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HSC Option 4: Improving PerformanceHow do Athletes Train for Improved Performance?Strength Training:The main purpose for strength training is to increase the athletes’ capacity to exert force. Strength training can aim to improve endurance, strength, power, bulk and decrease body fat. All strength training should be exercise specific, employ P/O principal, use progressive resistance. 4 types of strengthAbsolute strength: max force that can be generated by a muscle (IRM)Relative strength: max force relative to body weightStrength endurance: ability of muscle to withstand fatigueSpeed strength: (power) – ability to apply force at a rapid rate.Resistance TrainingResistance training programs incorporate isotonic, isometric and isokinetic exercises. Elastic resistance bands and hydraulic activities are effective resistance training mechanismsElastic Resistance BandsHydraulic Activities CheapResistance of bands come from their elasticity, rather than the gravitational pull of a weight, thus light weight and easily transportable. Varying resistances, effective at O/L bodySpecific muscle groups can be targetedSafe; good for rehabCan be used for solo stretching (PNF); flexibility increaseBUT//Hard to measure resistance load appliedCan become boring, slow exercise/ lack of varietySwimming pool exercise routinesHydraulic machinesMaintains constant tensionEasy to measure resistance load applied; O/L accurately Targets muscle groupsAllows muscle to strengthen through full R.O.M.SafeBUT//Machines are expensiveLack of proper TQ = injuryMuscle soreness commonWeight training Uses plates, dumbbells and machines to perform isotonic contractions.Most common approach to developing muscular strength.Good for muscle isolation (e.g bicep curl = biceps, sit ups = abdominals, heel raises = calves, pec deck = pectorals).Very effective at increasing muscle hypertrophyIsotonic contractions (bicep curl) often replicate movements in competitionResistance can easily and effectively be modified; O/LIncorrect TQ (like bending at the back during dead lifts) = sore back, higher risk of injury.Weight (%)RepsSetsExercise SpeedRest (min)Strength80 – 904 – 6 3 – 4Slow – ModLong; 3Power60 – 805 – 103 – 5 Fast – Explos.Long ; 2-3Endurance30 – 5015 – 303- 6 Mod – HighShort; 30s - 1Lean. B. Mass70 - 906 – 123 - 6Slow - ModShort; 1-2Isometric trainingIsometric contractions are less common than isotonic contractions in strength trainingGood for core strength development and rehabilitation. Good for gymnastics or rock climbing, where fixed positions need to be help for an extended period of timeIncrease back and abdominal muscle strength = better postureGood for rehabilitation as movement does not occurIsolates musclesImproves muscle enduranceStatic contraction does not mimic competitionDoesn’t apply load to muscles during full R.O.M.Can increase blood pressure.Progressive Overload in Strength TrainingMost important principal to develop strength during resistance training as it improves rate of hypertrophy and strength adaptations in the muscle fibres. Some O/L TQ include:Pyramid Sets (weight training): resistance is increased with each set, but repetitions decrease. Drop sets (weight training): during a set, when no more repetitions can be done, some weight is removed and the exercise continues.Super sets: two exercises (usually targeting the same muscle group) with no rest in between.Recovery in Strength TrainingIt is very important to include sufficient rest periods when designing a training program as muscles need to recover in order for them to improve. It is during recovery phases that adaptations such as growth in size and strength occur. Programs can alternate upper body sessions with lower body sessions to achieve this.Aerobic TrainingEncourages adaptations in the body that improve the efficiency of the aerobic energy system and muscular endurance. The physiological adaptations that occur in response to the training effects include:Increased aerobic and anaerobic thresholdsIncreased VO2 MaxIncreased cardiac outputGlycogen sparing and improved efficiency of fat metabolismIncreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.From these adaptations the performance benefits are improved endurance and a greater ability to sustain exercise at higher intensities. This is due to more efficient delivery and utilisation of oxygen, the more efficient removal of waste products and improved capacity to tolerate lactic acid. Training methods effective at improving endurance are: Continuous (SPECIFICITY)Consistent activity with no rest completed at a steady intensity in the aerobic zone (60-80% VO2 MAX)20 min +, 70% VO2 MAX – EnduranceBuilds a strong aerobic base by improving aerobic capacity and tolerance to lactic acidOveruse injuries like stress fractures can result from too much continuous trainingGood for running events – 800m.Fartlek (TRAINING THRESHOLDS)Continuous activity I the aerobic zone (60 – 80% VO2 MAX) with periodic bursts of high intensity activity into the anaerobic zone20 min run @ 70% (mod. Intensity) that includes 5 high intensity sprint burst (90%) of 20secs occurring every 4 minsBy periodically bursting into the anaerobic zone tolerance to lactic acid increases, oxygen uptake increases, aerobic capacity increasesLifts anaerobic threshold – enduranceMirrors competition, good for soccer trainingLong Interval (O/L)Combines several mod – high intensity bursts of activity about 70% - 80% VO2 MAX, over a moderate duration with rest/recovery periods in betweenWork : rest = 3:160 secs : 20 secs:Highly effective at overloading anaerobic threshold and developing very high levels of aerobic fitness.Anaerobic Training (power and speed)Developing