in an increasingly unified Europe.[51] While Bosnia-Herzegovina may be an extreme example as they are struggling much more than their Croatian and Serbian neighbors in terms of recovering their economy and infrastructure, Derek Earl Baron portrays it as a welcoming place that is trying to move forward regardless of these obstacles. If tourism gives travelers the opportunity to experience a significant change in their beliefs as a result of direct interaction with people from other places and cultures and deconstruct social stereotypes, then travel blogs give readers unable to physically visit the opportunity to gain such insight as well. [52]
4.8 A Continent of History, Heritage and Culture
The theme that was by far the most omnipresent in all five blogs was history, heritage and culture. Europe as a continent rich in history – centuries of history that is still in the making and very much engrained in everyday European life – and Europe as a continent rich in heritage – heritage that is necessary to preserve in order to acknowledge important epochs and achievements of one of the oldest civilizations in the world. From ancient to medieval to modern periods, both shared history and heritage has played a major role in shaping the Europe we see today, and it will most certainly continue to play an important role in shaping the Europe we will see tomorrow; not only on a national level, but on a supranational level as well.
Discourse on the idea of Europe has often emphasized the continent’s culture, shared values, and identity as a uniting factor with mentions frequently made to its heritage of classical Graeco-Roman civilization, Christianity, and the ideas of the Enlightenment, Science, Reason, Progress and Democracy.[53] Indeed many of these shared characteristics were present throughout all blogs indicating that this idea of a common European heritage is something that even the non-European is capable of noticing through travel accounts. Though a true common European history remains to be written due to the lack of a common historical memory, a related historical memory might help in some ways to foster “Europeaness” and facilitate a European identity.[54]
Before jumping into the analysis of the UNESCO sites visited by the travel bloggers, it must first be noted what is meant by history, heritage and culture. History is the aggregate of past events.[55] Heritage is ‘that part of the past which we select in the present for contemporary purposes’.[56] In other words, history is the entire story while heritage is more selective. It acts as a symbol and only refers to certain periods in history - usually periods of growth and excellence. Heritage is more contemporary phenomenon as it is what we choose to represent the past with in the present. [57] Culture is a bit more complicated to define so for the purpose of this paper will only note three broad categories of it which were identified by Robert Williams: culture as a general process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic development; culture as indicative of a particular “way of life”; and culture as the works and practices of intellectual and artistic activity.[58] It has been argued that tourism is the commidification of culture, and therefore in many ways the commodification of a place’s heritage and history.[59] Though different in their definitions, history, heritage and culture go hand in hand and it is for this reason they have been grouped together into one theme.
While both history and heritage are easily definable on a national level, the European Union has yet to define them on a supranational, pan-European level. While not incredibly representative, UNESCO’s World Heritage List may be the closest thing the continent has to indicate shared heritage within the European Union.[60] The World Heritage List (WHL) came into being around the end of the Second World War when European countries were looking for ways to rebuild their systems of education. Representatives from forty-four countries came together and founded UNESCO which was meant to symbolize a genuine culture of peace and “establish the ‘intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind’ in order to avoid another world war.[61] The organization has grown to over 195 members and at present there are 962 sites listed throughout the world with nearly one-third of them located in Europe.[62]
With so many UNESCO sites scattered throughout Europe, it is not surprising then that visits to one or more UNESCO World Heritage Site were recorded on all five blogs. From their experiences one can observe not only national heritage of these countries, but Europe’s shared heritage as many of the sites visited were similar in characteristics yet located in entirely different parts of the continent. The nature of these sites and how they are interrelated is worth examining in order to present the view of Europe as a continent of history, heritage and culture was portrayed on all five travel blogs.
Gary Arndt of Everything Everywhere is perhaps the most important travel blogger to highlight for this survey as his entire blog trail was based around visiting UNESCO World Heritage sites. In general, a large portion of his blog is dedicated to his quest to visits as many UNESCO spots as he can with his latest count up to 150 different sites around the world. He holds the opinion that summarizing your travels off such a list is much better than just counting countries in that the visitor will see attractions that are culturally or naturally significant to a place and therefore more meaningful. In an interview he did on The Amateur Traveler, Gary specifically names Europe as one of the best places to do this because it has the greatest concentration of World Heritage sites and simply going from town to town you can be easily be exposed considering many of the towns themselves are listed.[63] Gary saw a majority of the sites analyzed which in total were fifteen different locations in Germany, the Netherlands, Wales, England, and Ireland.
