Notes for Looking at Philosophy



Notes for LAP (tests)

These notes will help you stay focused when reading Looking at Philosophy. They will provide you with a guideline of concepts and figures to which you should pay attention as you read. I strongly suggest that you write yourself some notes about each of these figures and subjects as you read – several of them will show up on tests. Remember – I am available for help after school every single day (if you need it); I am also usually here in the morning before school. Also, don’t forget to note that there is a glossary at the end of the book. One final note: anything we discuss in class is fair game; don’t assume that this guide tells you every single thing that might appear on a test.

Introduction:

After reading the introduction, you should be familiar with the following terms and concepts:

1) logos

2) mythos

3) atheism

4) cosmology

5) cosmogony

6) ontology

7) axiology

8) moral philosophy

9) logic

10) conceptual analysis

You should also be able to answer the following questions:

1) What is the difference between logos and mythos?

2) In what way is myth more conservative than philosophy?

3) Why did Western philosophy likely spring up in Greece? (four reasons are given)

4) What is essentially optimistic about philosophy? (see page 7)

Chapter One: The Pre-Socratic Philosophers

After reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the following terms and concepts:

1) reductionism

2) entropy

3) naturalism

4) monism

5) numerology

6) aphorism

7) reductio ad absurdum

8) empiricism

9) rationalism

10) evolution

11) deux ex machina

12) materialism

13) determinism

You should pay attention to the beliefs and contributions of the following figures:

1) Thales

2) Anaximander

3) Anaximenes

4) Pythagoras

5) Heraclitus

6) Parmenides

7) Zeno

8) Empedocles

9) Anaxagoras

10) Leucippus

11) Democritus

You should be able to answer the following questions:

1) How did the philosophers in this chapter “answer” the question of the makeup of things? How did they arrive at their conclusions? What are the flaws in their explanations?

2) According to the distinction between logos and mythos discussed in the Introduction, into which camps (logos or mythos) do some of the philosophers discussed in Chapter One fall?

3) What would be the practical consequences of accepting the philosophical claim of either Heraclitus or Parmenides? In other words, how would it affect how we live our lives if either one of them were believed to be correct?

4) What were two of the famous paradoxes of Zeno? How did these paradoxes cause a crisis in the philosophy of the time?

Chapter Two: The Athenian Period

After reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the following terms and concepts:

1) skepticism

2) cynicism

3) relativism

4) sophism

5) subjectivism

6) nihilism

7) epistemology

8) ontology

9) ethics

10) aesthetics

11) metaphysics

12) mystical

13) dualism

14) teleology

15) catharsis

You should pay attention to the beliefs and contributions of the following figures:

1) The Sophists, including

a. Protagoras

b. Gorgias

c. Thrasymachus

d. Callicles and Critias

2) Socrates

3) Plato

4) Aristotle

You should be able to answer the following questions/respond to the following prompts:

1) How did sophism differ from the philosophies of the pre-Socratics?

2) How did sophism differ from the philosophies of Socrates and Plato?

3) Based on what you have read about Socrates (including the handout “Crito”, if I have assigned it to your class), what might he have meant when he said that “[t]he unexamined life is not worth living”?

4) Explain Plato’s Myth of the Cave.

5) Explain Plato’s Simile of the Line.

6) Explain how the Myth of the Cave explains the Line. In other words, explain the relationship between the Cave Myth and the Line.

7) In the debate between Plato and Aristotle over the status of art, with which philosopher do you agree? Why? First explain what each philosopher thought about art and why they thought it.

8) In Plato’s Republic, the healthy city is explained in terms of the same model as the healthy individual. Explain the congruity.

9) In this chapter, the author uses the examples of an acorn and of a statue to show Aristotle’s theory of the four causes. Choose two other examples – one from nature and one from human manufacturing – to illustrate Aristotle’s four causes. Be able to explain what the four causes are, too.

10) Explain Aristotle’s objections toward some forms of government and his approval of others.

11) Why, according to Aristotle, is engaging in moral action a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition to achieve the “good life”?

12) If I have given you any handouts during our discussion of Chapter Two, you are responsible for all material they contain – be prepared.

Chapter Three: The Hellenistic and Roman Periods

After reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the following concepts:

1) hedonism

2) asceticism

3) pantheism

You should pay attention to the beliefs and contributions of the following figures/schools of thought:

1) The Epicureans, particularly Epicurus

2) The Stoics

3) Neoplatonism, particularly Plotinus

You should be able to answer the following questions:

1) What is the difference between Epicurus’ philosophy and the version of Epicureanism produced by the Roman Epicureans? How does it involve the definition of “pleasure”?

2) What, according to Epicurus, is the difference between natural desires and vain desires? Between necessary desires and unnecessary desires? Be able to give examples of all types.