Power through Resistance/ Weight TrainingPower is the ability to exert force quicklydevelop power through use of weights (60 – 80% RM) in conjunction with a high – explosive contraction speedE.G bench throws, medicine ball throws, jump squats.O/L must be applied to initiate and continue positive adaptions .E.G to enhance speed and power development in sprinters, short distance sprints can be done while dragging a weighted sled, attached via harness to the athlete. Sets and reps of this increase anaerobic energy system.PlyometricsV. effective for improving explosive powerInvolves lengthening of a muscle performing an eccentric contraction followed quickly and shortly by its shortening through concentric contraction.E.G. push ups with a clap in between for upper body power, or hopping up stairs for leg power. Due to explosive nature, there is an increased potential for soft and hard tissue injuries like tears and sprains or stress fracture respectively.Short IntervalInvolves burst of high to v. high work intensities performed with rest periodsTarget anaerobic energy systems and require powerful use of musclesFlexibilityFlexibility, also known as range of motion about a joint, decreases the chances of soft tissue injury during performance, particularly to muscles and connective tissue. It also improves standards of movement performance by allowing athletes to generate a greater amount of force across a larger area of motion. In Tennis for example, a player with a service action that has a large range of motion about their shoulder has a greater potential to generate force over someone who has limited flexibility, and hence a shorter R.O.M about their shoulder. The specific performance advantages of increased flexibility include:Increased blood supply to musclesIncreased biomechanical efficiencyGreater coordinationBetter postureIncreased prevention of injury.Static:Stretching a muscle to a given point and holding it there for 7 – 14 seconds. This is a very safe and effective form of passive stretching making it good for injury recover. Does not mimic competition however.Ballistic:Use of bouncing movements at the end of the R.O.M. to enhance the extent of the stretchDoes increase flexibility and the R.O.M Also better reflection of competitionAs the muscles are forced further than their normal R.O.M the body’s stretch reflex can activate and risk of injury is increased.Dynamic:Progressive movements through full R.O.M, like rotating arms at the shoulder.Limited dynamic flexibility at the shoulder reduces stroke length for swimmers and range of throwing motion for base ballers decrease P.PNF: Proprioceptive Neuromuscular FacilitationCombination of static and isometric stretches usually requiring a partner to provide resistanceSafe and v. effective if done correctly. Little risk of injury.Skills TrainingDrills PracticeImproves fundamentals like catching or passing. Improve performance under pressure (introducing defence)Increases tactical and strategic awarenessIncreases communication and interaction between team matesEncourages enjoyment and keeps athletes mentally fresh. Participation in a variety of drills prevents training from becoming boring and predictable.Encourages a broader skill base; in soccer for example trapping with outside of the foot, kicking it with the inside of the foot.Good opportunity to provide feedback to make adjustments or reinforce positive elements of the performance.Modified and Small Sided GamesV. good for team sports as they increase participation and repletion rates.Through reduction of field/ court size and the number of players involved, each player becomes more actively involved and has a better opportunity to apply learned skills more often in the time givenGood for further improving skill and technique; especially amongst younger age groups where speed and endurance is less significant.Games for specific outcomesManipulationPlaces emphasis on certain skills. Removing defending players, attacking players practice maximising an overlap situationEnables coaches to improve decision making and tactical awareness of their playersTo make the most of these game types, coaches are advised to provide feedback, whether concurrent or delayed. Players can then apply feedback immediately and improve. Coaches can also utilise questioning at the end of training or activities as it empowers the players to justify their own decisions and think up other methods that may have had a better tactical advantage. Useful questions include “what made you take that option?” or “ what else could you have done in that situation?”What are the Planning Consideration for Improving Performance?Initial Planning ConsiderationsPerformance and Fitness NeedsInitial planning focuses on performance and fitnessData gained from previous seasons and current performances is gathered and analysed so future training plans can be established on valid and reliable groundsSome evidence includes:Last season; both team and individualFitness testsSchedule of events/competitionsClimate and SeasonPlanning a Training Year (Periodization)Phases of Competitionprep for comp. focuses on 3 basic phases:pre-seasonin-seasonpost-seasonthe gaols are different in these phases, therefore meaning the nature of training within each is differentPhases of PreparationFocus of PreparationPre-SeasonImprove all aspects of fitness – strength, flexibility, endurance etc.skill developmentteam bondingIn-Seasonmaintenance of fitnessskill development strategies and tacticstapering and peaking where appropriatePost-Seasonactive leisurephysical recoverySub-PhasesPrep for comp can be divided into two blocks; macrocycles and mircrocycles.A pre-season training plan may begin 12 weeks before the season begins. During