IO Chapter for Intro to Psychology
|Industrial-Organizational Psychology and |
|Other Branches of Applied Psychology |
|for Introductory Psychology |
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|By Aaron U. Bolin |
|Arkansas State University |
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|Survey Questions for this Chapter |
|What can you do with a degree in psychology? |
|Why would anyone want to study Applied psychology? |
|Industrial/Organizational psychology |
|What does psychology have to say about work? |
|What is the best way to match workers to jobs? |
|What is the best way to design, manage, and lead businesses and other organizations? |
|Why do some people have high levels of motivation while others do just enough to keep from getting fired? |
|What exactly is leadership? |
|How can we improve human productivity and reduce errors? |
|Forensic psychology |
|How do the police and other law enforcement officials use psychology? |
|Sport psychology |
|Does hiring a sport psychologist improve a team’s chance of winning? |
|Consumer psychology |
|Can psychology be used to influence and manipulate how people spend their money? |
|Military psychology |
|Can psychology be used as a weapon? |
|How does someone become an applied psychologist? |
| |Chapter Overview |
| |What can you do with a degree in psychology? Those of you who are majoring in psychology or are planning on |
| |majoring in psychology have certainly heard this question many times from your friends and family. Many |
| |people mistakenly assume that psychologists are all clinicians who try to find the hidden meaning in |
| |everything that other people do and say. Of course, this stereotype of psychologists is not entirely false; a|
| |small number of psychologists do earn a living by offering psychoanalytic services. However, you have |
| |undoubtedly realized that the field of psychology is much more diverse than the clinician stereotype |
| |suggests, with many different areas of specialization. Even so, you might still have trouble answering the |
| |question about what psychologists do. This chapter is designed to help you answer that question by giving you|
| |more information about a very special group of psychology specialties that collectively make up the field of |
| |applied psychology. |
|Applied psychology: the branch of |Applied psychology is the branch of psychology that is concerned with using the principles of psychological |
|psychology that is concerned with |science to solve real-life problems. Applied psychologists have used the principles of learning to train |
|using the principles of |pigeons to help locate lost boaters wearing life preservers, the principles of social psychology to improve |
|psychological science to solve |coordination on sport teams, and the principles of perception to improve the cockpit control panels of jumbo |
|real-life problems. |jet airliners. Although the definition of applied psychology could technically encompass clinical and |
| |counseling psychology, these specialties within psychology are typically considered separate branches of |
| |psychology. For our purposes, the term Applied psychology will only refer to the following areas of |
| |specialization within psychology: industrial/organizational psychology, forensic psychology, sport |
| |psychology, consumer psychology, and military psychology. Together, we will discuss each of these specialty |
| |areas in turn. Figure 1 shows the relationships among the different areas of applied psychology. |
|Figure 1. Branches of Applied |[pic] |
|Psychology | |
| |Why would anyone want to study Applied Psychology? The answer to this question depends a lot on the |
| |characteristics of the person who asks it. Many people study applied psychology just to get through a classroom |
| |assignment. Some people study applied psychology for the money. Applied psychology can be a very financially |
| |rewarding career choice. Other people study applied psychology because they want to make a contribution to |
| |society. As we will see in the rest of this chapter, applied psychologists contribute to society in numerous |
| |capacities: by making workers more productive, by making industry safer, by catching criminals, by strengthening |
| |the military, etc. Still others study applied psychology out of a burning curiosity and a love of learning. |
| |Applied psychologists are in a constant search for new information about how people function, how to solve |
| |interesting problems, and how to take psychology out of the laboratory and into our lives. In addition to all of |
| |these reasons, you should study applied psychology because of the profound impact it has on your life. You cannot |
| |go to work, drive a car, turn on the television, or browse the Internet without being affected by applied |
| |psychology. |
|Figure 2. Applied Psychology |[pic] |
|12-Month Median Salary by | |
|Degree and Position in 2001 | |
| |Industrial/Organizational Psychology |
| |What does psychology have to say about work? After all, most people spend more of their time at work than |
| |they do engaged in any other activity. Sigmund Freud, one of the founders of psychology, believed that work |
| |was central to the human experience. In his book Civilization and Its Discontents (1962), Freud made his now |
| |famous statement, “To do well, normal human beings must be able to love and to work.” Of course, love and |
| |work are not always separate endeavors. Many people love their work and office romances are on the rise. |
| |Industrial/Organizational psychology is the branch of psychology that is interested in work and working. |
|Industrial/Organizational | Specifically, Industrial/Organizational psychology (which is usually abbreviated as I/O Psychology) is the |
|psychology: The branch of applied |branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the application of psychological methods and research |
|psychology that is concerned with |findings to the world of work and human performance. I/O Psychology is a very diverse and complex field. In |
|the application of psychological |its broadest sense, I/O Psychology encompasses a wide variety of topics including (but not limited to) |
|methods and research findings to |employment policies and laws, worker satisfaction, leadership, employee health, workplace design, and |
|the world of work and human |workplace safety. In general, I/O psychologists are interested in helping workers to be more productive and |
|performance |efficient, to be safer and more accurate, to be happier and more satisfied, and to get a higher rate of |
| |return for their efforts. |
| |Brief History and Overview of I/O Psychology |
| |The history of I/O psychology reaches back to the very beginnings of psychology in the United States. I/O |
|[pic] |psychology and other branches of applied psychology originated as an outgrowth of the functionalist movement |
|William James |in psychology. The functionalists were interested in the adaptive value of human behavior. In other words, |
| |the functionalist wanted to find a practical use for the principles of psychology; they wanted to find |
| |solutions for real-life problems. William James (1890), who was a functionalist, was the first to suggest the|
| |need for psychological study of the workplace. |
| |Many psychologists picked up on James’ suggestion and became early pioneers in I/O psychology. Frederick |
| |Taylor (1911) and Hugo Münsterberg (1913) were among the first psychologists to apply the principles of |
| |psychological science specifically to the world of work. Taylor advocated a scientific approach to managing |
|[pic] |employees, while Münsterberg did research on employee testing, eye witness testimony, and job placement. |
|Hugo Münsterberg |Other pioneers in I/O psychology included Lillian Gilbreth (who helped develop and refine time-and-motion |
| |studies), G. Stanley Hall (who founded the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1917), Robert Yerkes (who helped |
| |develop two of the first intelligence tests in 1917), and Walter Dill Scott (who founded the first |
| |psychological consulting company in 1919 and also helped found consumer psychology). |
| |In the early years, I/O psychology had a very narrow focus. I/O psychology in the time period before the end |
| |of World War I focused mostly on issues related to personnel psychology. Personnel psychology is the branch |
| |of I/O psychology that is concerned with employee testing, selection, placement, retention, performance, and |
| |training. Many I/O psychologists at this time believed that workers were ignorant of proper work methods, |
| |disliked work, were only motivated by money and job security, preferred to be told what to do, and were just |
|Personnel psychology: The branch of|plain lazy. This system of beliefs about employees has come to be known as the Theory X approach. |
|industrial/organizational |I/O psychologists with a Theory X approach usually told managers that they should be very strict, should |
|psychology that is concerned with |closely monitor employee performance, should diligently enforce policies and procedures, and should carefully|
|employee testing, selection, |match employees to jobs. A modern example of a Theory X approach to management that you may be familiar with |
|placement, retention, performance, |is an army drill sergeant. A drill sergeant never smiles, follows all of the policies and procedures, is very|
|and training. |strict in his/her management style, and does not seem to be having any fun while he/she trains new army |
| |recruits. |
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|Theory X: an approach to management| |
|that is based on the assumptions | |
|that employees are lazy, do not | |
|like to work, and are only | |
|motivated by financial rewards. | |
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| | Of course, not all I/O psychologists had such a pessimistic view of employees. I/O psychologists with a |
| |Theory Y approach assumed that workers enjoyed autonomy and responsibility and were naturally hard working. |
| |Managers were encouraged to smile, to treat workers with respect, to break the rules to get the job done, and|
| |to be easy-going in their management styles. |
| |The Theory Y approach grew out of the work of another pioneer in I/O psychology, Elton Mayo. In a series of |
| |famous experiments that began in 1924 and are now known as the Hawthorne studies, Mayo and his associates |
|Theory Y: an approach to management|discovered that people would work harder and more efficiently if they were treated with respect, if their |
|that is based on the assumptions |opinions were valued, and if someone was likely to notice their improved performance. Mayo also discovered |
|that workers enjoy autonomy, are |that people go to work for many reasons and that money and job security were not necessarily the only things |
|willing to accept responsibility, |that motivated employee performance. Mayo’s discoveries helped to increase the interest of I/O psychologists |
|and that people are not naturally |in organizational psychology. Organizational psychology is the branch of I/O psychology that is concerned |
|passive or lazy. |with job satisfaction, organizational climate and culture, leadership, communication, and other social |
| |processes in organizations. |
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|Organizational psychology: The | |
|branch of industrial/organizational| |
|psychology that is concerned with | |
|job satisfaction, motivation, | |
|organizational climate and culture,| |
|leadership, communication, and | |
|other social processes in | |
|organizations. | |
| | A third branch of I/O psychology is called human-factors psychology. Unlike personnel psychology and |
| |organizational psychology, human-factors psychology grew out of the field of engineering. Human-factors |
| |psychology is the branch of I/O psychology that is concerned with the multiple factors that influence human |