3) In this chapter, you read that it is possible that an emperor and a slave could both follow the principles of stoicism? Do you believe that this is true? Why or why not? Be able to explain the principles of stoicism.

4) What did the Stoics mean by “happiness” and “freedom”?

5) Compare and contrast Plato’s Simile of the Line with Plotinus’ version of it.

6) If I have given you any handouts during our discussion of Chapter Three, you are responsible for all material they contain – be prepared.

Chapter Four: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy

After reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the following concepts:

1) Eschatology

2) Polytheism

3) monotheism

4) dogma

5) canon

6) Manicheanism

7) Mechanistic

8) Pelagianism

9) Dialectic

10) A posteriori

11) Beatific Vision

12) Scholasticism

13) Ockham’s razor

You should pay attention to the beliefs and contributions of the following figures/schools of thought:

1) Christian belief (which greatly affects Western philosophy from this point on)

2) Saint Augustine

3) The Encyclopediasts

4) John Scotus Eriugena

5) Saint Anselm

6) Muslim philosophy

7) Averroes

8) Maimonides

9) Saint Thomas Aquinas

10) William of Ockham

You should be able to answer the following questions/respond to the following prompts:

1) According to the information in this chapter, what is the relationship among the three major Western religions (Judiasm, Christianity, Islam)? Be able to discuss the similarities and differences between the three religions.

2) Defend or argue against Augustine’s solution to the problem of God’s foreknowledge. First be able to explain his solution.

3) Explain how John Scotus Eriugena, despite being a Christian philosopher, argued that God belongs in the category of things that do not exist.

4) How did Saint Anselm argue that the statement “God does not exist” is self-contradictory?

5) Explain how, if true, the philosophy of William of Ockham would undermine the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas, Plato and Aristotle.

6) Explain the cosmological proof of God’s existence and discuss its strengths and weaknesses.

7) Explain the ontological proof of God’s existence and discuss its strengths and weaknesses.

8) Explain the teleological proof of God’s existence and discuss its strengths and weaknesses.

9) If I have given you any handouts during our study of Chapter 4, you are responsible for any material they contain – be prepared.

Chapter Five: Continental Rationalism and British Empiricism

After reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the following concepts:

1) Cartesian

2) Naïve realism

3) Substance

4) Pantheism

5) Randomness

6) Monism

7) Naturalism

8) Principle of identity

9) Propositions

10) Analytic propositions

11) Synthetic propositions

12) Principle of noncontradiction

13) Empiricism

14) Tabula rasa

15) Representative realism

16) Psychological atomism

17) Sense data

18) Solipsism

19) Causality

20) Induction

21) Deduction

22) Noumenal world

23) Categorical imperative

24) Psychological egoism

25) A priori

26) A posteriori

You should pay attention to the beliefs and contributions of the following figures/schools of thought:

1) Descartes

2) Hobbes

3) Spinoza

4) Leibniz

5) Locke

6) Berkeley

7) Hume

8) Kant

You should be able to answer the following questions/respond to the following prompts:

1) Are you convinced that Descartes’ method of “radical doubt” achieved the goal he set to establish an absolutely certain foundation for philosophy? Why or why not?

2) Defend or criticize Hobbes’ thesis of psychological egoism. First explain it.

3) How did Hobbes justify the legitimacy of governments and the absolute power of sovereigns?

4) Defend or criticize Berkeley’s claim that descriptions of primary qualities are really only interpretations of secondary qualities.

5) What is the difference between the rationalists and the empiricists?

6) How did Galileo’s discovery that Jupiter had moons affect Descartes’ philosophy?

7) How did Leibniz justify his belief that ours must be the best of all possible worlds?

8) In what ways is Locke’s philosophy obviously influential upon the foundation of the United States?

9) It has been suggested that in conditions of abundance, Locke’s optimistic view of human nature may be correct, and in conditions of scarcity, Hobbes’ pessimistic view may be correct. Defend or argue against this belief.

10) Defend or argue against the view that Hume’s conclusions were an inevitable result of empiricist belief.

11) Why, according to this chapter, would the history of philosophy have ended with Hume had his views prevailed?

12) If I give you the cartoon on page 212, explain what it shows.

13) Use the categorical imperative to prove that people should or should not pirate software, music or movies, that people should or should not cheat on tests, and that people should or should not donate part of their incomes to charity.

14) What does Kant’s theory of knowledge have in common with rationalism? With empiricism?

15) Defend or attack Kant’s view that it is always wrong to use people for one’s own purposes.

16) If I have given you any handouts during our discussion of Chapter 5, you are responsible for any material they contain – be prepared.

