Chapter 7 – Whose Land



Chapter 7 – Whose Land

Washington’s original inhabitants were the Native Americans. When the first Spanish sea explorers arrived in 1542AD, the Native American culture and life style was changed forever.

Over the past 460 years, four groups of people came into the Washington area. These groups included the explorers, fur traders, missionaries, and settlers. They first came as individuals and then as families. These groups each contributed to the political, cultural, and economic systems of the region.

Sea explorers sailed along the Pacific coastline. Expeditions also crossed the continent by foot, canoe, and horseback. Explorers claimed political control for their countries. They sought gold and silver as well. Their top priority, though, was to acquire as much land as possible. These

land and sea explorers did not stay, but eventually returned home.

American and British trappers and traders came to the region with different interests. Their main interest was to make a profit and live off the land. Trading posts and forts were established along the major river banks in the region. As you already know, the fur trade era prospered until the mid-19th century. By that time most of the prized animals had been over trapped. With few animals left, the fur trade business came to a sudden end.

The time had come to focus on settling the Pacific Northwest. The missionaries followed the traders and trappers west. They taught religion to the Native Americans and pioneers as part of their mission work. As quickly as the missionary era began, however, it also ended.

The missionary era came to a close with the attack at the Waiilatpu Mission in 1847. This attack began a period of violent conflicts between the settlers and the Native Americans. As the conflicts continued, the migration of pioneers west along the Oregon Trail increased.

Americans wanted to claim the land in the West. All the while, the Indians were being forced from their land. These events forced them to battle for their land and survival!

The Great Migration

In 1837, the United States suffered from difficult economic times, or a depression. Americans struggled to keep jobs, homes, farms, and even businesses. During these difficult times many families looked for a new start.

A few men known as “Oregon Promoters” wrote articles about the beauty and fertility of the Willamette River Valley in Oregon. They said Oregon would offer a new start with free land. The promoters promised that opportunity awaited those who dared to cross the continent. As a result, many hopeful families began their journey West.

The Oregon Pioneer

Why did thousands of settlers leave the East for Washington and Oregon’s Willamette River Valley? Each pioneer had his or her own personal reasons. Adventure, land, and a new start in life were reason enough for many. Whatever the reason, the pioneer’s decision to leave home affected every family member.

Pioneers came west by the tens of thousands between the 1840s and 1860s. They came by sea and by land. Each pioneer faced challenges and hardships. It was not unusual for these brave pioneers to give up everything to go west to Oregon. Some paid the ultimate price along the way; they lost their lives.

Sea Route

Once a pioneer made the decision to journey west, other important choices followed. An important decision was how to get there. Some settlers chose to sail from the eastern United States around the southern tip of South America. This route was referred to as “Around the Horn.”

The journey took several months to reach San Francisco. For those sailing to Seattle, the trip was even longer.

The trip around the horn was very expensive. Worse yet, it was just as dangerous as the overland route. Many people lost their lives traveling around Cape Horn. During the difficult economic times, only the wealthier Americans chose the sea route. The majority of pioneers had

no option but to use the overland route to the Oregon Country.

Land Route

The Lewis and Clark expedition had not taken the easiest land route west. This was due to the difficulty in crossing the northern Rocky Mountains. For nearly 40 years, explorers and trappers searched for a better route. Finally, Benjamin Bonneville’s discovery of South Pass proved to be the important breakthrough.

South Pass was a 30 mile wide path through the rugged Rocky Mountains. The path was wide and flat. It was ideal for the wagons of the pioneers. Nathaniel Wyeth was one of the Oregon promoters. He worked with John C. Fremont to push the Oregon Trail farther westward from South Pass. In 1836, Dr. Marcus Whitman, the famous Protestant missionary, brought wagons as far as Fort Boise, Idaho. They were forced to stop there due to the rugged Blue Mountains. Then in the summer of 1840, Doc Newell and Joe Meek successfully led the first wagons across the Blue Mountains. Once they had done so, they then traveled west along the Columbia River to Oregon. They had finally created a wagon route linking Missouri to the Oregon Country.

The Oregon Trail was not established by any one person. Instead it was the result of considerable efforts by many explorers, trappers, and even missionaries.

The Oregon Trail was a much-needed route from Independence, Missouri to Fort Vancouver, Washington. The trail was no more than a dirt path across the continent. Many of the trail’s travelers would eventually settle in Oregon's Willamette River Valley. The Oregon Trail was the primary route west from 1840 to 1869.

