(III) ENERGY and ENZYMES
Metabolic Processes
T.A. Blakelock High School
Grade 12 University Preparation Biology
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Student:______________________ Date:___________________ Teacher:______________________ Room:__________________ Period:_________
UNIT II METABOLIC PROCESSES
WAR M UP- Pages 108-109
Part I ENERGY and ENZYMES
A. ENERGY
1. Chemical potential energy – energy stored in _________________________________
2. transition state – a temporary condition in which bonds are______________________________
3. activation energy – the energy that must be ____________ to get to the ________________ state
[all molecules that exist are stable and so to change them we must add energy]
4. storing free energy
- in a cell energy can be stored as ATP and later re-used
_____ kJ/mol + ADP + Pi ________ + _________
ATP + H2O ________ + __________ + _____________
5. Phosphate
___________ phosphate ______________ phosphate
Pi – P
6. oxidation and reduction
a. oxidation is the ____________ of electrons and their energy
b. reduction is the ________________ of electrons and their energy
c. often a series of oxidation and reduction reactions allows a cell to move __________
between molecules and eventually use it to produce _________________
7. Transferring energy
a. Energy can be transferred by moving ____________ or ___________ between molecules.
b. If a molecule ____________________ either phosphates or electrons, it gains energy
c. All chemical reactions require the _________________ of energy to start the reaction
d. This ___________________ energy may come from phosphate or from electrons
B. ENZYMES
1. enzymes are protein ___________ that ____________ the activation energy in a biological reaction
2. the ACTIVATION energy is the energy that must be ___________ to initiate or start a reaction
3. there are two types of enzymes based on energy: _______________ & ___________________
a. EXERGONIC REACTION – a reaction that has a net _____________ of energy
b. ENDERGONIC REACTION – a reaction that requires a net____________ of energy
c. the presence of an enzyme does __________________ affect the free energy level
of the ___________________ or the ______________________
d. enzymes only reduce the activation energy required to __________________ the reaction
4. How enzymes work
________________ molecule that the enzyme acts on
________________ site
[shape is specific to one _____________ molecule only]
enzyme - _________________ complex
[note that the _____________ has changed shape]
this change is to allow for the ______________ or
breaking of _____________ in the substrate
________________
__________ site
note that enzyme has returned to its
original _______________
__________________ has entered the ______________ site and changed the shape of the
___________________ site thus shutting down the enzyme activity
Not shown is the situation when an _________________________ enters the _______________ site
and causes the ________________ site to change so as to enhance the activity of the enzyme
5. Types of enzymes
a. ISOMERASE – an enzyme that changes the ________________________ of atoms in a molecule
b. DE HYDROGENASE – an enzyme that removes hydrogen along with ______________
and their____________________
c. DEHYDRASE – an enzyme that removes ________
d. DECARBOXYLASE – an enzyme that removes _______________________
e. PHOSPHORYLASE – an enzyme that makes ____________ or uses___________ for a reaction
[also called kinase]
6. High energy compounds
-all energy in a cell ultimately comes from the _______________
-that energy must be converted to __________ ___________ compounds in order to be useful
-___________ and _____________ are the two high energy compounds used in photosynthesis
-________ is the energy currency in the cell
- ___________ actually contains more energy than ATP,
but this energy is _________directly available to the cell
3. Making High Energy Compounds
a. ADP + ______ + ______________ ( ATP
NADP+ + ______ + ______________ ( NADPH + H+
b. are both _______________________ reactions as _________________ is added
because a molecule is being built up, these are called _________________ reactions
Part II PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A. Introduction
1. Location: ____________________ (in plants and algae) or
________________ in cell membrane (in photosynthetic prokaryotes, cyanobacteria)
2. Stages in photosynthesis:
Stage 1. capturing light energy; occurs in ____________________ membrane
Stage 2. light energy makes ATP + ___________________; occurs in thylakoid membrane