| |performance, efficiency, errors, and injuries and the relationship between these factors and the design of |
|Human-factors psychology: The |tools, equipment, and machines. Frederick Taylor, one of the founders of human-factors psychology, was |
|branch of industrial/organizational|trained as an engineer. Human-factors psychology has had a tremendous impact on the efficiency and safety of |
|psychology that is concerned with |the modern workplace. For example, human-factors psychology is partly responsible for the now standard |
|the multiple factors that influence|practice of putting safety guards on industrial cutting equipment and for designing computer software |
|human performance, efficiency, |programs to make them user friendly. |
|errors, and injuries and the | |
|relationship between these factors | |
|and the design of tools, equipment,| |
|and machines. | |
| |Modern I/O Psychology |
| |When taken together, personnel psychology, organizational psychology, and human-factors psychology make up |
| |the core discipline of modern I/O psychology. Modern I/O psychology is a very interesting, growing, and |
| |financially rewarding field. I/O psychologists are currently among the highest paid psychologists, and the |
| |job market for I/O psychologists is expected to grow over the next several decades. Most modern I/O |
| |psychologists consider themselves Scientist-Practitioners, an approach to psychology that emphasizes the dual|
| |roles of psychologists as both creators of scientific knowledge and users of that knowledge to solve |
| |real-world problems. Our discussion of I/O psychology now turns from a focus on the historical roots of the |
| |discipline to a more in-depth discussion of specific and more current topics within personnel, |
| |organizational, and human-factors psychology. |
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|Scientist-Practitioner: an approach| |
|to psychology taken by most I/O | |
|psychologists that emphasizes their| |
|dual roles as both creating | |
|scientific knowledge and using that| |
|knowledge to solve real-world | |
|problems. | |
|Box: A Real Want Ad for an I/O Psychologist |
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|Position: I/O Consultant |
|Experience Desired: Open |
|Degree Level Desired: MA/MS |
|When Available: Open |
|Position Description: |
|The Consultant position is a critical role within the professional services team requiring both consulting and industrial organizational |
|psychology skills. Successful Consultants are able to work on multiple client projects while coordinating with various internal departments and |
|external clients and maintaining a high level of customer service and quality. Successful Consultants will also be expected to have strong |
|inter-personal, analytical, problem-solving and report development skills, enabling them to develop and deliver outstanding value to clients. The|
|position is based at corporate headquarters, but will require some travel to customer locations, expected to be no more than 30% of the time. |
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|Responsibilities include: |
|• Developing and delivering quality projects, including job analyses, solutions and validation studies. |
|• Acting as an internal support to Sales and Professional Services team members. |
|• Contributing to the on-going development of intellectual property and best practices by identifying new opportunities, collecting data and |
|developing thought leadership content. |
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|Qualifications: |
|The ideal candidate will have relevant applied I-O experience and superior inter-personal and written communication skills. You must have an |
|ability to lead and adapt to change, to work effectively with people from different backgrounds and cultures and have a strong customer focus. A |
|professional and fun outlook to achieve individual, team and company goals is a must as well as a strong drive for results! |
|Masters degree in I-O Psychology or closely related field is required. Strong knowledge of MS Office applications and SPSS or similar statistical|
|packages is also required. |
|Posted: Tuesday, July 22, 2003 |
| |Personnel Psychology |
|Job analysis: a detailed |What is the best way to match workers to jobs? I/O psychologists have been conducting research to answer this|
|description and analysis of a job |question for some time. According to I/O psychologists, the process of matching workers to jobs should begin |
|that results in a complete list of |with a thorough job analysis. A job analysis is a detailed description and analysis of a job that results in |
|what needs to be done, the |a complete list of what needs to be done (i.e., job-related tasks), the conditions under which the work must |
|conditions under which the work |be performed (i.e., the work environment), and the knowledge, skills, and abilities that an employee needs to|
|must be performed, and the |perform the work successfully. |
|knowledge, skills, and abilities |Job Analysis |
|that an employee needs to perform |Some jobs are relatively easy to analyze. For example, Frederick Taylor was interested in selecting employees|
|the work successfully. |to shovel coal into a furnace in a steel mill. Taylor identified one job-related task; the employee was |
| |expected to repeatedly get scoops of coal from the coal bin and throw them into a hot furnace. The work |
| |environment consisted of extremely hot temperatures and 10-hour days. To perform the work successfully, |
| |employees needed the ability to withstand the heat, at least a moderate amount of physical strength, a great |
| |deal of endurance, and the willingness to work at a repetitive task for several hours. Other jobs, especially|
| |complex jobs such as brain surgeon and CEO, are extremely difficult to analyze. However, the goal of the job |
| |analysis is the same for both simple and complex jobs: to specifically state what needs to be done, the |
| |nature of the work, and the type of individual who can perform the work successfully. |
| |The job analysis is useful in the process of selecting employees for several reasons. First, the job analysis|
| |results can be used to write a job description. A typical job description states the job title, states the |
| |nature of the work to be performed, lists the most common tasks performed in the job, and provides a |
| |narrative description of the job holder’s responsibilities. Job descriptions are often used when advertising |
| |available positions and usually discussed with job applicants during employment interviews. A second use for |
| |the job analysis is job evaluation. Job evaluation is the process used to determine how much money to pay |
| |each employee. Although I/O psychologists use a variety of job evaluation methods, the general procedure |
| |consist of determining the value of each job-related task to the organization and then adding up the value of|
| |all tasks listed in the job description to determine the overall value of the position. A third use for the |
| |job analysis is to develop worker specifications. The worker specification is a description of the minimally |
| |acceptable employee who could do the job successfully. The worker specification is used as an aid in making |
| |selection (i.e., hiring) decisions. The basic idea is for the hiring manager to know what the job |
| |requirements are ahead of time so that it is easier to identify those applicants who meet the requirements. |
| |In other words, it is easier to pick the best job applicants if you know what you are looking for in advance.|
| |Psychological Tests |
| |Sometimes, whether an applicant meets a job requirement is difficult to determine based solely on things like|
| |job applications, resumes, and face-to-face job interviews. To help make hiring decisions when applicant |
| |qualifications are difficult to determine, psychological tests are sometimes used to assess job requirements |
| |such as cognitive ability, work ethic, and temperament. Most college students have at least a little |
| |experience with psychological tests. For example, the ACT and SAT are both psychological tests that are often|
| |required for admission to college. The ACT and SAT are both designed to assess the job requirement known as |
| |Academic Preparation for College for the position of First-Year College Student. Just as a college admission |
| |officer uses the SAT and ACT to select college students, I/O psychologists use psychological tests to select |
| |job applicants. |
| |However, the practice of using psychological tests to make selection decisions is not without controversy. |
| |Many individuals have argued that psychological tests are biased against certain ethnic groups and that the |
| |use of psychological tests to make selection decisions is discriminatory. Partly in response to these |
| |criticisms and also to prevent the misuse of psychological tests, I/O psychologists have helped to develop |
| |legal and professional standards for the use of psychological tests. These standards specify how tests can be|
| |used, how the tests should be administered, and how to avoid using tests in an unfair or discriminatory |
| |manner. |
| |In fact, I/O psychologists are so concerned about the use and misuse of psychological tests that many of them|
| |devote their whole careers to conducting research on psychological tests. The study of the measurement |
| |properties of psychological tests, also known as psychometrics (from the root words “psycho” = mental and |
| |“metric” = measurement), has increased in importance in recent years as more and more decisions that affect |
| |the course of an individual’s life are now made on the basis of test scores. Test scores in the broadest |
| |sense are used to determine the course of an individual’s education and grades, to determine the course of |
| |medical treatments, to determine who gets a particular job or a promotion, to determine who is guilty and not|
|Psychometrics: the study of the |guilty, and even who can borrow money from the bank. |
|measurement properties of | |
|psychological tests. | |
| |Because psychological test scores are so important in our society, I/O psychologists recommend only using |
| |psychological tests that produce consistent scores. A test that produces inconsistent scores is like a tape |
| |measure that is printed on an elastic band. Imagine the difficulty that carpenters would face if tape |
| |measures were printed on an elastic band (i.e., were unreliable). One carpenter needing a board that measures|
| |8 foot 2 inches might stretch the tape tight when measuring a particular board and conclude that the board is|
| |too short. Another carpenter might measure the same board with little tension in the tape and conclude the |
| |board is too long. Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement. Psychological tests, like tape |
| |measures, must be reliable in order to be useful and fair. |
| |Psychological tests must also have validity in order to be useful and fair. Validity refers to the |
| |meaningfulness of a measurement. I/O psychologists are usually most interested in a specific type of validity|
| |known as predictive validity. Predictive validity addresses the issue of what a test score means for job |
| |performance. You could think of predictive validity like a crystal ball. A valid test score tells me |
| |something about a job applicant’s future performance; those with a high score on the test are generally |
| |expected to have higher job performance than those who score low on the test. The situation is very similar |
| |to admission for college. The college admissions officer looks into the crystal ball (SAT and ACT scores) and|
| |predicts which students will be successful in college. Sometimes, the prediction is wrong on an individual |
| |basis, but the college admission officer finds that he/she has a higher degree of accuracy when using the |
| |crystal ball than when not using it. I/O psychologists recommend only using tests that show a clear |