| |UNESCO Site Visited |
|Everything Everywhere |Seventeenth-century canal ring area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht (the |
| |Netherlands) [64] |
| | |
| |Rietveld Schröder House (the Netherlands) [65] |
| | |
| |Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust (Germany) [66] |
| | |
| |Cologne Cathedral (Germany) [67] |
| | |
| |Wartburg Castle (Germany) [68] |
| | |
| |Classical Weimar (Germany) [69] |
| | |
| |Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar and Dessau (Germany) [70] |
| | |
| |Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg (Germany) [71] |
| | |
| |Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin (Germany) [72] |
| | |
| |Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin (Germany) [73] |
| | |
| |Berlin Modernism Housing Estates (Germany) [74] |
| | |
| |Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City (England) [75] |
| | |
| |Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal (Wales) [76] |
| | |
| |Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd (Wales)[77] |
| | |
| |Archaeological Ensemble of the Bend of the Boyn (Ireland) [78] |
Dalene and Peter Heck of Hecktic Travels saw four UNESCO sites on their blog trail. It is worth noting that a large portion of their time was spent in Italy which is the country that has the most UNESCO World Heritage sites in the world.[79] Though they traveled through Slovenia, Italy, and Croatia, they only encountered sites in the latter two countries.
| |UNESCO Sites Visited |
|Hecktic Travels |Historical Complex of Split with the Palace of Diocletian |
| |(Croatia) [80] |
| | |
| |Plitvice Lakes National Park (Croatia) [81] |
| | |
| |Venice and its Lagoon (Italy) [82] |
| | |
| |Costiera Amalfitana (Italy) [83] |
Derek Earl Baron of Wandering Earl came across three UNESCO World Heritage sites while traveling through Austria, Romania and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
| |UNESCO Site Visited |
|Wandering Earl |Historic Centre of Vienna (Ausria) [84] |
| | |
| |Historic Centre of Sighişoara (Romania) [85] |
| | |
| |Old Bridge Area of the Old City of Mostar (Bosnia-Herzegovina) |
| |[86] |
All UNESCO World Heritage sites visited by Abigail King of Inside the Travel Lab were either city centers or historic areas in Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Austria.
| |UNESCO Site Visited |
|Inside the Travel Lab |Historic Areas of Istanbul [87] |
| | |
| |Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle |
| |Quarter and Andrássy Avenue [88] |
| | |
| |Historic Centre of Prague [89] |
| | |
| |Historic Centre of Vienna (Ausria)[90] |
Andreas Susane of Travelwriticus also visited the historic centers of Prague, Budapest and Vienna, as well as took a ride through Switzerland on a recently listed train route.
| |UNESCO Site Visited |
|Travelwriticus |Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes [91] |
| | |
| |Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle |
| |Quarter and Andrássy Avenue [92] |
| | |
| |Historic Centre of Prague [93] |
| | |
| |Historic Centre of Vienna (Ausria)[94] |
After exploring all UNESCO World Heritage sites mentioned on all five travel blogs, several common themes stand out in terms of history, heritage and culture. The most prominent and identifiable are references to religion, historical time periods, architecture/urbanization, technological achievements, and nature. Below is a table that groups all visited UNESCO sites into the five different categories; note that some of the sites with multiple themes in their descriptions are listed more than once:
| |UNESCO SITE |
|Religious | |
| | |
| |- Cologne Cathedral (Germany) |
| |- Wartburg Castle (Germany) |
| |- Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg |
| |(Germany) |
| |- Archaeological Ensemble of the Bend of the Boyn |
| |(Ireland) |
| | |
|Ancient/Roman | |
| | |
| |- Archaeological Ensemble of the Bend of the Boyn |
| |(Ireland) |
| |- Historical Complex of Split with the Palace of |
| |Diocletian (Croatia) |
| |- Historic Centre of Vienna (Austria) |
| |- Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the |
| |Buda Castle |
| |Quarter and Andrássy Avenue (Hungary) |
| |- Historic Centre of Prague (Czech Republic) |
| | |
| | |
| |- Old Bridge Area of the Old City of Mostar (Bosnia- |
| |Herzegovina) |
| |- Historic Areas of Istanbul (Turkey) |
| |- Historic Centre of Sighişoara (Romania) |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| |- Wartburg Castle (Germany) |
| |- Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in |
| |Gwynedd (Wales) |
| |- Historic Centre of Sighişoara (Romania) |
| |- Costiera Amalfitana (Italy) |
| |- Historic Centre of Vienna (Austria) |
| |- Historic Centre of Prague (Czech Republic) |
|Ottoman/Byzantine | |
|Medieval/Middle Ages | |
|Palaces & Castles (Architectural) | |
| | |
| | |
| |- Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust (Germany) |
| |- Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin (Germany) |
| |- Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in |
| |Gwynedd (Wales) |
| |- Historical Complex of Split with the Palace of |
| |Diocletian (Croatia) |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| |- Seventeenth-century canal ring area of Amsterdam |
| |inside the Singelgracht (the Netherlands) |
| |- Rietveld Schröder House (the Netherlands) |
| |- Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin (Germany) |
| |- Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar and Dessau |
| |(Germany) |
| |- Classical Weimar (Germany) |
| |- Berlin Modernism Housing Estates (Germany) |
| |- Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City (England) |
| |- Venice and its Lagoon (Italy) |
| |- Costiera Amalfitana (Italy) |
| |- Historic Centre of Vienna (Austria) |
| |- Historic Centre of Sighişoara (Romania) |
| |- Old Bridge Area of the Old City of Mostar (Bosnia- |
| |Herzegovina) |
| |- Historic Areas of Istanbul (Turkey) |
| |- Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the |
| |Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy |
| |Avenue (Hungary) |
| |- Historic Centre of Prague (Czech Republic) |
|Urban | |
|(Architectural) | |
|Technological Achievements | |
| |- Seventeenth-century canal ring area of Amsterdam |
| |inside the Singelgracht (the Netherlands) |
| |- Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City (England) |
| |- Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal (Wales) |
| |- Venice and its Lagoon (Italy) |
| |- Costiera Amalfitana (Italy) |
| |- Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina |
| |Landscapes (Switzerland) |
|Natural | |
| |- Venice and its Lagoon (Italy) |
| |- Plitvice Lakes National Park (Croatia) |
| |- Costiera Amalfitana (Italy) |
| |- Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina |
| |Landscapes (Switzerland) |
On the surface, this table indicates a Europe united by religion, an extensive history, widespread urbanization, technological achievements, and natural wonders. The themes are also present across the map with no country having a much higher concentration than the others, except in the case of religion where three out of the four sites were located in Germany. To the average observer, this indicates that history, heritage and culture are pervasive throughout the entire continent and given the interrelation of themes, also suggests a common or related history, heritage and culture throughout the continent as well.