Stage 3. using ATP + NADPH + H+ to _______________ organic compounds (glucose)
from CO2 (carbon fixation); process called ____________; occurs in __________
3. Overall process:
6CO2 + ______ + light energy chlorophyll C6H12O6 + ______ + _______
the carbon + oxygen from CO2 and the H from ____________ produce the glucose
the oxygen from ___________ is released as oxygen gas
4. Light energy:
light energy travels in wave packets called ______________
visible light has a wavelength of 380 nm (_______) to 750 nm (___________) (ROYGBIV)
short wavelengths [violet] is _____________ energy
long wavelengths [red] is _______________ energy
clusters of photosynthetic pigments embedded in the ____________________________ absorb photons of a particular λ
energy is transferred to ADP + Pi ---> __________
NADP+ + 2H (from H2O) ---> ____________________ + _____________
5. Chlorophyll:
-pigment molecule (see pg. 139) has 2 parts:
long ____________________________ tail; (hydrophobic)
a ring of C, N, and lots of ______________________, Mg trapped in middle;
-____________________ (primary light absorbing pigment in all photosynthetic organisms)
and _______________________ absorb photons of blue-violet λ and red-orange λ
-green wavelength are _______________ (that is why leaves appear green)
and green light is _____________ so leaves look ____________ from underneath
-in fall, __________________ is no longer produced and is broken down,
other pigments (e.g. red or yellow) show through and leaves ____________________
B. Light Reactions
1. Photoexcitation
electrons are normally stable in their _________________, the lowest possible energy level
when a photon strikes a chlorophyll molecule, the e- have ______________ added to them
and are in a state of ______________________
an excited e- has more _________________ than one in a ground state,
but it will _________________ to the ground state in 1 billionth of a second
when the e- returns to the ground state it ___________________ energy (heat + light)
instead of the e- from chlorophyll releasing heat + light, they are ___________________
by a primary electron ____________ (chlorophyll is oxidized, e- acceptor is reduced)
2. Photosystems
photosystems = a group of pigments that work together to ________________ light
the __________________________ consists of several hundred pigment molecules that
capture light of different ________________ and pass energy to the reaction center
the ____________________________ is a chlorophyll a pigment that takes all the energy
and uses it to _________________ an electron
the excited e- is _________________________ to an e- acceptor
(chlorophyll is oxidized, primary e- acceptor is reduced)
3. Sources of electrons:
a) bacteria:
______________________ contains chlorophyll P700 (max. absorption at 700 nm λ)
the photosystem I does not have enough energy to break _____________,
however it does have enough energy to break _________________
but H2S is rare; only found in _______________________________
6CO2 + _________ + light energy ---> ___________ + 6H2O + _______
b) algae and plants
______________________ contains chlorophyll P680 (max. absorption at 680 nm λ)
photosystem II does have enough energy to break ____________
______________ are then passed to photosystem I
________ + 12H2O + light energy ---> __________ + 6H2O + ________
c) photosystem I and II are used to produce __________ + __________________
4. Photolysis (the breaking of water by sunlight)
the ___________________ (in the thylakoid space) uses energy from light to split H2O
___________ are given to photosystem II
_____________ are released in the thylakoid space and create an electrochemical gradient
_________ leaves the chloroplast as waste
5. Electron Transport System
a) Occurs in the _______________________________.
b) Photon strikes photosystem II and ___________________ of chlorophyll P680, _____ passed to
electron _____________________ called Plastoquinone (PQ).
c) ______ from _____________________ replace the missing ______ from Chlorophyll P680.
d) PQ takes _________ from photosystem II and ____________ with them to the b6f Complex.
e) b6f Complex takes ____________ and passes them on to plastocyanin which allows _________ to pass
from the stroma into the thylakoid space.
f) This creates an __________________________________________ gradient.
g) Pc takes 2e- and moves with them to ____________________ .
(these replace 2e- lost when photosystem I was struck by a photon)
h) Photosystem I transfers 2 e- to ferrodoxin (Fd) an electron ______________ .
i) Fd transfers 2e- to ______________ reductase.