The Oregon Trail

Until the 1840s, only small groups made the overland journey. They searched for the shortest, quickest, and safest land route. There were no known wagon trails through the rugged mountains of the West.

By 1851, the Oregon Trail was the most traveled route to the West. On their journey, pioneers suffered everything from relentless bugs to hunger. They faced constant dangers from disease, animals, snakes, and even Indian attacks. The elderly, sick, and young pioneers often died during the long journey west. The 2,000 mile journey west forced everyone to experience firsthand the hardships of early pioneer life.

Independence

Independence, Missouri was the last city before pioneers headed west. Independence was know to the pioneers as the “jumping off” point. This was the pioneers’ last chance to change their minds!

Independence was located on the Missouri River near present day Kansas City. Anyone traveling west from Independence could expect to travel through hostile Indian territory. Pioneers, in an attempt to protect themselves, organized large groups. These groups became known as wagon trains. Pioneers believed that the larger numbers of people would provide protection against Indian attacks.

Independence had numerous stores and blacksmiths available to the pioneer. Pioneers bought food and supplies. Large quantities of flour, coffee, bacon, and other food products traveled with the pioneers. The only way to haul all this food was by wagon. Blacksmiths built wagons by the thousands in Independence. Once they had the wagon, the pioneers needed animals to pull it. Oxen were the animals of choice. After the pioneer had supplies, a wagon, and an ox, the only thing left to do was wait.

The First Leg—Crossing the Great Plains

The wait was important. Leaving

Independence before the grass was long was a fatal mistake. They needed the grass to feed their oxen on the journey. By early May, grass on the the Great Plain had grown tall. It was only then that the pioneers left Independence for Oregon.

Wagon trains headed west across the vast grasslands of the Great Plains. This was an easy portion of the trip. The land was flat, the grass was long, and drinking water was plentiful. The pioneers also did not need to worry about attack from the plains Indians. They were friendly to the pioneers. On a good day, pioneers could travel about 20 miles.

The wagons rolled across the Kansas prairies toward Fort Kearny, Nebraska following the Platte River. Once rested, the pioneers followed the Platte west across Nebraska. Eventually they went along side the North Platte River.

The first landmark for the pioneers was Chimney Rock. They eagerly anticipated it once they crossed Mitchell Pass. They followed the North Platte River until reaching Fort Laramie, Wyoming. Repairs and supplies were purchased

Wyoming. Repairs and supplies were purchased during this stop. Leaving Fort Laramie, the wagon trains continued their journey west. The rugged Rocky Mountains, however, loomed on the horizon.

The Second Leg—Crossing the Rockies

Midway between Fort Laramie and South Pass was Independence Rock. Farther to the west, the wagon train left the North Platte River to cross the main Rockies by way of South Pass.

Once through the pass, the route became difficult What was the best route to Fort Hall, Idaho? There were different opinions. Thus, the Oregon Trail split into two routes. Some wagon trains traveled farther south to Fort Bridger in the

southwestern corner of Wyoming. Other wagon trains continued in a northwesterly direction into the Snake River Valley of southeastern Idaho.

Upon reaching Fort Hall, the pioneers rested for a few days. Their wagons were repaired and supplies replenished. This was a critical juncture in their journey west. If they chose Oregon, they continued on a northerly route through the Blue Mountains. If their choice was Sacramento, they continued on the California Trail that took them through hot and dry Nevada deserts. Their choice was often a difficult one!

Third Leg—Whitman’s Mission

Oregon pioneers followed the Snake River from Fort Hall to Fort Boise, Idaho. There the Oregon Trail left the Snake River Canyon and continued through the rugged Blue Mountains by way of the Grande Rhonde River Valley. After crossing the rugged Blue Mountains, the journey was relatively easy to Dr. Whitman’s Waiilatpu Mission in southeastern Washington.

The Whitman Mission was a popular stop along the Oregon Trail. Pioneers needed the rest, relaxation, supplies, and the opportunity to make wagon repairs before heading on to Fort Vancouver.

Before the Whitman Massacre in November 1847, the Oregon Trail led directly to the Whitmans’ Waiilatpu Mission. After the brutal massacre, the pioneers on the Oregon Trail bypassed the mission.