Upon deeper inspection of the UNESCO site descriptions however, there were a couple significant findings encountered while analyzing and categorizing the various UNESCO descriptions of the visited sites that are worth mentioning. The first finding was that almost none of the descriptions refer to the countries in which they are located save for a few of the sites in Germany. Instead they refer to regions, empires, or Europe as a whole. A good example of this comes from the description of the historic center of Vienna:
Vienna developed from early Celtic and Roman settlements into a Medieval and Baroque city, the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, as well as the late-19th-century Ringstrasse lined with grand buildings, monuments and parks.[95]
What is described here is a city’s contribution to the entire continent, not a nation’s. While it is important to note that Austria has only been an independent country since after the end of World War II, it still suggests that Austria is somehow insignificant in the grand scheme of things. The same can be said for the following description of the historic center of Sighisoara:
Sighisoara is an outstanding testimony to the culture of the Transylvanian Saxons, a culture that is coming to a close after 850 years and will continue to exist only through its architectural and urban monuments. Sighisoara is an outstanding example of a small fortified city in the border region between the Latin-oriented culture of central Europe and the Byzantine-Orthodox culture of south-eastern Europe. The apparently unstoppable process of emigration by the Saxons, the social stratum which had formed and upheld the cultural traditions of the region, threatens the survival of their architectural heritage as well.[96]
Again, here we see a reference to the Transylvanian Saxons who were not of Romanian ethnicity, but rather German ethnicity. This begs the question, why is Germanic culture being praised over Romanian culture at a site located within Romania? Is Romanian culture not “European” enough to be responsible for such outstanding achievements? In total there are six other UNESCO cultural sites in Romania, but only one description makes mention of having features unique to Romania and that is the Wooden Churches of Maramures.[97]
Both of these examples from Austria and Romania are in stark comparison to a couple of the UNESCO site descriptions from Germany. The one that stands out the most however is the description of the Classical Weimar site:
The high artistic quality of the public and private buildings and parks in and around the town testify to the remarkable cultural flowering of the Weimar Classical Period. Enlightened ducal patronage attracted many of the leading writers and thinkers in Germany, such as Goethe, Schiller, and Herder to Weimar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, making it the cultural centre of the Europe of the day.[98]
Here we see a blatant glorification of Germany as a nation that was home to important intellectuals from the late 18th and early 19th century and also as being a cultural center of Europe. Could this be a means to detract attention from the Weimar Republic’s association with the rise of Hitler and the start of Germany’s darkest period in history? Either way, this description suggests Germany as being superior if you compare it to the rest of the descriptions in which no other country as a whole is in a sense responsible for its contributions to society.
The second significant finding relates back to the idea of a common history, heritage and culture in Europe. As mentioned before, most of the UNESCO descriptions had references to regions, empires, and the whole of Europe. Another ubiquitous point of reference was periods in history with the two most cited being Roman and Medieval times. This is important as periods of time are inclusive of history and culture, both of which are two components of heritage. The frequent use of the Middle Ages and the Roman Empire in these UNESCO descriptions implies that these periods in history are important to the entire continent as a whole; embracing the Roman Empire is fairly ironic considering it was much more a Mediterranean empire than European. Still the Romans are attractive predecessors for Europeans because of their strong military, architectural, and organizational history.[99]
Of course this analysis of the UNESCO World Heritage sites visited by all of the travel bloggers was done on just a small and random selection from the organization’s list, but it is a good indication of Europe as a continent rich in history, heritage and culture. In total, twenty-six different sites were visited with an average of three to four per blog. By taking into consideration that the visited sites had more similarities than differences, it can be observed then that the countries are more united than divided by a common history, heritage and culture.