j) _______________ reductase passes on the 2 e- to NADP+
k) (NADP+ + ___ + ____ ( NADPH + H+)
6. Types of Electron Transport Systems
a) non-cyclic _______________________ (aka non-cyclic electron flow)
normal process as described in ______________
involves both______ and _______ and transfers e- from H2O to _______ to produce
1 NADPH + H+ and 2 ATP needed to make __________
H2O + photons + 2ADP + 2Pi + NADP+ ---> _______ + _________ + ___________
but demand for ATP and NADPH + H+ is not always in a _________
b) cyclic _____________________ (or cyclic electron flow)
electrons from P700 are excited but eventually _________________ (H2O and NADP+ are not involved)
P700 --> ________ --> b6-f complex --> protein C --> P700
b6-f complex pumps _______________ across the thylakoid membrane,
creating an electrochemical _____________ which is used to make ATP
C. The Calvin cycle
occurs in the _____________
1. Phase 1: carbon fixation
a CO2 is added to a 5-C ribulose biphosphate ( ________ ) to form a 6-carbon intermediate
this unstable intermediate _________________ splits into
two 3-carbon molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate ( __________ )
enzyme involved = ribulose biphosphate carboxylase ( ______________ ),
a very large and slow-working _____________________
this process happens ________________ to make one glucose,
6 x (5-carbon) ___________ + 6CO2 ---> 12 x (3-carbon) _________
this process is called ______ photosynthesis because
the first product of fixation is a ______________ molecule
2. Phase 2: reduction reactions
a series of reactions that are essentially the reverse of _________________
_________ is phosphorylated to biphosphoglycerate (BPG) using _________
_________ is reduced to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) by _____________________
1 molecule of _________ leaves the cycle for every 5 molecules of G3P that go on
2 molecules of G3P will combine to make __________________
3. Phase 3: RuBP regeneration
_____ molecules of 3-C ________ are converted into ____molecules of 5-C _________
we start with ____ phosphates (1 per G3P) and must end with ___ (2 per RuBP)
in the process _______ are removed and ____________ are consumed
____________ must be added for the H and OH groups to add to the molecules
4. Overall equation
6CO2 + 18ATP + 12(NADPH + H+) + 10H2O + 6RuBP
---> _______ + _______ + ________ + _________ + _________
6 RuBP are both reactants and products in the reaction
5. Fate of G3P
chloroplast G3P glucose ____________
glucose
cytoplasm
__________ cellular ________________
__________ (cell walls)
transported
to other parts of ______________
plant (translocation) (storage)
Part II CELLULAR RESPIRATION A. OVERVIEW
1. Purpose
to convert energy trapped within ______________
to energy available to do work in cell in the form of _____
2. High energy compounds
-although the ultimate goal is to produce _______________
-high energy intermediates such as ____________ & _________ may be produced along the way
-NADH + H+ and FADH2 actually contain ________________ energy than ATP,
but this energy is ____________ directly available to the cell
|LOW energy compounds |HIGH energy compounds |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
3. Making High Energy Compounds
a. ADP + ______ + ______________ ( ATP
NAD+ + ______ + ______________ ( NADH + H+
FAD + ______ + ______________ ( FADH2
are all _______________________ reactions as _________________ is added
because a molecule is being built up, these are called _________________ reactions
b. in order to get the ___________________ to power these reactions,
the cell must couple them to ________________________ reactions
c. ___________________ [breaking down] steps are generally _______________________
d. cellular respiration is a series of ____________________ steps
involving the breaking of ___________________ compounds
coupled to a series of ___________________ steps
involving building _____________________________ compounds
B. GLYCOLYSIS
1. Which cells? _________ cells must do cellular respiration to survive
2. Where in the cell?
cellular respiration starts in the ______________
and is completed in the _________________ [if present]
3. Purpose
a. to convert the energy stored in _______________ with-in the glucose molecule
to more readily ____________________ energy stored in bonds within ATP
b. ATP will only be made ________________________ if there is the right amount of energy
____________________ when bonds are broken
c. if too ______________ energy is released to make an ATP, that energy is simply__________
d. if __________________ energy is released than needed to make one ATP
then an ______________________ or other very high energy product will be made
this will later be ____________________ into more than one ATP
4. Summary
a. _____________ (C6H12O6) is broken down into two molecules of _____________ (C3H4O3)
b. in order to break glucose, it must first be destabilized by the addition of ______________
c. once the destabilized molecule breaks in half, it releases enough energy to replace the
______________ and to make additional _____________
d. in addition to the ATP, the high energy compound, 2 _________________ are also produced
5. Equation
glucose + _________ + ________ + __________ + ________ (
____________ + _________ + _________ + ___________ + ___________
6. Energy
a. each _________________ has 2870 kJ/mol free energy in it
b. it requires _____________ kJ/mol to make 1 ATP
2870 kJ/mol
c. therefore each glucose can theoretically make 31 kJ/mol = __________ ATP
d. so far, we have made a NET of 2 ATP 2 / ________ = ________% efficiency
e.