Fourth Leg—Fort Vancouver and Salem

The wagon train eventually reached the Columbia River. It could either follow the river on land or float downstream. A series of falls and rapids made floating down the Columbia very risky. Instead the pioneers carried supplies and used their wagons to get around the rapids and falls. Once beyond the falls, they continued to float the river until reaching Fort Vancouver. After finally reaching Fort Vancouver, the long and difficult journey was over! The weary travelers were greeted by Dr. John McLoughlin.

McLoughlin was an employee of the British- owned Hudson’s Bay Company. He proved to be extremely helpful to the hopeful pioneers. McLoughlin had another reason for being so helpful. He convinced American pioneers to settle in the Willamette River Valley of Oregon. This strengthened Great Britain’s claim to western Washington.

Many pioneers saw Oregon as less of a risk for attack. They did not want what happened to the Whitmans to also happen to them. They would find very little protection in Washington from either the United States or British governments. These fears, in combination with Dr. McLoughlin’s promotion, allowed Oregon to grow much faster than Washington.

Indian Conflicts

Coastal and plateau Indians have always had to defend against attack from neighboring tribes. The food and fresh water the tribes enjoyed were envied by other tribes. These attacks became more frequent as food supplies declined.

As the land and food supplies decreased for the Native Americans, hostility towards the pioneers increased. It seemed a hopeless battle against the whites to keep their traditional way of life. Relations between the pioneers and the Native Americans became more violent after the signing of the Treaty of Oregon in 1846. This treaty gave the United States government even more control over the land in the Oregon Country.

Native American – White Relationships

The Native Americans and the whites had major cultural differences. The Indians did not want to become Christians and civilized farmers. They wanted to keep their language, religion, customs, and life style. With no written alphabet and various languages, communication was difficult if not impossible. Fear and prejudice only added to the distrust.

Native Americans did not believe in land ownership. They lived within the boundaries of nature. Native Americans disagreed with the pioneers idea that people could own any portion of the land. They were more in tune with the land and nature than the white intruders.

The pioneers drastically changed the

appearance of the land. Their search for gold, silver, copper, and coal altered the land. Fences marked boundaries and restricted the movement of animals. These changes affected the Native Americans way of life. Food supplies decreased because of the changing habitat of the animals.

Suddenly everyone was competing for the same water, animals, and living areas.

The United States government increased the tensions between the pioneers and Native Americans. Army troops were sent west to enforce treaties, provide protection, and punish anyone who did not follow the new rules. This included the Native Americans. The treaties also created Indian reservations. Army troops removed Indians from their traditional lands.

They were forced onto lands set aside by the United States government. Their way of life was forever changed. The United States government encouraged the pioneers and railroad companies to seek free or cheap land in the West. Land was to be settled. Railroads were built to move people and freight. To make matters worse, the tragic Whitman Massacre occurred. It changed the attitude of Americans strongly against the Indian. Many believed it was a savage act without cause.

The Whitman Massacre

Dr. Marcus Whitman and his wife, Narcissa, were Protestant missionaries from the East. They established their Waiilatpu Mission near present day Walla Walla, Washington. The mission flourished along the Oregon Trail. It was one of the more important stops. Over time, relations between the Cayuse, Walla Walla, and Umatilla tribes and the Whitmans became strained. The Cayuse became suspicious of the Whitmans after a measles outbreak. Many Indians died after being treated by Dr. Whitman. In contrast, the white settlers treated by Dr. Whitman survived. Thus, Dr.

Whitman was seen as an unsuccessful shaman, or medicine man, by the Native Americans.

It is believed that the Cayuse Indians held Dr. Whitman responsible for the numerous deaths of their people during the measles epidemic. To make matters worse, the Native Americans disliked Narcissa. She appeared to show them little respect. Also, the Indians associated the Whitmans with the growing number of settlers traveling the Oregon Trail.

On November 29, 1847, two hostile Cayuse warriors, Tilaukait and Tomahas, led a savage attack killing the Whitmans and 13 other Waiilatpu residents. In addition, the Cayuse took 45 women and children captive.

The national reaction to the Whitman

Massacre was pure shock and bitter anger. The brutal murders of the Whitmans and the abuse of 45 hostages terrified all Americans. Americans demanded immediate action to protect the people living in the Oregon Country. They also wanted the quick capture and punishment of those Cayuse warriors responsible for the massacre. Although the United States had acquired the Oregon Territory in 1846, it was not considered a territory at the

time of the attack. Thus, the United States

government could not act against the Cayuse. In 1847, only a provisional government of Oregon had the authority to respond to this tragic event. The provisional government quickly

organized a militia of 300-500 men. The militia, led by Joe Meek, searched for the Cayuse Indians responsible for the attack and abuse of the captives.