5. CONCLUSION
[pic]
Although based on a single case study, this analysis is a good demonstration of how travel blogs can be utilized in academia to investigate perceptions of the general public and to identify strengths and weaknesses in marketing efforts of tourist destinations. The intent of this paper was to uncover what perceptions travel bloggers have of Europe as seen from their blogs and how this discourse might influence their audience’s perception of Europe and a European identity. Theoretically speaking, such a discourse not only has the power to help shape “what is Europe” by simply deeming a place as European, but also can help shape perceptions about “who is European” if one considers cultural identities to not be preexisting but rather in the process of being shaped.
The analysis section of this paper revealed several overarching themes in terms of characteristics shared by all European destinations visited by the travel bloggers participating in ’s Blog Trail 2011 campaign. The first detected theme was Europe as a continent of food. This is significant considering food can be central to a person’s sense of identity and sense of collective belonging. What was determined is that Europe is a continent with a strong food culture though no pan-European cuisine actually exists; rather cuisine is a more regionalized phenomenon where places often places are differentiated not by borders but by traditions. This is a sense portrays a Europe of regions rather than a Europe of nations.
The next detected theme in the analysis was Europe as a continent of architecture. While there were many unifying architectural features present in the discourse and imagery present on all five blogs, there were also examples of architecture as a means to differentiate regions. The presence of Gothic architecture on all blogs and from various European countries is indicative of a common European heritage. Conversely, one blogger’s observation of having entered into a new part of Europe based solely on a change in architecture also portrays a Europe of regions.
Perhaps most significant is the detection of Europe as a continent of stereotypes and myths. While some myths and stereotypes are trivial in nature, others can be truly damaging to a country’s image and identity. It is here where tourism can play a major role in helping to dispel such myths and negative stereotypes by giving travelers the opportunity to experience a change in their beliefs as a result of direct interaction with people from other countries. This is particularly important for the Central and Eastern European countries as well as all countries located in the former Yugoslavia in the process of rebuilding themselves after years of economic stagnation and war. Tourism is in many cases the only industry they can depend on to improve their economic situation. Travel bloggers can then be seen as very influential in helping to create either a positive or negative perception of a place for their readers.
Finally, Europe as a continent of history, heritage and culture was distinguished from the analysis and was by far the most universal theme. Though a common European history, heritage and culture has yet to be defined by the European Union on a supranational level, the UNESCO World Heritage List has in many ways helped delineate a united Europe based on similar heritage sites found throughout. This emphasis on common features of religion, architecture, urbanization, and technological advancements shows a united Europe more so than any other identified theme.
Although the analysis and conclusion of this paper are fragmented and imperfect due to the small and random sample used, it is important to recognize that blogs and bloggers are indeed legitimate subjects to analyze in academia and for marketing purposes. Europe in particular is an interesting subject to analyze through travel blogs and travel discourse since the definition of “what is Europe” and “who is European” remains in such a state of flux. For this reason, further studies should consider focusing more on not only what is being said about Europe, but also on how it is being discussed, and whether or not such discourse can ultimately be been seen as influential in either the unification or division of Europe.
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Appendix:
Thematic Content Analysis Chart
| |FOOD |ARCHITECTURE |STEREOTYPES/MYTHS |HISTORY/HERITAGE/CULTURE |
|Everything Everywhere | |Castles of Augustusburg and |Seventeenth-century canal ring area of |Seventeenth-century canal ring |
| | |Falkenlust |Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht |area of Amsterdam inside the |
| | | | |Singelgracht |
| | |Rietveld Schröder House |Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin | |
| | | | |Castles of Augustusburg and |
| | | | |Falkenlust |
| | |Cologne Cathedral |Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City | |
| | | | |Cologne Cathedral |
| | | | | |
| | |Classical Weimar | | |
| | | | |Wartburg Castle |
| | | | | |
| | |Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar| | |