7. Next step
there is still lots of energy left in ______________ that the cell can use to make
more __________
C. FATE OF PYRUVATE
1. Why cell gets rid of pyruvate
a. the process of _____________ causes cell to run out of ______________ so glycolysis stops
b. as all cells must do glycolysis _______________________
therefore, they must use ______________ to regenerate ________________ for cell
c. there is a lot of __________ trapped in pyruvate and ideally cells would access that energy,
but that is only possible if a cell has a _________________ and access to ____________
2. What is CoASH
a. coenzyme-A is a _____________________ that helps enzymes hold and modify molecules
b. coenzyme-A has a sulphur and hydrogen __________________ group [designated as _______]
c. the result is that we use the code ____________ for an ___________________ coenzyme-A
and the code ___________ when coenzyme-A is ______________ to another molecule
3. Three pathways for pyruvate
a. ethanol fermentation -occurs in _____________ or ____________ cells
pyruvate + ________ + _____ ________ + _________ + ___________
b. lactic acid fermentation - occurs in _____________ cells in the temporary absence of _________
pyruvate + _________________ ___________ + ______________
both fermentation steps above do NOT directly create any ________________________ compounds
but they do both release _________ to allow the cell to continue _____________________
c. oxidation of pyruvate - occurs in the __________________ in the presence of ________
pyruvate + NAD+ + ___________ __________ + __________ + ___________
D. Krebs cycle
1. Krebs cycle allows the cell to get more energy out of the _______________ product of the oxidation of pyruvate
2. occurs in the ________________ of the ___________________
3. only occurs if __________________ is present
4. details for “Kreb’s cycle” shown on next page
5. equation:
acetyl-CoA + 3 __________ + _____________ + H20 + ADP + Pi
2 _____________ + __ NADH + H+ + FADH2 + ________ + _____
E. Summary – so far
F. Electron Transport Chain [ETC]
1. Overview
a this occurs in the __________________ of the ___________________
b. a series of _______________________________ reactions that converts the stored energy
in __________________ or ________________ indirectly into ___________
c. the process involves moving _________________ between proteins within the membrane
and this results in ____________________ movement across the membrane
2. Accessing the NADH+H+ and FADH2
Kreb’s cycle occurs in mitochondrial matrix ( __ x ___ NADH+H+
__ x ___ FADH2
oxidation of pyruvate occurs in mitochondria matrix( __ x ___ NADH+H+
glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm( __ x ___ NADH+H+
3. Getting the energy into the mitochondria from the cytoplasm
NADH+H+ from the cytoplasm can not pass through the _______________ membrane
and therefore can not directly enter the ____________
however, the __________________________ in NADH+H+ can be passed across the
membrane with the ______________ to a molecule of FADH2
4. “ETC” page showing details
5. Proteins
a. NADH dehydrogenase – accepts 2 ______________ from NADH +H+ and passes them on
- 2 ____ [protons] follow the electrons & ______________________the membrane
b. protein Q - accepts 2 electrons from NADH dehydrogenase
or _____________________ and passes them on
c. cytochrome b-c1 complex - accepts 2 electrons from _______________ and passes them on
- 2 _____ [protons] follow the electrons & pass through the __________________
d. cytochrome c - accepts 2 __________ from cytochrome b-c1 complex and passes them on
e. cytochrome oxidase complex - - accepts 2 electrons from cytochrome c
& passes them on to _______________________
- 2 ______ follow the ____________ & pass through the membrane
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
1 – NADH dehydrogenase 2 – protein Q 3 – cytochrome b-c1
4 – cytochrome C 5 – cytochrome oxidase 6 – ATP synthase