| |relationship with future performance on the job. |
| |A valid test must also be fair in the sense that it should give everyone the same chance of passing. Imagine |
| |the controversy that would result if the SAT or ACT contained items about how to use bras, lipstick, |
| |eyeliner, and high-healed shoes. Males taking the test might complain that the test is invalid (i.e., |
| |unfair). Females might have an advantage on the test due to their greater familiarity with these products. If|
| |a male failed these test items, we could not be sure if he failed because of low academic ability or because |
| |he was just unfamiliar with the products mentioned. I/O psychologists spend a great deal of time making sure |
| |that employment tests are valid for many different groups. The idea is to make the crystal ball (i.e., the |
| |test) as clear and unbiased as possible so that I/O psychologists can more accurately predict the future |
| |performance of each job applicant. |
| |Once I/O psychologists have determined that a test is both reliable and valid, they must often convince |
| |business leaders and other decision makers both to pay for the test and to use it during the hiring process. |
|Utility analysis: a procedure used |One problem that I/O psychologists often confront is the differences in language between psychologists and |
|by I/O psychologists to translate |business leaders. The language of business is dollars and cents, profit and loss. The language of |
|the cost and benefits of different |psychologists consists of theories, data, and statistics. I/O Psychologists help to cross this language |
|business alternatives such as |barrier with a procedure known as utility analysis. Utility analysis consists of translating the cost and |
|whether or not to use a test in the|benefits of different business alternatives into dollars and cents. When they talk to business leaders about |
|hiring process into dollars and |starting to use psychological tests when selecting employees, I/O psychologists will use utility analysis to |
|cents. |compare how much money the company currently makes without using the test and how much money the company |
| |would be expected to make if a testing program were implemented. If implementing a testing program would |
| |result in greater profit for the company, then the business leaders have a relatively easy decision to make. |
| |While the number of psychological tests continues to grow, most tests that are used by I/O psychologists fall|
| |into a relatively small number of categories. I/O psychologists use ability tests to measure talents such as |
| |cognitive ability, physical strength, and manual dexterity. Although abilities can be developed over time, |
| |they are typically very stable characteristics of the individual; you cannot acquire abilities overnight. |
| |Students are usually most familiar with achievement tests, because these are the type of tests that are used |
| |to measure how well students have mastered the content in a particular course or training experience. |
| |Interest inventories measure how much you like to do a variety of tasks and then match your interests to the |
| |interest of others in a particular field. The idea behind interest inventories is that if accountants |
| |generally like to do crossword puzzles, plan finances, and play chess, and you share these same interests, |
| |then you might enjoy accounting as a career. Many colleges and universities offer their students the |
| |opportunity to take interest inventories through the advising or student counseling office. Check with your |
| |instructor to see if this option is available to you. A fourth type of tests that I/O psychologists |
| |frequently use is the assessment center. Assessment centers actually consist of a large variety of ability, |
| |achievement, and interest tests that are administered over the course of a day or several days. In addition, |
| |the examinee often participates in a variety of activities such as group discussions, job simulations, role |
| |playing exercises, and interviews. The I/O psychologist uses the results of the assessment center to |
| |construct a comprehensive picture of each individual’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to a specific |
| |job. |
| |One final note about psychological testing. There is a strong trend toward computerization of tests and even |
| |making tests available over the Internet. I/O psychologists are still studying the implications of this |
| |trend, but it is expected to revolutionize the psychological testing industry. |
| |Interviews |
| |Many if not all organizations use face-to-face interviews as part of the selection process. It is very rare |
| |for a person to be hired without at least a brief interview (Berry, 2003). If you have ever gone for a job |
| |interview, you know that interviews can be an anxious and confusing ordeal. However, many job applicants are |
| |surprised to learn that most interviewers are also anxious and confused by the interviewing process. |
| |Interviews are a great way to gather information about job applicants, to ask for clarification about the |
| |applicant’s qualifications, and to assess an individual’s oral communication skills. However, a variety of |
| |problems are built into the interview process, especially if you take the view of an I/O psychologist and |
| |consider the interview a special kind of psychological test. |
| |Most people would agree that tests such as the SAT and ACT would be unfair if bonus points were awarded on |
| |the tests for being physically attractive, belonging to a certain ethnic group, or smiling warmly while |
| |taking the test. Most people would also agree that there was a problem if one test administrator had a |
| |special set of questions and passed everyone, while a second test administrator had a different set of |
| |questions and failed everyone. Unfortunately, employment interviews (a special type of test) are subject to |
| |exactly these same problems and biases. I/O psychologists have shown that job applicants who are physically |
| |attractive, belong to the same ethnic group as the interviewer, and who smile warmly during the interview |
| |have a much greater chance of “passing” the interview test (Berry, 2003). In addition, some interviewers ask |
| |very easy questions and recommend almost everyone for hire, but other interviewers ask very tough questions |
| |and rarely recommend anyone for hire. |
| |I/O psychologists have spent a great deal of time looking for ways to improve the employment interview. The |
| |most promising method requires that employment interviews be structured much like an oral examination. In a |
| |structured interview, the interview questions are written ahead of time and focus specifically on the job |
| |requirements. The questions are asked in the same way and in the same order for each job interview, and job |
| |applicants score points by giving superior answers to the questions. Research has shown that structured |
| |interviews result in less bias, are less influenced of irrelevant factors such as physical beauty, and are |
| |much more accurate in predicting who will be a successful employee. |
| |I/O psychologists have clearly shown that unstructured interviews are not very effective. So why don’t more |
| |employers use structured interview techniques? A combination of factors contributes to employers’ continued |
| |reliance on unstructured interviews. Some of these factors include a lack of knowledge about the limitations |
| |of unstructured interviews, the difficulty associated with developing structured interviews, and the expense |
| |associated with training interviewers to use structured interviews. |
| |Employment Law |
| |A discussion about the process of hiring and promoting employees would be incomplete without mentioning the |
| |legal requirements that employers must satisfy. The development of many employment laws can be traced back to|
| |those now famous words written by Thomas Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence, “We hold these truths |
| |to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.” Ever since these words became part of the national |
| |consciousness, Americans have debated the meaning of equality. Does equal mean that everyone should get the |
| |same rewards, regardless of their contributions? Does equal mean that everyone should have the same |
| |opportunities, even if they have not earned them? Should equality be extended to cover women as well as men? |
| |Should equality be extended to cover individuals from different ethnic groups? |
|Box: Getting Hired Based on a Bad Interview |
|What should you do if you are asked to give an unstructured interview as part of the hiring process? One approach is to use your knowledge about |
|the limitations of unstructured interviews to your advantage. Listed below are common problems with unstructured interviews and suggestions on |
|how to use them to improve your chances of getting hired. |
|The Halo Effect is the tendency of interviewers to allow one prominent piece of information about a job applicant to set the tone for the whole |
|interview. Halo can be positive, such as when an unqualified applicant is given high ratings because he/she is physically attractive, or negative|
|such as when a qualified applicant is given low ratings because he/she has a criminal history. Advice to the applicant: Help the interviewer |
|choose which prominent piece of information to focus on by emphasizing your most positive qualities first. |
|The Similarity Effect is the tendency of interviewers to prefer applicants who are like themselves. Male interviewers have a slight tendency to |
|hire male applicants, black interviewers have a slight tendency to hire black applicants, and Harvard graduates have a slight tendency to hire |
|Harvard graduates. Although the tendency to prefer applicants who are similar to the interviewer may work against some applicants, smart job |
|applicants make the similarity effect work for them. Any two people always have something in common. The applicant’s job is to simply notice the |
|similarities and carefully call them to the interviewer’s attention. Advice to applicants: Listen to the interviewer, look around the |
|interviewer’s office, and ask questions until you find something that you both share in common, and then bring the similarity to the |
|interviewer’s attention. |
|The Framing Effect is the tendency of interviewers to judge a piece of information as positive or negative depending on the context with which it|
|is presented. For example, skydiving is an unattractive sport if you know that 10 percent of all skydivers have a fatal accident. However, |
|skydiving is an attractive sport if 90 percent of all skydivers never have a serious accident. The same piece of information can be presented or |
|framed in many different ways. Advice to applicants: Always present your faults with a positive twist. If I like to sleep until 10:30 everyday, I|
|would tell the interviewer that I like to work late into the night. If I have a hard time with mathematics, I would tell the interviewer that I |
|am a verbal thinker who would work well with someone who specializes in mathematics. |
|Negative Salience is the tendency of interviewers to pay more attention to and more time probing for reasons to disqualify the applicant than |
|reasons to hire the applicant. In other words, people generally pay more attention to negative information than positive information. By the time|
|you reach the interview stage of the application process, the interviewer has already decided if you meet the minimum qualifications necessary to|
|perform the job. The interview is often designed as the last step in the application process to eliminate some applicants from further |
|consideration. It is important to remember that what you don’t say in an interview is more important than what you do say. If the interviewer |