| | |and Dessau | |Classical Weimar |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Palaces and Parks of Potsdam | |Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar |
| | |and Berlin | |and Dessau |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Berlin Modernism Housing Estate| |Dresden Elbe Valley |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Castles and Town Walls of King | |Luther Memorials in Eisleben and |
| | |Edward in Gwynedd | |Wittenberg |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | |Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and |
| | | | |Berlin |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | |Museumsinsel (Museum Island), |
| | | | | |
| | | | |Berlin Modernism Housing Estates |
| | | | | |
| | | | |Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile |
| | | | |Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | |Castles and Town Walls of King |
| | | | |Edward in Gwynedd |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | |Archaeological Ensemble of the |
| | | | |Bend of the Boyn |
| |FOOD |ARCHITECTURE |STEREOTYPES/MYTHS |HISTORY/HERITAGE/CULTURE |
|Hecktic |Why Aren’t You In |Roman Ruins and Satellites |When We Return To Zagreb |Roman Ruins and Satellites |
|Travels |Bologna? | | | |
| | | | | |
| |Meet Mama |The Never-Ending Story of |The Never-Ending Story of Pula |When We Return To Zagreb |
| | |Pula | | |
| | | | |Lakes, Waterfalls, and War |
| |Italy Is All About|Postcards from Croatia |Tears for Ljubljana | |
| |The Food | | | |
| | | |Hockey Night in Slovenia |The Never-Ending Story of Pula |
| | |Bled In Fog | | |
| |It All Ends In | | |Tears for Ljubljana |
| |Amalfi | |Bled In Fog | |
| | |Impressions of Venice | | |
| | | | |Alone In Catania |
| | | |Impressions of Venice | |
| | |Why Aren’t You In Bologna? | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |Why Aren’t You In Bologna? | |
| | |All Aboard The | | |
| | |Procrastination Train | | |
| | | |I Blame Hollywood | |
| | |Alone In Catania | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |This Is Our Life | |
| | |It All Ends In Amalfi | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |It All Ends In Amalfi | |
| |FOOD |ARCHITECTURE |STEREOTYPES/MYTHS |HISTORY/HERITAGE/CULTURE |
|Wandering |Lucerne, |Lucerne, Switzerland: How |Lucerne, Switzerland: How Not To |Lucerne, Switzerland: How Not To Buy Apples |
|Earl |Switzerland: How Not|Not To Buy Apples |Buy Apples | |
| |To Buy Apples | | | |
| |Vienna, Austria: | | |I’m In Love With Ljubljana |
| |What On Earth Is A |Eurail Adventure: Vienna |Eurail Adventure: Lucerne to | |
| |Heuriger? |to Ljubljana |Vienna |Lake Bled, Slovenia: Not Just Another Lake |
| |The World’s Largest | | | |
| |Wiener Schnitzel |I’m In Love With Ljubljana|I’m In Love With Ljubljana | |
| | | | |Amid The Ruins Of War In Bosnia & |
| |I’m In Love With | | |Herzegovina |
| |Ljubljana |Lake Bled, Slovenia: Not |Lake Bled, Slovenia: Not Just | |
| | |Just Another Lake |Another Lake |Halloween In Transylvania: My Lucky |
| |Halloween In | | |Graveyard Escape |
| |Transylvania: My | | | |
| |Lucky Graveyard |Halloween In Transylvania:|Amid The Ruins Of War In Bosnia &| |
| |Escape |My Lucky Graveyard Escape |Herzegovina |Eurail Adventure: Brasov to Sighisoara |
| | | | | |
| |Impressions Of | | |What It Feels Like To Be A Friend |
| |Romania: From |Eurail Adventure: Brasov |Eurail Adventure: Bucharest to | |
| |Transylvania To |to Sighisoara |Brasov |Eurail Adventure: Sighisoara to Sibiu |
| |Bucharest | | | |
| | |Eurail Adventure: |Halloween In Transylvania: My |Impressions Of Romania: From Transylvania To|
| | |Sighisoara to Sibiu |Lucky Graveyard Escape |Bucharest |
| | | | | |
| | |Impressions Of Romania: | |Eurail Adventure: Bucharest to Targoviste |
| | |From Transylvania To |Impressions Of Romania: From | |
| | |Bucharest |Transylvania To Bucharest | |
| | | | |Mostar, Bosnia & Herzegovina: A City Divided|
| | | | |By Two Countries |
| | | |Eurail Adventure: Bucharest to | |
| | | |Targoviste | |
| |FOOD |ARCHITECTURE |STEREOTYPES/MYTHS |HISTORY/HERITAGE/CULTURE |
|Inside the |Chocolate Cake & |The Iron Route: From |What is the #IronRoute is all |A Shooting in Istanbul |
|Travel Lab |Cappuccino – |Istanbul to Berlin by Train|about. | |
| |Culture in Trieste | | | |
| | | |Photos of Istanbul |Where in the world is Ljubljana? |
| | |A Shooting in Istanbul | | |
| |About Istanbul: | | |What the #IronRoute is all about. |
| |Crossing Between |Istanbul Metro – Has |About Istanbul: Crossing Between | |
| |Europe & Asia |Intricate Station Signs |Europe & Asia |Chocolate Cake & Cappuccino – Culture in |
| | | | |Trieste |
| | | | | |
| |Jota – A Hearty |Photos of Istanbul |Zagreb: A Rather Grand View from |About Istanbul: Crossing Between Europe & |
| |Slovenian Stew | |the Station |Asia |
| | | | | |
| |Hitting the Wall – |About Istanbul: Crossing | | |
| |Reaching Berlin |Between Europe & Asia |Sofia, Bulgaria: Empty & Lost |A Piece of the Iron Curtain |
| | | | |Hitting the Wall – Reaching Berlin |
| |Trieste: Sadness at| |Prague: Not so crowded after all…| |
| |the Start of the |Zagreb: A Rather Grand View| |Trieste: Sadness at the Start of the Iron |
| |Iron Curtain |from the Station | |Curtain |