After nearly two years, Cayuse warriors Tilaukait, Tomahas, and three others were finally captured. After a long trial, Tilaukait, Tomahas, Kiamasumpkin, Iaiachalakis, and Klokomas were found guilty and sentenced to death. They

were hung on June 3, 1850 for their roles in the attack on the Whitmans and others.

The attack forced the United States Congress to grant territorial status to Oregon on August 14, 1848. With territorial status, the United States Army could protect American residents in Oregon. The Whitman Massacre ended the missionary era. It brought about the beginning

of a series of wars in the Pacific Northwest.

Peace Treaties

In 1853, the United States government organized the Washington Territory. The first Washington territorial governor was Isaac Stevens. Governor Stevens had, by 1855, negotiated 12 tribal treaties with the coastal tribes. These treaties limited the fishing and hunting rights of the coastal tribes. In addition, he also forced the tribes to live on reservations. At the time, these treaties seemed fair to both the coastal tribes and the settlers. The treaties with the coastal tribes were relatively easy to negotiate compared to the treaties with the plateau Indians. The interior Indians did not want to submit to the white man. Today, the terms of all Indian treaties are being reviewed closely, especially concerning the fishing and property rights of both the plateau and coastal Indians.

The Walla Walla Council

Governor Stevens and Joel Palmer, Indian agent for the Washington Territory, requested that the plateau Indians come to the negotiation table. The interior tribes proved to be a difficult challenge in treaty negotiations.

Governor Stevens, Joel Palmer, and 43 soldiers arrived at Mill Creek on May 21, 1855, near Waiilatpu Mission. They met to discuss peace treaty options. All the major interior tribes were represented, except for the Palouse and Spokane tribes. By May 28, there were nearly 5,000 Plateau Indians attending what came to be known as the Walla Walla Council.

The most significant event, at the council meeting, was a rumor. The Nez Perce heard that the Yakama, Cayuse, and Umatilla tribes planned to kill Governor Stevens and all of his delegation. Chief Joseph and his 2,500 warriors encircled

Governor Stevens and his people. The Nez Perce saved the governor and his delegation.

By June 11, 1855, three separate peace treaties had been negotiated and signed. The final terms established three reservations, paid a lump sum of cash to each tribe, and paid annual salaries to the chief of each tribe for 20 years. The Nez Perce reservation covered more than 7.6 million acres of northeastern Oregon and western Idaho. The main portion of the reservation was located in the Wallowa and Blue mountains. The Nez Perce tribe received $200,000 plus a $500 annual payment to each tribal chief.

Later treaties would reduce their reservation to only 756,968 acres. This resulted in the famous attempt of the Nez Perce to retreat into Canada. A second treaty was signed by the tribal chiefs of the Cayuse, Walla Walla, and Umatilla tribes. The treaty granted these tribes an 800 square mile reservation along the Umatilla River in northeast Oregon. Each tribal chief also received a $150,000 cash payment plus $500 annual salary.

The third major treaty of the Walla Walla Council was with the 14 tribes of the Yakama Nations. The Yakamas had controlled most of the central section of Washington. Their reservation was greatly reduced, however, from 10 million acres to only 1.25 million acres. It extended from the Yakima River west to the Cascades. It also included a vital salmon fishing spot in a small area along the Wenatchee River.

The Yakamas received $200,000 cash payment, and each chief’s annual salary was $500. At the close of the Walla Walla Council, Governor Stevens had signed three treaties. These treaties gave Washington nearly 22 million acres of free land. Of course, there were many very unhappy tribes. Especially bitter were the Yakama tribes of eastern Washington.

The Yakama Wars

A series of battles from 1855 to 1858 were called the Yakama Wars. These wars placed the plateau Indians against the settlers and the United States Army. The Yakama Wars were widespread. They especially presented great danger to the settlers in eastern Washington. So much danger, in fact, that the territorial government closed the region to all settlement.

The Yakama Wars were a major reason that it took 36 years for the territory of Washington to finally gain statehood. Why did the Yakama Wars start so soon after the treaty signing at the Walla Walla Council?