|asks you about the worst part of your last job, do not take the bait. Advice to applicants: Do not talk badly about your former employers or |
|co-worker. Never dwell on the negative and avoid making negative comments if at all possible. Every word from your mouth should be a positive |
|reflection on your qualifications and positive attitude. |
|Final advice to applicant: Relax! Nervousness is contagious; try to make your interviewer feel at ease so that he/she will feel comfortable |
|hiring you. Good Luck! |
| |The gist of this debate hinges on the distinction between equality of opportunity and equality of outcomes. |
| |Equal opportunity suggests that every person should have access to the same educational, employment, and |
| |training experiences regardless of their station in life. Equal outcomes suggests that every person should |
| |receive the same amount of financial and personal rewards for the same contribution to society. The tricky |
| |part of this debate lies in the fact that if some people receive more outcomes (such as money) then they will|
| |be in a better position to take advantage of new opportunities than those who receive less. Likewise, people |
| |who take advantage of more opportunities (such as education) are likely to receive a greater share of |
| |outcomes in the long run. Most of the laws that govern employment are designed to insure equal opportunity, |
| |but a few laws (such as the Equal Pay Act) are designed to insure equal outcomes. While this debate is |
| |important for philosophical reasons, the outcome of this debate also has very real consequences for all |
| |Americans. |
| |For most of its history, the United States has denied equal opportunity to large numbers of its residents. |
| |African-Americans and other minority groups were prevented from taking advantage of many educational, |
| |employment, and political opportunities until very recent times. Historically, women have also been denied |
| |access to education and employment opportunities. Several landmark legislative, judicial, and executive |
| |actions in the 1960s helped to address the most glaring examples of unfairness. However, some individuals |
| |believe that these actions did not go far enough, and the success of women and minorities in securing a legal|
| |right to equal opportunity has led to charges of unfairness by other groups. Groups such as older employees, |
| |disabled employees, childless employees, homosexual employees, and white male employees have all alleged |
| |unfairness and/or discrimination in the decades since the 1960s. Table 1 provides a list of some of the most |
| |important laws that govern employment in the United States. Based on the continuing debate about equal |
| |opportunity and equal outcomes, this list can be expected to grow and change for years to come. |
Table 1: Major Laws Governing Employment Practices
|Law or Statute |Explanation |
|5th Amendment to the Constitution |Requires due process under the law. It gives employees the right to a legal hearing in some instances of |
| |dispute with employers. |
|13th Amendment to the Constitution |Originally designed to abolish involuntary servitude and slavery, this law has been interpreted to include a |
| |restriction on some forms of racial discrimination in employment. |
|14th Amendment to the Constitution |Requires equal protection and fair treatment under the law and has been interpreted to include employment. |
|Equal Pay Act of 1963 |Requires equal pay for equal work. |
|Equal Rights Act of 1964 |Protects against employment discrimination by race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Established the|
| |Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as an enforcement agency. |
|Age Discrimination in Employment |Protects against employment discrimination by age; it is specifically designed to protect workers who are |
|Act of 1967 |aged 40 to 65. |
|Immigration Reform and Control Act |Protects legal immigrants from employment discrimination and makes it against the law to hire illegal |
|of 1986 |immigrants. |
|Americans with Disabilities Act of |Prohibits employment discrimination against disabled individuals. |
|1990 | |
|Civil Rights Act of 1991 |Updates and extends earlier civil rights legislation to protect American workers employed in foreign branches|
| |of American companies from employment discrimination. |
|Various Judicial Orders, Court |Establish a wide variety of additional limits and responsibilities for different industries and employers |
|Rulings, Executive Orders, Agency |such as affirmative action goals, employment rights, and local minimum wages. |
|Policies, State Laws, and Local | |
|Ordinances | |
| |Training |
| |Of course, just because a person is hired using legal means does not mean that he/she can do the job. Most, |
| |if not all, jobs require that employees receive some training before they will be able to perform the job |
| |successfully. I/O psychologists are intimately involved in training employees to do their jobs. Training is |
| |defined as a structured learning process that is designed to eliminate a specific deficit in job-related |
| |skills. Many students have trouble distinguishing between education and training. Training is designed to |
| |address a specific gap in skills and often shoots for a minimum level of competence. Education, in contrast, |
| |aims at providing a broad background of information and often shoots for mastery of an entire content domain.|
|Training: a structured learning |It may be helpful to think of education as pouring the concrete foundation of a large building: you want to |
|process designed to eliminate a |be sure that the foundation can hold the weight of the building so you build it stronger and deeper than will|
|specific deficit in job-related |ever be needed. If education is like a foundation, then training is a lot like crack filler. Training fills |
|skills by providing each trainee |up a specific deficit (i.e., a crack) and you use just enough training to get the job done. At the end of the|
|the opportunity to develop at least|day, a lot of training programs added together would look like an education, and a single element of |
|a minimum level of skill |education would look a lot like a training program. Table 2 describes some of the most common training |
|competence. |methods used by I/O psychologists. |
Table 2: Common Training Methods
|On-the-job Training (OJT) |The trainee begins performing the job immediately under the supervision of a more experienced employee or |
| |trainer. |
|Lectures |Information is presented to trainees by speaking to them. |
|Vestibule training |A separate workstation is set up so that the trainee can practice the job without disrupting the production |
| |of other workers. |
|Job Rotation |The trainee learns a variety of positions through OJT over an extended period of time. Job rotation is |
| |designed to give the trainee a greater appreciation for the overall process and to improve the flexibility of|
| |the workgroup. |
|Apprentice training |The trainee works under the supervision of a more experienced and skilled worker for an extended period of |
| |time. Initially, the trainee only performs routine tasks with the goal of learning the ropes and making the |
| |experienced employee more productive. Over time as the skill level of the trainee improves, he or she is |
| |given progressively more responsibility until eventually taking on the responsibility for a new apprentice. |
|Programmed Instruction |The trainee works through a series of manuals, booklets, or computer programs at his/her own pace by |
| |completing mastery tests at each stage of the process. |
|Simulators |The real-life aspects of the job are reproduced in an artificial environment to allow the trainee to practice|
| |expensive or dangerous procedures. |
| |Performance Appraisal |
|Performance appraisal: the |Once a job applicant is hired and trained to do the job, I/O psychologists become very interested in |
|evaluation of an employee’s |performance appraisal. Performance appraisal is the evaluation of an employee’s performance of job-related |
|performance of job-related tasks; |tasks; it usually involves a formal rating by the employee’s immediate supervisor. I/O psychologists are |
|it usually involves a formal rating|interested in performance appraisal for a very practical reason; they want to know if they have done a good |
|by the employee’s immediate |job. If the I/O psychologist has diligently documented the job requirements in the job analysis, carefully |
|supervisor. |used psychological tests and other measures to isolate job applicants with the best chance of doing a good |
| |job, used a structured job interview to eliminate applicants who do not seem to be a good fit with the |
| |company, and conducted a thorough training program with new employees, then all of the new employees should |
| |be doing an excellent job. Of course, sometimes bad employees still get hired, sometimes good employees have |
| |circumstances in their personal lives that disrupt job performance, and sometimes people intentionally do a |
| |poor job. In these circumstances, I/O psychologists try to systematically determine the reasons for poor job |
| |performance and correct the problems. |
| |Organizational Psychology |
| |What is the best way to design, manage, and lead businesses and other organizations? The people who search |
| |for the answer to this question using the tools of science are organizational psychologists. Organizational |
| |psychology is the branch of I/O psychology that is concerned with issues such as job satisfaction, |
| |motivation, organizational climate and culture, leadership, communication, and other social processes in |
| |organizations. While the focus of personnel psychology is how to best match people to positions, the focus of|
| |organizational psychology is how to best direct, coordinate, and facilitate the activities of multiple |
| |employees once they are on the job. |
| |You may recall from earlier in this chapter that organizational psychology grew out of Elton Mayo’s discovery|
| |that people will work harder and more efficiently if they are treated with respect. Mayo’s work created a |
| |debate within I/O psychology about the best way to manage organizations. You may also recall that one side of|
| |the debate believed in a Theory X approach to management (i.e., that employees are lazy and do not like to |
| |work). Advocates of the Theory X approach felt that managers should be bossy, strict, and vigilant. In |
| |contrast, advocates of a Theory Y approach to management believed that workers enjoy the responsibility of |
| |making their own decisions. According to Theory Y, managers should take a hands-off approach and let |
| |employees manage themselves. In reality, both approaches have good points and bad points. Theory X generally |
| |makes it easier for managers to plan ahead and keep things running with machine-like efficiency, but it also |
| |makes most employees unhappy. Theory Y generally makes the employees happy and loyal, but it makes planning |
| |very difficult and also makes it possible for employees to take advantage of the company by choosing to do |
| |nothing. |
| |While the debate over Theory X and Theory Y continued, an I/O psychologist from the United Kingdom asked a |
| |very interesting question: What if a manager makes sure the work gets done (Theory X) and treats the |
| |employees with respect (Theory Y)? This psychologist’s name was Eric Trist, and the approach to management |
| |that he recommended came to be known as socio-technical systems theory. Briefly, Socio-technical systems |
| |theory suggests that all organizations are comprised of two things: the people and the work that needs to be |
| |accomplished. According to the theory, the best way to run an organization is to find a compromise between |
| |Theory X, which emphasizes the work, and Theory Y, which emphasizes the people. As we will see in the |
| |remainder of this section on organizational psychology, Trist’s ideas helped to end the debate between Theory|