| | | |Feel the love | |
| | | | | |
| |Sweet Treats & |Photos of Sofia – Second | |Sweet Treats & Sauerkraut: Three Flavours of|
| |Sauerkraut: Three |Stop on the Iron Route |Trieste: Sadness at the Start of |Trieste, Italy |
| |Flavours of | |the Iron Curtain | |
| |Trieste, Italy | | |Ten Things You Never Knew About Ljubljana, |
| | |Ten Things You Never Knew | |Slovenia |
| | |About Ljubljana, Slovenia |Longing for Ljubljana – | |
| |Ten Things You | | |The Cold War, the Iron Curtain & Somewhere |
| |Never Knew About | |Travel From Trieste |In Between |
| |Ljubljana, Slovenia|Travel Zagreb Through |Sweet Treats & Sauerkraut: Three | |
| | |Photos – The 5th City on |Flavours of Trieste, Italy |Travel Zagreb Through Photos – The 5th City |
| | |the #IronRoute | |on the #IronRoute |
| |The Berlin Wall – | | | |
| |The Unheard Story | |Ten Things You Never Knew About |The Water of Winter: Baths in Budapest |
| | |The Water of Winter: Baths |Ljubljana, Slovenia | |
| | |in Budapest |The Cold War, the Iron Curtain & | |
| | | |Somewhere In Between |The House of Terror in Budapest |
| | | | | |
| | |This Is What Democracy | |This Is What Democracy Looks Like Photos of |
| | |Looks Like |The Water of Winter: Baths in |Vienna – The Seventh Stop on the Iron Route |
| | | |Budapest | |
| | |Photos of Vienna – The | | |
| | |Seventh Stop on the Iron | |The Day I Held the Iron Curtain In My Hand |
| | |Route |The House of Terror in Budapest | |
| | | | | |
| | | | |The Berlin Wall – The Unheard Story |
| | | |This Is What Democracy Looks Like| |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |Street Art in Prague: The John | |
| | | |Lennon Wall | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |The Day I Held the Iron Curtain | |
| | | |In My Hand | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |The Berlin Wall – The Unheard | |
| | | |Story | |
| |FOOD |ARCHITECTURE |STEREOTYPES/MYTHS |HISTORY/HERITAGE/CULTURE |
|Travel|Some thoughts |Industrial penthouse in |Road sign in Budapest |Steam locomotive at Maribor railway |
|writic|about |Maribor? | |station (Slovenia) |
|us |dining-cars | |Loudspeaker in Bratislava | |
| | |Building at Ljubljana | |Steam locomotive in Celje Museum of |
| |Christmas |Railway Station |Me in Liechtenstein |Slovenian Railways |
| |decoration at | | | |
| |Munich Central| |Schattenburg Castle in Feldkirch |Railway station Keleti Pu in Budapest |
| |Station |Window at Ljubljana railway| |Loudspeaker in Bratislava |
| | |station |Sledging along the Albula Railway | |
| | | | |Loco at the Museum of Transport in |
| |On an Austrian|Fascinating door in |Landwasser Viaduct at the Albula |Budapest, Hungary |
| |dining car |Budapest |Railway | |
| | | | |Schattenburg Castle in Feldkirch |
| | |The crow at the railway |On the Rhaetian Railway RhB| |
| |The 'Brezel' |station |ABe 8/12 'Allegra' at Chur |Mural in Hohenems, Austria |
| |Lady on the | | | |
| |ICE |Railway station Keleti Pu |Railway Station Customs declaration |My workplace in Koblenz |
| | |in Budapest |at Swiss railway station | |
| |Lunch at Czech| | |Old advertisement in Koblenz, Germany |
| |dining car | | | |
| | |Grassalkovich Palace in |Christmas decoration in Hamburg | |
| | |Bratislava | |Old Gotthard mail coach |
| | | | | |
| | | |Christmas market in Zurich railway |Fort Franzensfeste in Fortezza |
| | |Interior design at Keleti |station | |
| | |Pu | |Empress Elisabeth of Austria in Merano|
| | | | | |
| | |Near Bratislava Railway |Statue at the railway station of | |
| | |Station |Bolzano |Sigmundskron Castle |
| | | | | |
| | |Shopping street in St. | |Gasometer City in Vienna |
| | |Moritz | | |
| | | | |Marvellous storefronts in Brno |
| | |Railway station of Lübeck, | | |
| | |Germany | |Strolling around a railway station |
| | | | | |
| | | | |Beautiful ceiling in Brno |
| | |My workplace in Koblenz | | |
| | | | |Candles for Václav Havel |
| | | | | |
| | |Fort Franzensfeste in | |Christmas market in Brno |
| | |Fortezza | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Peculiar architecture in | | |
| | |Bolzano | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Sigmundskron Castle | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Lets speak about water | | |
| | |towers | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Construction site of the | | |
| | |new Vienna Central Station | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Gasometer City in Vienna | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Marvelous storefronts in | | |
| | |Brno | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Strolling around a railway | | |
| | |station | | |
| | | | | |
| | |Beautiful ceiling in Brno | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | |The strange clock of Brno | | |
Totals
| |FOOD |ARCHITECTURE |STEREOTYPES/MYTHS |HISTORY/HERITAGE/CULTURE |
|Everything |0 |8 |3 |14 |
|Everywhere | | | | |
|Hecktic Travels |4 |9 |10 |6 |
|Wandering Earl |6 |8 |9 |11 |
|Inside the Travel |8 |12 |18 |16 |
|Lab | | | | |
|Travelwriticus |5 |15 |11 |18 |
|TOTAL |23 |52 |51 |65 |
-----------------------
[1] "blog" Merriam-. Merriam-Webster, 2011. Web. 8 May 2012.