The seemingly unfair terms of the treaty, broken promises, and poor reservation conditions were the main reasons. The discovery of gold, in

eastern Washington river valleys, also resulted in confrontation. An attack against the miners was led by Yakama Chief Kamiakin. Once fighting started, the Yakamas quickly swept the river valleys of the miners and settlers.

The battles even spread into western

Washington. These battles lasted from October 1855 to March 1856. The increase in violence prompted the government to send several war ships into Puget Sound to protect the settlers from attack.

Word spread of an attack planned by the Nisqually Indians on Seattle blockhouses. On January 26, 1856, the feared attack was prevented when the Decatur fired its cannons into the woods

near Third Avenue. Chief Leschi and the waiting war party retreated, burning buildings as they fled. For his role in the attack, Chief Leschi was found guilty of murder and destruction of property. He was executed at Fort Steilacoom on February 19, 1858.

The second major battle of the Yakama Wars was fought in the Walla Walla Valley. Chief Peopeomoxmox of the Walla Walla tribe led his warriors in an attack on Fort Walla Walla. They burned the fort and fled the area.

In December 1855, a group of Oregon

volunteers led by Lt. James Kelley pursued the Walla Wallas. Chief Peopeomoxmox was captured, killed, and scalped at the battle of Frenchtown. With the killing of their chief, the Walla Walla tribe was defeated.

The Cascades Attack

In March 1856, Chief Kamiakin led a surprise attack on a small town called Cascades. Cascades was an important town where goods traveling on the Columbia River were brought, or portaged, around a series of rapids. Kamiakin’s goal was to gain control of the Columbia Gorge. The gorge is located where the Columbia River cuts through the Cascade Mountains. Kamiakin’s success would have isolated eastern Washington. The settlers east of the Cascade Mountains would have been trapped by the Plateau Indians. Kamiakin’s plan was also to unite all Plateau tribes against the settlers in the Puget Sound and Willamette River Valley areas. Although a brilliant plan, it did not work. Kamiakin’s warriors were driven off by the Cascade settlers.

The Battle of Rosalia

Native Americans, miners, and settlers all disagreed over the treaties. These disagreements caused increased hostility. Fort Colville was the site of another conflict between the Indians and gold miners. In the summer of 1855, several gold miners trespassed on the Spokane Reservation.

These trespassers were captured and killed. In response, the United States Army ordered Colonel Steptoe and a detachment of 157 soldiers to Fort Colville. Steptoe’s mission was to provide protection for the settlers and miners. He also was to establish peace between both sides. On May 16, 1858, Colonel Steptoe and his troops were trapped while traveling through a ravine. More than 1,000 warriors of the Palouse, Spokane, Coeur d’Alene, and Nez Perce tribes surrounded Colonel Steptoe and his soldiers.

Trapped and desperate, he wisely asked for a meeting with the chiefs. They told him not to enter the Spokane tribe’s land. The Indian warriors were ready to fight. They harassed the soldiers, trying to provoke a battle. Outnumbered five to one, Steptoe withdrew. He and his soldiers withdrew to a nearby lake and set up camp for the night. The next morning, Steptoe began a retreat toward Fort Walla Walla.

Colonel Steptoe was again surrounded by warriors. Steptoe decided to fight this time. A running battle began in which several of his men were killed or wounded. Steptoe, humiliated from the loss, again tried to retreat. Warriors followed his retreat and again surrounded the detachment. Steptoe decided their only chance of a safe escape was to flee under the safety of darkness. Finally, Steptoe and his men marched south to the Snake River. After crossing the river, they continued south to the safety of Fort Walla Walla.

The Battle of Spokane Plains

Early in the Yakama Wars, General James E. Wool was in charge of the United States Army in eastern Washington. General Wool was replaced by Brigadier General Newman S. Clarke. Early in 1858, General Clarke met with Colonel Steptoe and Colonel Wright to plan a new campaign. General Clark sent Major Garnett to clear the river valleys of hostile Indians along the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains. Colonel Wright and his troops would then push north toward Spokane and Fort Colville. Garnett quickly cleared the Yakima Valley. Reinforced with artillery and infantry, he drove the Indians toward Spokane.