| |X and Theory Y. |
| | |
|Socio-technical systems theory: an | |
|approach to management that | |
|suggests that all organizations are| |
|comprised of two things: the people| |
|and the work that needs to be | |
|accomplished. | |
| |Motivation and Job Design |
| |Why do some people work hard and have high levels of motivation while others do just enough to keep from |
| |getting fired? I/O psychologists have proposed a variety of answers to this question, and we will briefly |
| |consider three of the most influential perspectives. The first perspective is based on the idea that human |
| |beings are born with a number of needs (e.g., need for food, need for water) and develop several additional |
| |needs through learning and experience (e.g., need for respect, need to belong). Needs theory, as this |
| |perspective is usually called, suggests that people will work hard at jobs that meet their needs and slack |
| |off on jobs that fail to meet their needs. |
| |Several psychologists have developed their own theories based on the needs perspective, but Abraham Maslow’s |
| |Needs Hierarchy is clearly the most influential need theory. Maslow proposed that all human needs fall into |
| |one of five hierarchical categories: survival needs, security needs, social needs, esteem needs, and |
| |self-actualization needs (see Figure 2). According to Maslow, the needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must |
| |be met before people become interested in satisfying the needs at the top of the hierarchy. Based on this |
| |theory, employees will work hard at a job until it meets their survival needs (i.e., until they earn enough |
| |money to survive). Once the employees’ survival needs are met, they will only work hard on a job that meets |
| |their security needs (i.e., they work for job security). Once the employees’ security needs are met, they |
| |will only work hard on a job that meets their social needs (i.e., they might want to talk while they work). |
| |The only way, according to Maslow, to make someone work hard all of the time is for the job to meet all of |
| |their needs and meet those needs in the order of the hierarchy. One final word about Maslow’s theory: notice |
| |that people are only interested in money when they are concerned about survival needs (Theory X), but they |
| |become interested in responsibility and growth once their needs for survival and security are met (Theory Y).|
| | |
|Figure 3. Maslow’s |[pic] |
|Hierarchy of Needs | |
| |The second perspective on worker motivation that we will discuss is known as Job Characteristics Theory. Job |
| |Characteristics Theory proposes that some people do not work hard at their jobs because the jobs themselves |
| |are tedious and boring. Just consider the example of shoveling coal into a furnace from earlier in this |
| |chapter. Shoveling coal is strenuous, repetitive, and boring. In addition, the person shoveling coal has to |
| |work long days in high temperatures. In order to motivate someone to shovel coal, Job Characteristics Theory |
| |suggests that managers alter characteristics of the work to make them more appealing. For example, the |
| |manager could rotate responsibility for shoveling coal among many employees; the person who shovels the coal |
| |could also be given responsibility for ordering the coal shipments; the company could buy an inexpensive fan |
| |to help cool the person who shovels the coal; and the people who shovel the coal could work in pairs to keep |
| |each other company. Again, notice that the recommendations of Job Characteristics Theory point to a |
| |compromise between the needs of the worker (Theory Y) and the need of the company to get the work done |
| |(Theory X). |
| |The third perspective on worker motivation that we will briefly review is Goal Setting Theory (Locke & |
| |Latham, 2002). The Goal Setting Theory model of motivation proposes that simply having goals is motivating. |
| |Goals serve several motivational purposes such as directing workers’ attention, focusing effort, encouraging |
| |persistence, and facilitating problem solving. Of course, some goals are more motivating than others. In |
| |general, research on goals has shown that goals that are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time|
| |sensitive encourage the highest level of performance. These SMART goals are even more motivating if managers |
| |and employees both participate in the goal setting process. |
| |Job Satisfaction and Psychological Climate |
| | I/O psychologists make a distinction between motivation and job satisfaction. While motivation refers to the|
| |effort, energy, and persistence with which an employee performs a job, job satisfaction refers to how the |
| |employee feels about his or her job. Clearly, if the employee really likes everything about the job then |
| |he/she has positive job satisfaction, and if the employee absolutely hates everything about the job then |
| |he/she has negative job satisfaction. In reality, most people have some things they like about their jobs and|
| |some things they dislike about their jobs. Therefore, I/O psychologists typically make a further distinction |
| |between global job satisfaction and facets of job satisfaction. Global job satisfaction is used to refer to |
| |an overall evaluation of the job, while facets of job satisfaction are more specific such as satisfaction |
| |with pay, satisfaction with supervision, and satisfaction with promotion opportunities. I/O psychologists are|
| |interested in job satisfaction because it has important implications for the company and for the individual. |
| |For example, people who are dissatisfied with their jobs experience higher stress and poorer health |
| |(Ivancevich, 1985), are more likely to quit and to sabotage the company (Bolin & Heatherly, 2001), and are |
| |more likely to dislike their next job (George, 1989). |
| |Furthermore, individuals who are dissatisfied with their jobs can impact other employees. The constant |
| |complaints and unhappiness of dissatisfied employees can create a negative psychological climate for everyone|
| |else. I/O psychologists use the term psychological climate to refer to the shared perceptions of employees |
| |about the work environment. In other words, psychological climate is what the employees, as a group, think |
| |about the work environment. |
| |As an illustration of the relationship between job satisfaction and psychological climate, consider the |
| |following story. Sally is dissatisfied with her job so she complains all of the time. Sally complains to her |
| |co-worker, Steve, that the lighting in the building is depressing. Steve never really noticed the lighting |
| |before, but now that Sally called it to his attention, he agrees that it really is depressing. Later that |
| |day, Sally complains about the lights to Tim, and Steve complains about the lights to Terry. Now, the company|
| |has four dissatisfied employees with a shared perception (i.e., a psychological climate) that the lighting in|
| |the building is depressing. |
| |One of the most interesting things about psychological climate is that the impact of these shared perceptions|
| |on employee morale and productivity can be devastating, even if they are not true. If the employees all |
| |believe that the lighting in the building is depressing, then they are much more likely to feel depressed. If|
| |the employees all share a belief that the company pays unfair wages, then the employees are much more likely |
| |to quit, even if the wages are actually higher than the industry average. |
| |The reason that psychological climate has such a large impact on employee behavior lies in the fact that |
| |human beings are social animals. As a general rule, people like to communicate and be around other people. We|
| |often socialize with others in the workplace, and the behavior of other people makes up a large portion of |
| |most work environments. Human beings are also active processors of information, especially social |
| |information. In effect, we often allow ourselves to be influenced by other employees’ perceptions because |
| |these perceptions contain social information that suggests how we should behave. If everyone at work |
| |complains about the lighting in the building, the complaints suggest that the appropriate social response is |
| |to be unhappy with the lighting. |
| |Scientists who have studied other social animals such as chimpanzees, gorillas, elephants, wolves, lions, and|
| |even chickens have noticed that one animal in each of these groups, known as Alpha, played a dominant role. |
| |The dominant animal had special privileges, such as the right to eat first, and special responsibilities, |
| |such as protecting the group from predators and competitors. Of course, human groups, like groups of other |
| |social animals, are also characterized by the emergence of a dominant individual. In human groups, the |
| |dominant individual is called the leader. |
| |Leadership |
| |What exactly is leadership? I/O psychologists have typically taken one of three major approaches to defining |
| |leadership. The first approach, known as the behavioral approach to leadership, focuses on what leaders do. |
| |In a series of studies that are now known as the Ohio State Leadership Studies (Stogdill & Croons, 1957), |
| |psychologists discovered that leaders do two very important things. Leaders make sure that things get done. |
| |They do this by assigning tasks to other group members and supervising the work, a class of behaviors known |
| |as initiating structure. In addition, leaders also help to insure good relationships between other members of|
| |the group. They do this by mediating conflicts and enforcing group norms, a class of behaviors known as |
| |consideration. So, according to the Ohio State Leadership Studies, leadership consists of all of the |
| |behaviors necessary to get the group’s work done (Theory X) and to keep the group members happy (Theory Y). |
| |A second major approach to leadership is known as the trait approach. The trait approach to leadership |
| |attempts to define leadership by referring to characteristics of the person in the leadership role. According|
| |to the trait approach, leaders should be extraverted (i.e., have an outgoing personality), be high in the |
| |need to achieve difficult goals and the need to exert power, be charismatic (i.e., have a magnetic |
| |personality), be emotionally stable, be conscientious, and be optimistic. In other words, leadership is |
| |having the personal characteristics that make it easier to initiate structure and show high levels of |
| |consideration to other group members. |
| |The third major approach to leadership is known as the contingency approach. The contingency approach to |
| |leadership defines leadership in reference to the group’s situation. According to the contingency approach, |
| |leadership is not a specific behavior or a personality trait. Instead, leadership is being able to anticipate|
| |and adjust the group’s behavior to the needs of the particular circumstances. For example, if I took my |
| |family for a canoe ride down the river on a sunny day, then I would lead by anticipating the needs of my |
| |family group. I would be sure to provide life preservers, lunch, and planned rest periods. If my family group|
| |began to argue (as my children normally do), I would lead by mediating the conflict and trying to prevent |
| |further arguing (perhaps by sitting between the children). If the canoe began to sink, I would lead by |
| |checking to make sure life preservers were on tight, ordering the children to start bailing out the water, |
| |and getting my wife to help paddle toward the shore. Notice that while the contingency approach to leadership|
| |still requires the leader to initiate structure and to show consideration to other group members, the |
| |emphasis in this approach is on the flexible adaptation of the leader to the demands of the situation. |