this time, 3 four week macrocycles can be incorporated. They may focus on muscular hypertrophy and strength development with the final four week macrocycle (microcycle) having a greater focus on the development of muscular power and its application to sports specific movements. Macrocycles are very useful in training structures to develop a sound strength base and muscular power during the pre-season. PeakingThe phase of training in which performance is optimised to meet the demands of a race, competition or series.Athletes carefully design their training plans so that their skill, fitness, nutrition and mentality are at their peak during the competition phase (like the Olympics) or an eventImpossible to maintain a peak performance; eventually the body and mind requires a reduced intensity and recoveryTaperingThe period immediately before competition when the volume and the intensity of training is reduced so energy can be conserved and performance optimisedTapering allows for:The physical recovery of body tissueThe maintanence of a fitness levelEnhancement of mental freshnessEnergy stores to be at high levels increases P. by 2-3%Sport Specific Sub-PhasesRefer to the microcyclesFocus especially on specific fitness components and /or skill development that are related to the athletes sportFocus on building strong aerobic base for marathon runnerFocus on developing speed enduranceMay focus on building a strength base, with subsequent sub-phases adding a speed dimension so power can be achievedElements to be considered when designing a training sessionHealth and safety considerationsSuitable facilities of equipmentSafe training methodsInjury prevention and management strategiesProviding an Overview of a SessionBy providing a general overview of the training session to the athlete a coach can prepare them mentally for what they are about to do. It also clarifies goals wished to be achieved throughout the session and helps to give each session a clear purpose to the athletesWarm up and Cool down.Warm up is fundamental whenever physical activity will take place. Gross motor movements like dynamic and PNF stretching and sport specific movements reduce likelihood of injury. Cool down is also crucial to protecting athlete from injury. Gross motor movements like walking, slow jogging and stretching should take place after activity.Skill instruction and practiceDeliverance of knowledge by coach or trainer to player or athlete.Very dominant when a new, complex skill needs to be taught and mastered.Fundamental to attaining expertiseInstruction needs to be brief, specific, and clear allow for skill to be easily understood, maximum practice time to take place, improvements are effective and efficient. ConditioningRecognised as fitness training. Nature of the sport influences the degree of conditioning. Golf – low conditioning component, high skill aspect. Athletics – dominant component of training. Training regime needs to reflect thisRugby requires both, high skill and conditioning. Training however needs to be balanced as too much fatigue from conditioning can adversely affect skill acquisition by decreasing concentration and energy. To prepare for this, coaches can include conditioning at the end of a training session or have two or three sessions a week devoted to conditioning. Increased fitness results in increased efficiency of player to participate in game situations, less fatigued, less error, better skill execution throughout entire performance.EvaluationAppraisal of performance of athletes following training sessionImportant for each session to finish with an overview of what was done in the training session and what goals were or were not achieved. Help guide starting point of next training session, keep athletes informed about their progress and motivated to succeed in areas where attention is needed.Allows athletes to ask coach questions and share opinions on what they feel should be considered or done next session.Planning to Avoid OvertrainingAmount and Intensity of TrainingOvertraining is the result of ongoing training without enough recovery. Training loads and sessions may be too high in intensity, duration or frequency with not enough recovery. Adjustments to the training session need to be made if this is the case. Some individuals have lower straining stress thresholds than others, thus they will experience overtraining when others will not. An equal fitness level of all individuals is thus required to balance those thresholds out amongst the team. Physiological ConsiderationsPerformance will plateau or decline in times of overtraining. Signs of overtraining include:Lethargy and fatigue lack of energy. Athletes cannot perform to the best of their ability, thus a gradual deterioration of performance can result. Also decreased concentration and motivationInjury bone breakages, shin splints, pain due to overtraining. Depending of seriousness of injury athletes can be out of training for a long time. Reversibility takes place, performance levels are diminished along with cardiorespiratory endurance, strength, flexibility and power.Prevention of overtraining should include:Effectively using periodization in long term training programs. Ensures body adapts and responds to progressive overload as well as remains healthy, mentally and physically, to continue in trainingProviding sufficient recovery time between training sessions. Allows for the growth and repair of muscle fibre, most of which takes place in the days following the training. If this recovery time is reduced or removed, the physical adaptations will be reducedEnsuring the training volumes and intensities are safely overloading the athletePsychological ConsiderationsSigns include:Reduced confidenceLow