Colonel Wright met with stiffer resistance. Wright’s men, now equipped with the new long-range Sharps rifle, won the battle. Colonel Wright offered the warriors a chance to surrender. Refusing the surrender, the Indians strengthened their position just east of Spokane Falls. The soldiers won the decisive battle. After the battle, the United States Army captured and slaughtered nearly 900 Indian horses. Without their horses, the warring Indians lost mobility and their ability to fight. In the weeks that followed the September 8, 1858 battle, many warring tribes surrendered. Their leaders were captured and executed with the exception of Chief Kamiakin, who escaped to Canada.

The Nez Perce

For nearly 30 years after the Whitman Massacre in 1847, violence was common throughout the region. The battle with the Nez Perce tragically closed this era of conflict between the settlers and the region’s Native Americans. The Nez Perce had been the region’s largest and friendliest tribe. There had never been any violent conflicts between the Nez Perce and settlers. The Nez Perce helped guide the Lewis and Clark Expedition to the Columbia River. They provided protection to the Spaldings during the Whitman Massacre. They even protected Governor Isaac Stevens at the Walla Walla Council.

The Nez Perce had never been responsible for the death of a single white person. Tragically, the relationship between whites and the Nez Perce was severely harmed by the bloodshed, violence, and warfare during Chief Joseph’s Nez Perce Retreat in 1877.

In 1877, General Howard requested that the Lower Nez Perce move off their land. He wanted them to move to the Lapwai Reservation. Howard gave them only one month to move all their possessions and members to the reservation.

During that month, a small band of Nez Perce warriors attacked and killed four settlers. This resulted in the United States Army taking the Nez Perce land and possessions. As a result, Chief Joseph refused to go to the Lapwai Reservation.

Chief Joseph and the 500 members of his tribe nearly completed their difficult 1,300 mile journey to Canada and freedom. During this military campaign, Chief Joseph earned the respect of not only his people, but also his opponents’. Chief Joseph earned a reputation as a brilliant military strategist and leader.

Chapter Summary

Native Americans warred against each other for thousands of years before the first whites arrived in 1542. Relations between the Spanish, British, and American explorers with the Native Americans was at first very peaceful. More white settlers started to claim the land of the Native Americans. Tensions, misunderstandings, and violence increased.

Over a period from the 1780s to 1860s, wars and violent conflicts became more common. Another factor was the rapidly declining population of Native Americans. Their decline was the result of disease and starvation. When the government began forcing them onto reservations, the Native Americans became desperate. Their way of life had been completely changed. Survival now became a major issue as more and more whites took over their land.

In the area where the state of Washington is now located, all regions were affected by bloodshed between the Native Americans and settlers. No land or people were spared. At first there were some minor clashes between the whites and Native Americans. After the killing of the Whitmans at the Waiilatpu Mission, clashes became full-scale wars. The Yakama Wars lasted from 1855 to 1858. By the start of the 20th century, tribes around the country were forced onto reservations. They were taught the white man’s way of life. The Native Americans lost control of their land. Their way of life was lost due to the expansion of a country.

CHAPTER REVIEW ACTIVITIES

1. Use either a dictionary or the glossary to define each of the following terms:

artillery

cavalry

pioneer

route

treaty

blockhouse

epidemic

reservation

settler

wagon train

2. Identify the major contributions of the following people:

Gen. Howard

Chief Kamiakin

Chief Leshi

Col. Steptoe

Nathaniel Wyeth

Chief Joseph

Lt. James Kelley

Joe Meek

Tilaukait Whitmans

3. Locate the following on a Washington, Pacific Northwest, or United States map:

Blue Mountains

Fort Laramie

North Platte River

Columbia River

Fort Vancouver

Snake River

Fort Hall

Great Plains

South Pass

Fort Kearny

Independence Rock

Waiilatpu Mission

4. Each of the following historical events are not their proper chronological order.

Identify the date of each event or historical era.

Coastal tribal treaties

Rosalia Battle

Treaty of Oregon

Frenchtown Battle

Seattle Blockhouse

Walla Walla Council

Nez Perce Retreat

Spokane Plains

Whitman Massacre

5. Write a short descriptive essay answering each of the following questions:

A) Explain why you think so many pioneers chose the Willamette River Valley during the mid-19th century.

B) What were the primary reasons for the Indian Wars from 1847-1858 in the present-day state of Washington?

C) Chiefs Kamiakin, Leschi, and Joseph were strong leaders. In your opinion which one was the most responsive to the needs of his tribe? Support your selection.

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