|Box: Are Leaders Born, Made, or Self-Made? |
|In the animal world, the only real qualification for leadership is the ability to be more physically dominant and aggressive than the other |
|animals in the group. Since each individual animal’s physical size and aggressiveness are genetically determined traits for many species, then a |
|strong argument could be made that leaders in the animal kingdom are just born to lead. Does that mean that some humans are also born to lead? |
|A lot of anecdotal stories suggest that some leaders are born to lead. For example, Napolean rose from obscurity to lead one of the most feared |
|armies on Earth by the time he was in his late twenties. George Patton, Martin Luther King, Jr., Eleanor Roosevelt, and Margaret Thatcher all |
|seemed destined to lead from a very early age. In addition, many anecdotal stories support the idea that leadership is learned or gained by |
|experience. For example, Theodore Roosevelt was a sick and weak little boy. However, through exercise and study, he built himself into a |
|president that most historians agree was one of the most hearty, effective, and aggressive. Leaders like Michael Jordan, Vince Lombardi, and |
|Winston Churchill also had frequent early failures that helped to shape the course of their lives. |
|Although anecdotal stories are very interesting and persuasive, psychologists rely on research evidence to answer questions about the origins of |
|leadership. Research studies generally confirm the idea that leaders are both born and made. Some people are born with natural gifts that make |
|them more likely to assume a leadership role later in life. Inborn characteristics such as intelligence and high energy levels are closely |
|associated with leadership. However, leaders must also develop social skills, tenacity, decision-making, and knowledge in order to lead |
|effectively. In addition, extensive research shows that even if you are not born with leadership gifts, you can develop these gifts through |
|education, exercise, and self-study. |
| |Human-Factors Psychology |
| |How can we improve human productivity and reduce human mistakes and errors? Human-factors psychology is the |
| |branch of I/O psychology that is concerned with the multiple factors that influence human performance, |
| |efficiency, errors, and injuries and the relationship between these factors and the design of tools, |
| |equipment, and machines. In a nutshell, I/O psychologists are interested in making tools and machines safer |
| |and easier to use. Anyone who has ever tried to change the radio station in a strange car while driving, |
| |tried to set the time on a digital watch, or struggled with electronic hotel room keys can appreciate the |
| |difficulty that can be created by poorly designed machines. However, human-factors psychology is also |
| |concerned with life-and-death design problems. Human-factors psychology developed during World War I to help |
| |design the control panels for tanks, planes, and ships. Today, everything from sports equipment to video game|
| |controllers is influenced by human-factors psychology. |
| |While the field is quite broad, I/O psychologists who specialize in human-factors psychology are especially |
| |interested in human-machine systems. Whenever a human being and a machine must work together to accomplish a |
| |task, the interaction that takes place is known as a human-machine system. Human-machine systems are common |
| |in our modern technological society. In fact, I am part of a human-machine system right now as I use this |
| |word processor to write this chapter. |
| |Additional examples of human-machine systems include ATM’s, VCR/DVD players, cars, and lawnmowers. I/O |
| |psychologists often study human-machine systems to discover sources of tension, injury, error, and other |
| |difficulties. Once these difficulties are identified, I/O psychologists can test ways of improving the |
| |system. |
| |Over the years, I/O psychologists have isolated a number of principles that should be used when designing |
| |human-machine systems. A well-designed human-machine system is intuitive for the human (i.e., it makes |
| |logical sense such as an on-off light switch), provides timely information and feedback (i.e., it lets the |
| |human know something is wrong while the problem can still be fixed such as a low fuel warning light on an |
| |automobile), and helps manage the user’s attention (i.e., it gets you to pay attention only to what is |
| |important such as spell-checker that highlights questionable words). |
| |Workplace Design |
| |Another area of great interest to I/O psychologists is workplace design. Workplace injuries such as |
| |carpal-tunnel syndrome, eye-strain, and back injuries are extremely common in the United States. I/O |
| |psychologists have discovered that many of these problems can be reduced or eliminated by making small |
| |changes in the workplace environment. Minor changes such as making tables and chairs adjustable, using |
| |natural light, improving ventilation, and wearing a lift belt can save companies large sums of money by |
| |reducing accident claims and absenteeism. Workplace design can also make employees happier, less prone to |
| |illness, and more productive. |
|Box: Control Dependency: Driving and QWERTY |
|Have you ever purchased an upgrade to your favorite software and found that the new version was harder to use than the old version? Have you ever|
|driven someone else’s car and been unable to figure out how to turn on your headlights or the windshield wipers? If these experiences sound at |
|all familiar, then you have experienced control dependency first hand. |
|Control dependency refers to the tendency for people to have trouble switching from one method of controlling a human-machine system to another. |
|Control dependence is generally a positive development when the human-machine system is stable, because it allows the human being to operate the |
|machine system at a much higher rate of efficiency and accuracy. However, once you become proficient at using a particular machine system, it is |
|very difficult to change, even if the change is only to a new version of the old system. The result is that once you get used to one machine |
|system, such as driving your car, it becomes difficult to locate the controls in a strange car. Perhaps the most common case of control |
|dependency is the standard computer keyboard. |
|The standard keyboard is known as QWERTY, because the first row of keys begins with those letters. QWERTY was designed in a time when people were|
|faster than machines. Because the old typewriters were slow and mechanical, they would jam if people typed too fast. The solution to this |
|problems was to design a keyboard, QWERTY, that made it virtually impossible to type fast without making a large number of errors. Once people |
|became proficient at using the QWERTY keyboard, they found it very difficult to switch to a more efficient design. Besides, all of the |
|typewriters were already built with the QWERTY keyboard and all of the typing instructors were teaching students to type using the QWERTY |
|keyboard. When people began to switch from typewriters to word processors, they brought their control dependency on the QWERTY keyboard along |
|with them. If you find it difficult to type or if you make frequent errors while typing, then QWERTY is doing exactly what it is designed to do, |
|which is to get you to slow down. |
| |Other Branches of Applied Psychology |
| |In addition to I/O psychology, many applied psychologists specialize in using psychology in exciting areas |
| |such as the legal system (forensic psychology), sports (sport psychology), advertising (consumer psychology),|
| |and the military (military psychology). We will now consider each of these areas in turn. |
| |Forensic Psychology |
|Forensic psychology: the branch of |How do the police and other law enforcement officials use psychology? Forensic psychology is the branch of |
|applied psychology that is |applied psychology that is concerned with the scientific study and application of psychological principles to|
|concerned with the scientific study|issues associated with the law, the legal system, criminal investigation, criminal profiling, jury decision |
|and application of psychological |making, and witness evaluation. Forensic psychology is also referred to as the psychology of law, criminal |
|principles to issues associated |psychology, police psychology, and correctional psychology. In addition to performing research on the legal |
|with the law, the legal system, |system and crime, forensic psychologists often serve as expert witnesses at trials, aid police during |
|criminal investigation, criminal |criminal investigations, evaluate criminals for sentencing and parole, and provide advice to lawyers about |
|profiling, jury decision making, |psychological jury selection. Psychological jury selection is the application of the principles of |
|and witness evaluation. |psychological science to the task of selecting jury members that are most likely to return a favorable |
| |verdict. A favorable verdict may be guilty or not guilty depending on whether the forensic psychologist is |
| |working for the defense or for the prosecution. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|Psychological jury selection: | |
|applying the principles of | |
|psychological science to the task | |
|of selecting jury members that are | |
|most likely to return a favorable | |
|verdict. | |
| |Many students confuse forensic psychology with forensic science and forensic psychiatry. Although the fields |
| |are closely related with a great deal of overlap, they can be distinguished based on the training and focus |
| |of their practitioners. Forensic psychologists are trained in the principles of human behavior and focus more|
| |on the behavioral and mental aspect of the legal system. Forensic scientists have extensive training in |
| |chemistry and biology and focus more on the physical evidence at a crime scene. Forensic psychiatrists are |
| |trained in medicine and mental disease and focus more on the identification, treatment, and prevention of the|
| |criminal mind and criminal insanity. |
| |Forensic psychology dates back at least to the early 1900s. William Stern conducted a series of pioneering |
| |studies on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony in 1901. He showed that eyewitness memories are generally |
| |inaccurate and can be influenced by leading questions. Stern briefly showed people a picture of a man with |
| |empty hands. Later, he asked his “witnesses” to recall if they saw the knife in the man’s hand. Most of the |
| |witnesses reported that they remembered a knife even though a knife was not present in the photograph. Hugo |
| |Münsterberg was another pioneer in forensic psychology. In his book, On the Witness Stand that was published |
| |in 1908, Münsterberg foresaw many modern techniques of criminal investigation including criminal profiling, |
| |lie detector machines, and cognitive interviewing of witnesses. |
| |Modern day forensic psychologists work in a variety of different settings and practice in a variety of |
| |different forensic specialty areas. Forensic psychologists can be found testifying in the courtroom, |
| |interviewing inmates in prisons, giving detailed assessments to parolees, administering polygraph tests, |
| |teaching in the universities, and gathering evidence at crime scenes. Some forensic psychologists who |
| |specialize in criminal profiling work in multiple jurisdictions. Their work may require them to travel to |
| |many different regions of the country. Criminal profiling involves the analysis of crime scenes and physical |
| |evidence in an effort to infer characteristics of the perpetrator. Criminal profilers try to understand the |
| |criminal’s motivation, personality, and habits and use this understanding to help the police apprehend the |
| |offender. Geographic profiling is a recent advance in criminal profiling in which the locations in a |