[2] Bing Pan, Tanya MacLaurin and John C. Crotts. “Travel Blogs and the Implications for Destination Marketing”, in Journal of Travel Research 2007 46: 35.
[3] “Mashable Award for Eurail and InterRail customer support on Facebook” Eurail, (2012-04-29).
[4] “Travel Bloggers Take To The European Rail Network”, December 8, 2011, Travelllll, (2012-05-03).
[5] Doris Schmallegger and Dean Carson. “Blogs in tourism: Changing approaches to information exchange,” Journal of Vacation Marketing April 2008 14: 99-110.
[6] Henri Tajfel, Human groups and social categories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
[7] Stuart Hall, “Cultural Identity and Diaspora”, in Framework, Volume 36 (1994) 222-237.
[8] Anna Cento Bull. “Collective Identities: From the Politics of Inclusion to the Politics of Ethnicity and Difference”, in The Global Review of Ethnopolitics, Volume 2, no. 3-4 (March/June 2003), 41-54.
[9] David Morley and Kevin Robins, Space of Identity: global media, electronic landscapes and cultural boundaries (London: Routledge, 1995).
[10] Morley and Robins. Space of Identity.
[11] Morley and Robins. Space of Identity.
[12] Bo Stråth. “A European Identity: to the historical limits of a concept”, in European Journal of Social Theory, Volume 5 (2002), 391.
[13] Hall, Stuart. "In But not of Europe: Europe at Its Myths." Soundings: Journal of Politics and Culture. 22 (2002-2003): 57-69.
[14] Bo Stråth. Europe and the Other and Europe as the Other (Brussels: P.I.E. Peter Lang S.A., 2000), 15.
[15] European Commission. Tourism and the European Union (Brussels: European Commission, 2003).
[16] Andriela Vitic and Greg Ringer. “Branding Post-Conflict Destinations”, in Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 23 (2007), 127-137.
[17] Lauren A. Rivera. “Managing "Spoiled" National Identity: War, Tourism, and Memory in Croatia”, in American Sociological Review, Vol. 73, No. 4 (Aug., 2008), pp. 613-634.
[18] Duncan Light. “Facing the future: tourism and identity-building in post-Socialist Romania”, in Political Geography 20, (2001) 1053-1074.
[19] Andriela Vitic and Greg Ringer. “Branding Post-Conflict Destinations”.
[20] Derek Hall. From ‘Bricklaying’ to ‘Bricolage’: Transition and Tourism Development in Central and Eastern Europe. Tourism Geographies 10 (4), (2008), 410-428.
[21] Lauren A. Rivera. “Managing "Spoiled" National Identity: War, Tourism, and Memory in Croatia”, in American Sociological Review, Vol. 73, No. 4 (Aug., 2008), pp. 613-634.
[22] Catherine Palmer. “Tourism and the symbols of identity”, in Tourism Management 20 (1999) 313—321.
[23] Andriela Vitic and Greg Ringer. “Branding Post-Conflict Destinations”.
[24] Andriela Vitic and Greg Ringer. “Branding Post-Conflict Destinations”.
[25] Howard Hughes and Danielle Allen. “Cultural tourism in Central and Eastern Europe: the views of ‘induced image formation agents’”, in Tourism Management 26 (2005) 173–183.
[26] Neil Fligstein. Euroclash: The EU, European Identity and the Future of Europe. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
[27] “About Alexa Internet”, Alexa, (12-05-08).
[28] RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is a syndication format that was developed by Netscape in 1999 and became very popular for aggregating updates to blogs and news sites
[29] “Everything-”, Alexa, (12-05-08).
[30] “”, Alexa, , (12-05-08).
[31] “”, Alexa, , (12-05-08).
[32] “”, Alexa, , (12-05-08).
[33] “Travelwriter.at”, Alexa, , (12-05-08).
[34] Zygmunt Bauman. Europe: An Unfinished Adventure (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004).
[35] “Schnitzel.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , (12-07-14).
[36] Claude Fischler, “Food, self and identity”, in Social Science Information, Vol 27, 2 (1988), pp. 275-92.
[37] Claude Fischler, “Food, self and identity”.
[38] Geoff Stahl. "Urban Semiotics" in Encyclopedia of Urban Studies. Ed. Ray Hutchison. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2009. 919-23. SAGE Reference Online. Web. 8 Aug. 2012.
[39] Paul Jones. "Architecture", in Encyclopedia of Urban Studies. Ed. Ray Hutchison. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2009. 37-41. SAGE Reference Online. Web. 8 Aug. 2012.