motivationAnger and anxiety.Strategies to overcome these signs:Reduction or stopping of trainingRelaxationChange of environment, move to pool or beachLots of positive reinforcement.Coaches must be careful not to exceed their athletes stress tolerance and ensure their training programs are of a challenging but reasonable intensity and volume.What Ethical Issues are Related to Improving Performance?Use of DrugsThe Dangers of Performance Enhancing Drug UsePerformance enhancing drugs (PED)Potentially harmful to user, unethical means of improving performance and detracts from the athletes achievementsUse is illegal – unfair advantage over other athletesArguments supporting PEDPED use allows achievement of physical performance feats unseen beforeInconsistent detection of PED cause uncertainty that not all users will be caught. Encourages athletes to take PED and also pressures them to take drugs in order to compete on a level playing fieldArguments against PEDPotential side-effects of PED include serious physical and mental problemsDestroys integrity of sport as achievements are no longer determined by an athletes skill, training, fitness and effortFor StrengthType of drugPotential side effectsHuman Growth Hormone (HGH)Abnormal bone growth in hands and faceDiabetesHeart diseaseAnabolic SteroidsLiver damageHeart diseaseAcneMood swings, increased aggressionSexual and hormone dysfunction.For Aerobic PerformanceErythropoietin (EPO) is a naturally occurring hormone in the body responsible for the production of red blood cells. As a drug, the aim is to increase the body’s red blood cell count, in turn increasing oxygen transportation and thus aerobic performance. Side effects include:Increased blood viscosity, harder for heart to pump blood stroke deathTo Mask other DrugsType of drugDiureticsAnticipated performance benefitPotential side effectsMasks other drug use by increasing fluid loss. Can also help athletes lose weight for their respected sports like boxing and horseracingDehydrationHeadaches, dizzinessKidney damageAlcoholAnticipated performance benefitPotential side effectsMasks other drug usePoor coordinationSlow reaction timePoor judgement Increased risk takingThese drugs mask the use of PED by encouraging fluid removal from the body through increased urination. PEDs are removed more quickly through this process thus athletes can take PEDs in the days leading up the competition but remove them in time for testing and still maintain the beefits.Benefits and limitations of Drug testingLimitations“Cat and mouse” game of new drug followed by new test.Drug tests are invasion of private life of athletes – common view that authorities should not be allowed to invade/police privacy.Policies on drug testing differ between sports.BenefitsProduces a much more level playing field between rich and poor countries. Increase confidence of esp. athletes from poorer countriesProtects health of athletes and integrity of sportTesting is a deterrent to drug useNatural ability of athletes is rewarded. With tennis becoming an Olympic sport, the Association of Tennis Professionals must obey the regulations of the World Anti – doping agency (WADA). Tennis players must nominate 1 hour per day for potential, random WADA testing. To the players this time is detrimental to their training regimes, social life and privacy. By missing 3 tests in 18 months players will face a 2 year ban. Rafael Nadal claims “they [WADA] make you feel like a criminal”.Use of TechnologyTechnological advances and their applications within sports have provided coaches with additional means of improving performance. Through video replays and game statistics, coaches can make training more advanced and specific to the athletes’ needs.Training InnovationLactate Threshold TestingGraded tests using urgs, bikes, running machines etc are used with blood samples to determine blood lactate at different grades of intensity. Portable lactate analysers are now available, so coaches can efficiently manipulate training, increase or decrease intensity, so the AnT can be reached and improvedGreat tool to decrease chance of O/T as it increases the accuracy of periodization in a training regime and indicates the tolerance levels of the athletes.Biochemical AnalysisThe analysis of athletic techniqueAnalysis can include video, slow motion replays, photography, comparative imagesBy changing technique athletes improve their knowledge, accuracy, power toward skill improves performance and also decrease injury risk. Team strategies can be modified and improved as they can play toward an opposing teams weakness (poor backhand, inconsistent tackling by outside backs of rugby team etc.)Technology in sportpositiveNegativeMakes sport more enjoyable to the public as skills are easier to learn and perform to a satisfactory standard. Wide, foam surfboards are more stable than normal short boards making them easier for learners to stand up on. Replays and slow motion footage makes competition more thrilling for audienceSome forms of technology reduce levels of physical activity by participants – golf buggies, ski lifts, virtual gaming.Increase comfort of athletes in sports like cycling – shock absorbers, seat designs. Spiked shoes in athletes and cricket to offer more traction and improve performace.Great technological costs impede poorer countries’ abilities to train athletes to the same degree as athletes from developed countries – unfair advantageProtective equipment advances make sport safer. Helmets in cricket and baseball, back brace for competitive motorbike racing.Reliance on technology, instead of natural skill. Also reduce rate of skill development. (golf driver) ................
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