| |connected series of crimes are used to predict the most probable area of the perpetrator’s residence (Holmes |
| |& Rossmo, 1996). Forensic psychologist will certainly continue to add to our understanding of criminal |
| |psychology and the law in the future. |
| | |
| | |
|Criminal profiling: a criminal | |
|investigation technique that | |
|involves the analysis of crime | |
|scenes and physical evidence in an | |
|effort to infer characteristics of | |
|the perpetrator. | |
| |Sport Psychology |
|Sports psychology: the branch of |If you remember back to our discussion in the opening paragraphs of this chapter, I/O psychologists are |
|applied psychology that is |interested in helping people to be more productive and efficient, to be safer and more accurate, to be |
|concerned with the scientific study|happier and more satisfied, and to get a higher rate of return for their efforts. Sport psychologists pursue |
|and application of psychological |these same goals by helping teams, athletes, coaches, and trainers improve performance in sports and |
|principles to issues associated |athletics. Sports psychology is the branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the scientific study |
|with sports management, athletic |and application of psychological principles to issues associated with sports management, athletic |
|performance, sports-related safety,|performance, sports-related safety, and competition. Although most students have an intuitive grasp of the |
|and competition. |meaning of the word sport, most sport psychologists prefer the definition used by Wann (1997). According to |
| |Wann, a sport is any activity that involves power and/or skill, competition, strategy and/or chance, and that|
| |is engaged in for the enjoyment, satisfaction, and/or personal gain of the participants and spectators. |
| |Psychologists have been conducting research on sports performance since 1898, but widespread interest in the |
| |systematic study of sports is a recent historical occurrence. Coleman Roberts Griffith founded the first |
| |sport psychology research facility in 1925, but it closed just a few years later in 1932. Between the 1930s |
| |and the early 1960s, relatively few psychologists showed any interest in sport psychology. However, sport |
| |psychology has grown tremendously since the 1960s, so much in fact that the American Psychological |
| |Association recognized sport psychology as a special area of study in 1987. Today, many professional sports |
| |teams, athletic associations, and coaches hire sport psychologists to boost performance. |
| |You might be wondering if it works. Does hiring a sport psychologist improve a team’s chance of winning? The |
| |short answer to that question is, “Yes!” However, it is important to realize that sport psychologists work on|
| |a wide variety of interesting research projects, and many of these projects have nothing to do with winning |
| |or losing. For example, sport psychologists are very interested in the decision to participate in sports in |
| |the first place. They ask and answer questions such as: Who plays sports? How do they choose which sport to |
| |play? Are there differences in athletes and non-athletes? Are there differences in male athletes and female |
| |athletes? Sport psychologists are also interested in how athletes learn to play sports and how they develop |
| |skill. They often try to apply the principles of learning and cognition to sports. In addition, sport |
| |psychologists do research on how to motivate athletes, how to help athletes avoid injury, how to help |
| |athletes recover psychologically from injuries, how to encourage leadership and cohesion within a team, how |
| |to limit fights and hostility between athletes, and even how to limit fights and hostility between the fans. |
| |Finally, sport psychologists are concerned about winning. They study ways to increase the “home-court |
| |advantage” at home and eliminate it on the road, ways to improve athletes’ focus and teamwork under stress, |
| |ways to improve the accuracy of judges and referees, and ways to get athletes “in the zone” and keep them |
| |there. |
|Box: I Think I Can, I Think I Can … |
|As children, many of us were told the story of The Little Engine That Could. For those of us who are unfamiliar with the story, it is sufficient |
|to know that the moral of the story was that the Little Engine believed in his own abilities and visualized his goal. This belief and |
|visualization helped the Little Engine perform a very difficult task successfully. Surprisingly, sport psychologists have confirmed that belief |
|and visualization really can impact performance. Below are two examples of ways that you can use belief and visualization to improve your own |
|athletic performance (Sheikh & Korn, 1994) |
|Self-Confidence |
|If you believe it, you can achieve it (over the course of time). Of course, not just any old belief will do. Sport psychologists have discovered |
|that athletes fall into three broad categories based on belief. Over-confident athletes believe that their abilities greatly exceed the |
|difficulty of the task and that superior performance can be taken for granted. Over-confident athletes are not motivated to practice and often |
|blame mistakes on causes that are external to themselves such as inaccurate referees or bad teammates. As a result, it takes Over-confident |
|athletes a long time to improve their performance. In contrast, Under-confident athletes do not like to practice because they doubt their |
|abilities will be sufficient to perform the task, expect poor performance, and view mistakes as a permanent reflection of their own incompetence.|
|As a result, Under-confident athletes might actually get worse over time. A third type of athletes are Self-confident. Self-confident athletes |
|believe that they possess the ability and skill to complete a task successfully. Self-confident athletes expect good performance and view |
|mistakes as temporary setbacks that can be used as a learning experience. Self-confident athletes have a high level of motivation to practice |
|because they expect practice to increase their level of competence. As a result, Self-confident athletes are much more likely to experience rapid|
|and sustained improvement. The neat thing about being Over-confidence, Under-confidence, or Self-confidence is that it is a choice. By choosing |
|to develop a realistic picture of their current abilities and an optimistic vision of their future abilities, Self-confident athletes can |
|actually choose to make the most of practice. |
|Mental Practice |
|Not all practice has to be physical though. In fact, sport psychologists have discovered that mental practice can actually be more effective than|
|physical practice. Mental practice is easy to learn and can be conducted anywhere and at any time. Just begin by relaxing and focusing on your |
|breathing. Make your breath slow, deep, and regular. Next, carefully imagine the performance situation in detail. Mentally rehearse the tasks |
|necessary for successful performance. For example, if you want to improve your free throw shooting in basketball, then vividly imagine shooting a|
|series of successful free throws. Feel the ball in your hands. Smell the atmosphere of the basketball court. Hear the cheering fans as you slowly|
|bounce the ball. Feel the smooth tension in your legs as you flex and then extend your knees. Notice how your arms relax on the follow-through. |
|Watch the ball rotate as it travels in a gentle arc. Hear the sudden hush of the crowd as the ball makes a gentle swish. Experience the emotional|
|reward provided by the cheering fans and the encouraging high-fives of your teammates. Now, re-run the scene in your imagination over and over. |
|Always use a positive image, being sure that you make each and every shot. The trick in having a successful mental practice is to make the image |
|as vivid and compelling as possible. Perhaps you could imagine the color of the ball as bright orange instead of dull orange. Maybe instead of |
|cheering quietly, the crowd is deafening. Can you mentally turn up the intensity of the lights? Always include a reward and encouragement in your|
|image. Perhaps the free throw you just made won your team the championship. Instead of high-fives, maybe the team could carry you off the court. |
|Remember to relax and keep your breathing slow, deep, and regular. If this is the first time you have tried mental practice, you should be able |
|to notice an improvement in performance after only one 30-minute session of mental practice. |
| |Consumer Psychology |
|Consumer psychology: the branch of |Can psychology be used to influence and manipulate how people spend their money? Promotional messages are |
|applied psychology that is |part of our everyday experience. The goals of these advertisements are to influence our attitudes and to |
|concerned with the scientific study|change our behavior, usually to make us buy more of a certain product. Consumer psychology is the branch of |
|and application of psychological |applied psychology that is concerned with the scientific study and application of psychological principles to|
|principles to issues associated |issues associated with advertising, marketing, consumer behavior, and merchandising. Walter Dill Scott, an |
|with advertising, marketing, |early consumer psychologist, pioneered the scientific study of advertising with his 1903 book, The Theory of |
|consumer behavior, and |Advertising. Since that time, consumer psychologists have accumulated a vast amount on information on the |
|merchandising. |science of subtle manipulation, also known as advertising. One pair of advertising researchers noted that |
| |over 1,000 new scientific articles are now published on the topic of advertising each year (Lindzey & |
| |Aronson, 1985). Due to the vast amount of advertising research, complete coverage of advertising is well |
| |beyond the scope of this chapter. Instead, I will only cover a few of the interesting highlights. |
| | |
| | |
|[pic] | |
|Walter Dill Scott | |
| |Advertisers use the principles of psychology in a variety of interesting ways to influence consumer behavior.|
| |For example, advertisers have discovered that social embarrassment is a very effective motivational strategy.|
| |Advertisers market products such as toothpaste, tooth whitener, acne wash, deodorant, and even beer by |
| |creating paranoia in customers about bad breath, yellow teeth, blemishes, body odor, and even bitter-beer |
| |face. Advertisers have also explored the usefulness of subliminal persuasion (Brean, 1958). Although the |
| |findings on subliminal persuasion are somewhat inconclusive, most researchers agree that subliminal |
| |persuasion has a very weak effect on attitudes and behavior. As a result, most advertisers opt for more |
| |direct forms of advertising simply because it is much more effective than subliminal persuasion. In more |
| |recent times, advertising researchers have explored the effectiveness of placing ads in new places (e.g., |
| |shopping carts, public restrooms, and the bare skin of professional boxers). Another recent trend in |
| |advertising is the use of coordinated saturation campaigns. In a saturation campaign, advertisements for |
| |products such as movies, fast food, soft drinks, and cars are linked together with common themes and |
| |characters. Advertisements are then distributed to the public using radio, television, print, and in-store |
| |ads. Disney, McDonalds, and Coca-Cola have mastered the saturation campaign, using it with great success to |
| |simultaneously market hamburgers, animated movies, and soft drinks to young children. |
| |Military Applications of Psychology |
|Military psychology: the branch of |Can psychology be used as a weapon? Military psychology is the branch of applied psychology that is concerned|
|applied psychology that is |with the scientific study and application of psychological principles to issues associated with military |