[40] Angelika Scheuer and Hermann Schmitt. “Dynamics in European Political Identity”, in Journal of European Integration, (2009): 31:5, 551-568.
[41] Bouke Van Gorp and Hans Renesa. “A European Cultural Identity? Heritage and Shared Histories in the European Union”, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, Vol. 98, No. 3. (July 2007), pp. 407-415.
[42] Gerard Delanty and Paul R. Jones. “European Identity and Architecture” European Journal of Social Theory 2002 5: 453.
[43] Eric Schaad, “Perceptions of Scandinavia and the Rhetoric of Touristic Stereotype in Internet Travel Accounts”, in Scandinavian Studies, Vol. 80, No. 2 (Summer 2008), pp. 201-238.
[44] Eric Schaad, “Perceptions of Scandinavia and the Rhetoric of Touristic Stereotype in Internet Travel Accounts”.
[45] Dennis Porter. Haunted Journeys: Desire and Transgression in European Travel Writing. (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1991).
[46] Dean MacCannell. The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. (New York: Schocken, 1976).
[47] Dean MacCannell. The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class.
[48] Duncan Light. ‘Facing the future”: tourism and identity-building in post-Socialist Romania”, in Political Geography 20, (2001) 1053-1074.
[49] Duncan Light. “Gazing on communism: Heritage tourism and post-communist identities in Germany, Hungary and Romania,” in Tourism Geographies, 2: 2 (2000), 157 -176.
[50] Duncan Light. “Gazing on communism: Heritage tourism and post-communist identities in Germany, Hungary and Romania”.
[51]Andriela Vitic and Greg Ringer. “Branding Post-Conflict Destinations”. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 23 (2007), 127-137.
[52] Andriela Vitic and Greg Ringer. Branding Post-Conflict Destinations.”.
[53] Bo Stråth. “A European Identity: to the historical limits of a concept”.
[54] Angelika Scheuer and Hermann Schmitt. “Dynamics in European Political Identity”, in Journal of European Integration, 31:5 (2009), 551-568.
[55] “history” . July 30, 2012
[56] B. Graham, G. Ashworth and J. Tunbridge, A Geography of Heritage, Power, Culture & Economy. (London: Arnold, 2000).
[57] Bouke Van Gorp and Hans Renesa, “European Cultural Identity? Heritage and Shared Histories in the European Union”, in Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, Vol. 98, No. 3. (July 2007), pp. 407-415.
[58] Raymond Williams. Keywords : A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983)
[59] Robert Hewison. The Heritage Industry: Britain in a Climate of Decline. (London: Methuen, 1987).
[60] Bouke Van Gorp & Hans Renesa, “A European Cultural Identity? Heritage and Shared Histories in the European Union”.
[61] The Organization’s History. UNESCO,
[62] World Heritage List. UNESCO,
[63] “UNESCO World Heritage Sites – Episode 235”. June 7, 2010. The Amateur Traveler.
/(2012-08-18).
[64] Seventeenth-century canal ring area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht,.UNESCO,
[65] Rietveld Schröder House. UNESCO,
[66] Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust. UNESCO,
[67] Cologne Cathedral. UNESCO,
[68] Wartburg Castle. UNESCO,
[69] Classical Weimar.
[70] Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar and Dessau. UNESCO,
[71] Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg. UNESCO,
[72] Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin. UNESCO,
[73] Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin. UNESCO,
[74] Berlin Modernism Housing Estates. UNESCO,
[75] Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City. UNESCO,
[76] Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal. UNESCO,
[77] Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd. UNESCO,
[78] Archaeological Ensemble of the Bend of the Boyn. UNESCO,
[79] World Heritage List. UNESCO,
[80] Historic Complex of Split with the Palace of Diocletian. UNESCO,
[81] Plitvice Lakes National Park. UNESCO,
[82] Venice and its Lagoon. UNESCO,
[83] Costiera Amalfitana. UNESCO,
[84] Historic Centre of Vienna. UNESCO,
[85] Historic Centre of Sighisoara. UNESCO,
[86] Old Bridge Area of the Old City of Mostar. UNESCO,
[87] Historic Areas of Istanbul. UNESCO,
[88]
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üñüãüÜüÜüÜÔÐÈÁ¶«§ §™§’§Ž§Ž§Ž†§†§‚§‚§~§~§~§~§zhš8œBudapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy Avenue. UNESCO,
[89] Historic Centre of Prague. UNESCO,
[90] Historic Centre of Vienna. UNESCO,
[91] Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes. UNESCO,
[92] Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy Avenue. UNESCO,
[93] Historic Centre of Prague. UNESCO,
[94] Historic Centre of Vienna. UNESCO,
[95] Historic Centre of Vienna. UNESCO,
[96] Historic Centre of Sighisoara. UNESCO,
[97] World Heritage List. UNESCO,
[98] Classical Weimar. UNESCO,
[99] Bouke Van Gorp and Hans Renesa, “A European Cultural Identity? Heritage and Shared Histories in the European Union”.
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