Chapter Six: Post-Kantian British and Continental Philosophy

This chapter deals with one of the liveliest and most important times in the history of Western philosophy. After reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the following concepts and terms (several of which appear in earlier chapters and may be review for you):

1) alienation

2) dialectic

3) thesis

4) antithesis

5) synthesis

6) phenomenology

7) noumenal

8) sublimation

9) principle of the excluded middle

10) existentialism

11) ideology

12) bourgeoisie

13) proletariat

14) false consciousness

15) philology

16) nominalism

17) ontology

18) epistemology

19) reification

20) anthromorphism

21) Utilitarianism

22) Platonism

23) Nihilism

24) Hedonism

25) Empiricism

26) Skepticism

27) Causality

28) Laissez-faire

29) Analytic philosophy

30) Realism

You should pay attention to the beliefs and contributions of the following figures/schools of thought:

1) Hegel

2) Schopenhauer

3) Kierkegaard

4) Marx

5) Nietzsche

6) Bentham

7) Mill

You should be able to answer the following questions/respond to the following prompts:

1) Use Hegel’s master/slave dynamics to explain relations in traditional society between husband and wife, parent and child, teacher and student and employer and employee.

2) Discuss those features of Schopenhauer’s philosophy that are in agreement with Kant as well as those that are in disagreement.

3) Hegel’s philosophy is teleological. Explain how progress takes place in his system, and why, according to Hegel, that advancement may appear to us to be backsliding.

4) Explain what you think Nietzsche means when he recommends that we lie creatively.

5) Defend the statement that Kierkegaard, Marx and Nietzsche demanded a whole new kind of human.

6) What would you say is the strongest and weakest points of Kant’s categorical imperative? Of Bentham’s greatest happiness principle?

7) Defend or attack Mill’s view that pleasure is the ultimate criterion of value and that some pleasures are more valuable than others.

8) Explain how you believe Kant and how utilitarianism would each treat the following cases (and why):

a. The case of a physician assisting the suicide of a terminally ill patient.

b. The case of a poor person stealing money from a careless millionaire who will never know she’s been robbed.

c. The case of a woman lying to her dying father who urges her to promise that she will not marry anyone of a religion different from the father’s.

d. The case of a person offered a large sum of money to assassinate another person whom everybody hates.

9) If I give you any handouts during our study of Chapter Six, you are responsible for any material they contain – be prepared.

Chapter Seven: Pragmatism, the Analytic Tradition, and the Phenomenological Tradition and Its Aftermath (the 20th century)

. After reading this chapter, you should be familiar with the following concepts/terms (several of which appear in earlier chapters and may be review for you):

1) pragmatism

2) semiology

3) Cartesian

4) Empiricism

5) Metaphysical

6) Correspondence theory

7) Coherence theory

8) Rationalism

9) Idealism

10) Epistemology

11) Ockham’s razor

12) Law of the excluded middle

13) Synthesis

14) Logical positivism

15) Analytic

16) Synthetic

17) Incorrigibility

18) Atomic facts

19) Linguistic

20) Reductionism

21) Holism

22) Quantum mechanics

23) Phenomenology

24) Etymologies

25) Neologism

26) Absurd (in the philosophical sense of the word)

27) Signifier and signified

28) Structuralism

29) Functionalism

30) Psychoanalysis

31) Metonymy

32) Deconstruction (in the philosophical sense of the word)

33) Phallocentrism

34) Patriarchy

35) misogyny

36) pre-oedipal

37) Existentialism

You should pay attention to the beliefs and contributions of the following figures/schools of thought:

1) William James

2) John Dewey

3) George Edward Moore

4) Bertrand Russell

5) Ludwig Wittgenstein

6) William Quine

7) Edmund Husserl

8) Martin Heidegger

9) Jean-Paul Sartre (you will also be reading Sartre’s plays in Senior Seminar)

10) Ferdinand de Saussure

11) Claude Levi-Strauss

12) Jacques Lacan

13) Jacques Derrida

14) Luce Irigaray

You should be able to answer the following questions/respond to the following prompts:

1) Analyze the three following assertions, first using William James’ pragmatic theory of meaning and then his theory of truth:

a. The world is flat.

b. Reality is only a dream.

c. After your death, your soul will be directed to either heaven or hell, depending on God’s judgment of your life.

2) What in general is the pragmatists’ idea of useless thought? What kind of thinking is useful?

3) According to the logical positivists, all assertions are either analytic, synthetic, or nonsense. What function does this thesis have for the logical positivists? What is the main weakness of the logical positivists’ thesis?

4) What would the logical positivists like about Quine’s philosophy? What would they dislike?

5) Attack or defend Quine’s “indeterminacy of translation” thesis.

6) What does Heidegger mean when he “calls us back to a remembrance of Being”? What stands in the way of our responding to this call, according to Heidegger?

7) Compare Heidegger and Sartre on the topic of our relations to other people.

8) Explain how Saussure’s linguistic theory influenced Lacan’s version of psychoanalysis and Derrida’s deconstruction.

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