|concerned with the scientific study|performance, leadership, and morale. Military psychology grew out of the work of a group of early |
|and application of psychological |psychologists headed by Robert M. Yerkes. Yerkes helped to develop the Army Alpha and Beta examination to aid|
|principles to issues associated |in the placement of millions of new soldiers into appropriate military jobs at the start of WWI. The field |
|with military performance, |has grown since that time and now covers topics as diverse as assimilating new recruits into the military, |
|leadership, and morale. |training for military occupations, maintaining troop morale, selecting leaders, improving military |
| |intelligence, conducting psychological warfare operations, eliminating sexual harassment, and engineering |
| |weapons control systems. |
| |Military psychology is a very exciting and growing field. For example, did you known that military |
| |psychologists have developed methods of training animals to assist in combat operations? During the war with |
| |Iraq in 2003, the U.S. military used specially trained dolphins and seals to help mark floating mines. |
| |Military psychologists also help train dogs to sniff out explosives and other hazards. The psychologist B.F. |
| |Skinner (1960) even experimented with pigeon-guided missiles in WWII. Military psychologists have also |
| |studied the effects of captivity on prisoners of war, interrogation techniques, and even brain-washing |
| |(Watson, 1980). Today, the United States military maintains a special psychological operations division that |
| |is charged with designing and executing psychological warfare campaigns. |
| |Training for a Career in Applied Psychology |
| | |
| |How does someone become an applied psychologist? The skills needed by an applied psychologist vary greatly |
| |depending on their area of expertise and the role they will play. I/O psychologists generally work with |
| |businesses and therefore need at least a little background in business and quantitative methods. I/O |
| |psychologists who specialize in human-factors psychology also require additional training in areas such as |
| |equipment design, sensation and perception, and research methodology. Forensic psychologists generally work |
| |with the legal system and normally receive some training in law and criminal justice. Sport psychologists |
| |usually devote a portion of their time to the study of exercise science, and consumer psychologists need to |
| |develop at least a rudimentary understanding of the principles of marketing. In addition, military |
| |psychologists typically seek out some exposure to the military either through ROTC, enlistment in the armed |
| |services, or employment as a civilian for a military organization. |
| |While all of these careers in applied psychology require specialized training, a few general statements can |
| |be made about the necessary qualifications for a career in applied psychology. First, most applied |
| |psychologists have an advanced degree, either a master’s or a doctorate, in their specialized field. Second,|
| |most applied psychologists have some training in a closely related field. If you are planning a career in I/O|
| |psychology, perhaps you should minor in business as an undergraduate. For a career in forensic psychology, |
| |you might consider a double major in psychology and pre-law. Third, all applied psychologists develop a |
| |thorough understanding of the principles and theories of psychological science. If you are an undergraduate |
| |considering a career in applied psychology, you should take lots of psychology courses, seek out |
| |opportunities to get involved with your psychology department, and seek out opportunities to get experience |
| |in your field. |
For Further Exploration on the Web
|Organization |Web Address |
|Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology | |
|Introduction to Military Psychology | |
|U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences |www-ari.army.mil |
|U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program | |
|The Ultimate Forensic Psychology Database | |
|The American Board of Forensic Psychology | |
|Society for Consumer Psychology | |
|The Psychology of Consumers | |
|APA Exercise and Sport Psychology | |
|Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology | |
|References |
| |
|Berry, L. M. (2003). Employee Selection. Belmont: CA, Wadsworth. |
|Bolin, A. & Heatherly, L. (2001). Predictors of employee deviance: The relationship between bad attitudes and bad behavior. Journal of |
|Business and Psychology, 15(3), 405-418. |
|Brean, H. (1958). What hidden sell is all about. Life, 31 March, 104-114. |
|Driskell, J.E., & Olmstead, B. (1989). Psychology and the military: Research applications and trends. American Psychologist, 44, 43-54. |
|Freud, S. (1962). Civilization and its discontents: Newly translated from the German and edited by James Strachey. New York: Norton. |
|George, J. (1989). Mood and absence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 317-324. |
|Holmes, R. & Rossmo, D.K. (1996). Geography, Profiling, and Predatory Criminals. In R. Holmes & S. Holmes (Eds.). Profiling violent crimes. |
|Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
|Ivancevich, J.M. (1985). Predicting absenteeism from prior absence and work attitudes. Academy of Management Journal, 28, 219-228. |
|James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt. |
|Lindzey, G. & Aronson, E. (1985). Handbook of social psychology (3rd Ed.), vol. 2. New York: Random House. |
|Locke, E. & Latham, G. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American |
|Psychologist, 57, 705-717. |
|Münsterberg, H. (1913). Psychology and industrial efficiency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. |
|Scott, W. D. (1903). The theory of advertising. Boston: Small, Maynard. |
|Sheikh, A.A. & Korn, E. R. (Eds.). (1994). Imagery in sports and physical performance. Amityville, NY: Baywood. |
|Stogdill, R.M. & Coons, A.E. (Eds.). (1957). Leader behavior: Its description and measurement. Columbus, OH: Bureau of Business Research, |
|Ohio State University. |
|Skinner, B.F. (1960). Pigeons in a pelican. American Psychologist, 15, 28-37. |
|Taylor, F. W. (1911). The principles of scientific management. New York: Harper. |
|Wann, D. L. (1997). Sport psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. |
|Watson, P. (1980). War on the mind: The military uses and abuses of psychology. London: Penguin. |
|Vocabulary |
| |
|Applied Psychology: the branch of psychology that is concerned with using the principles of psychological science to solve real-life |
|problems; it consists of industrial/organizational psychology, forensic psychology, sport psychology, military psychology, and consumer |
|psychology. |
|Consumer Psychology: the branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the scientific study and application of psychological principles|
|to issues associated with advertising, marketing, consumer behavior, and merchandising. |
|Criminal profiling: a criminal investigation technique that involves the analysis of crime scenes and physical evidence in an effort to infer|
|characteristics of the perpetrator. |
|Forensic Psychology: the branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the scientific study and application of psychological principles|
|to issues associated with the law, the legal system, criminal investigation and profiling, jury decision making, and witness evaluation. |
|Human-Factors Psychology: The branch of industrial/organizational psychology that is concerned with the multiple factors that influence human|
|performance, efficiency, errors, and injuries and the relationship between these factors and the design of tools, equipment, and machines. |
|Industrial/Organizational Psychology: The branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the application of psychological methods and |
|research findings to the world of work and human performance. |
|Job Analysis: a detailed description and analysis of a job that results in a complete list of what needs to be done (i.e., job-related |
|tasks), the conditions under which the work must be performed (i.e., the work environment), and the knowledge, skills, and abilities that an |
|employee needs to perform the work successfully. |
|Military psychology: the branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the scientific study and application of psychological principles|
|to issues associated with military performance, leadership, and morale. |
|Organizational Psychology: The branch of industrial/organizational psychology that is concerned with job satisfaction, motivation, |
|organizational climate and culture, leadership, communication, and other social processes in organizations. |
|Performance Appraisal: the evaluation of an employee’s performance of job-related tasks; it usually involves a formal rating by the |
|employee’s immediate supervisor. |
|Personnel Psychology: The branch of industrial/organizational psychology that is concerned with employee testing, selection, placement, |
|retention, performance, and training. |
|Psychological jury selection: applying the principles of psychological science to the task of selecting a jury that is most likely to return |
|a favorable verdict. |
|Psychometrics: the study of the measurement properties of psychological tests. |
|Scientist-Practitioner: an approach to psychology taken by most I/O psychologists that emphasizes their dual roles as both creating |
|scientific knowledge and using that knowledge to solve real world problems. |
|Socio-technical systems theory: an approach to management that suggests that all organizations are comprised of two things: the people and |
|the work that needs to be accomplished. According to the theory, the best way to run an organization is to find a compromise between Theory |
|X, which emphasizes the work, and Theory Y, which emphasizes the people. |
|Sports psychology: the branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the scientific study and application of psychological principles |
|to issues associated with sports management, athletic performance, sports-related safety, and competition. |
|Theory X: an approach to management (also known as scientific management) that is based on the assumptions that employees are lazy, do not |
|like to work, and are only motivated by financial rewards. Theory X uses time-and-motion studies, task analysis, job specialization, assembly|
|lines, pay schedules, and the like to increase productivity. |
|Theory Y: an approach to management that is based on the assumptions that workers enjoy autonomy, are willing to accept responsibility, and |
|that people are not naturally passive or lazy. |
|Training: a structured learning process designed to eliminate a specific deficit in job-related skills by providing each trainee the |
|opportunity to develop at least a minimum level of skill competence. |
|Utility Analysis: a procedure used by I/O psychologists to translate the cost and benefits of business alternatives into dollars and cents. |
| |About the Author |
|[pic] |Aaron U. Bolin earned his doctorate in Social and Industrial/Organizational Psychology in 2002 from Northern |
|Aaron U. Bolin |Illinois University. He currently teaches in the Department of Psychology and Counseling at Arkansas State |
| |University where he is involved in a variety of student research projects and also serves as a faculty |
| |advisor to the local chapter of Psi Chi. Dr. Bolin’s personal research interests include employee theft and |
| |deviance, employee selection and testing, survey research, and personality. Outside of work, Dr. Bolin enjoys|
| |reading and spending time with his family. Dr. Bolin wishes to acknowledge the insightful comments and |
| |constructive criticisms of several anonymous reviewers. Many of the reviewer comments were used to improve |
| |the text of this chapter. |
| | |
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