6. tally of H+ across the membrane
a. for every NADH+H+ ( __________ of H+ are pumped into the intermembrane space
b. for every FADH2 ( __________ of H+ are pumped into the intermembrane space
7. ATP synthetase [not technically part of the ETC]
a. there are more H+ in the __________________________ than in the matrix
b. the H+ try to move down a concentration ___________________ back across the membrane
c. the H+ can __________________ pass through the phospholipid membrane directly
d. the enzyme ____________________________ allows the H+ to pass through it
e. as the H+ pass through the ATP synthetase they __________________________________
and when it returns to its normal shape it is able to add ______ + _______ ( _________
8. Summary 9. Overall summary
pg 108 Fig. 22 pg 110
G. RELATED PATHWAYS
1. Carbohydrates
- cells first choice for ‘food’ for _____________
broken down by simple __________ cellular respiration
2. Proteins
H
-proteins breakdown into___________________ H2N--C--COOH
R
-____________________ removes the amino [NH2] group
-the remainder enters the energy cycle at various points, eg:
leucine (______________; alanine ( _____________; proline ( into _____________
3. Lipids
- ____________________ ( glycerol + 3 fatty acids
- _________________ ( ( 3-phosphoglycerate [into __________________]
- 3 _______________ ( beta-oxidation
beta-oxidation
- most fatty acids are __________ carbons long
O
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H //
H – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
how many carbons in acetyl-CoA ? _______________
so how many times do we have to cut the 18 carbon fatty acid? _____________
To calculate the energy released by lipid breakdown, there are two steps.
Step One: ______________ step that converts a long chain of carbons into a series of acetyl-CoA
The oxidation of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA molecules requires the _______________ of bonds,
always one __________________ bond that the number of acetyl-CoA.
To break bonds, we must add ______________ and _________________.
When these fatty acid bonds are broken, ____ FADH2 and ____ [NADH + H+] are produced.
Given these steps, the beta-oxidation of an 18 carbon fatty acid is shown below.
____ carbon fatty acid + ____ CoASH + _____ATP + _____FAD + _____ NAD+ + _____H2O (
9 ____________ + 8[______+ ______] + 8_________ + 8[________ + ____]
Step two: the breakdown of the acetyl-CoA through the normal _____________ cycle.
One turn through Kreb’s cycle produces ______ ATP: _________ FADH2: ____[NADH + H+].
To determine the total number of high energy compounds produced this way, we must multiply these
_____________ numbers by the ________________ of acetyl-CoA’s.
So to combine both we use the chart below
|1 acetyl-CoA |9 acetyl-CoA |OXIDATION |NET |ATP |3 X GLUCOSE |
|__ ATP |___ ATP |___ ATP |___ ATP |____ ATP | |
|__ NADH+ H+ |___ NADH+ H+ |___ NADH+ H+ |___ NADH+ H+ |____ ATP | |
|__ FADH2 |___ FADH2 |___ FADH2 |___ FADH2 |____ ATP |______ ATP |
| | | |TOTAL |____ ATP |______ ATP |
This shows lipids store MORE energy than carbohydrates
_____ ATP / ______ ATP = _______ % more energy per carbon.
HW do this calculation for 12 carbons and for 20 carbons from the Assignment Package
-----------------------
2100kJ
2870 kJ
OH
2x PYRUVATE
HC=O
HCOH
H2C—O—P
glycerol phosphate shuttle protein
_______________________________________
________
______ _________
______
_________ ___________________ _________________
oxidation of pyruvate Kreb’s cycle
glucose glycolysis
oxidation of pyruvate Kreb’s cycle
_________
HC=O
HCOH
H2C—O—P
free
energy
GLYCOLYSIS: Part 2 – Rearranging the 3-carbon molecule
free
energy
H2COH
C=O
H2C—O—P
GLYCOLYSIS: Part 1 – Breaking the glucose [Textbook pg 98]
GLUCOSE
H
OH
H
OH
OH
OH
C
CH2OH
COOH
C—O—P
II
CH2
COOH
HC—O—P
HOCH2
COOH
HOCH
H2C—O—P
O=C—O—P
HOCH
H2C—O—P
HC=O
HCOH
H2C—O—P
COOH
C=O
CH3
CALVIN CYCLE
COOH
l
HCOH
l
CH3
S-CoA
l
C=O
l
CH3
H2C-OH
l
CH3
PYRUVATE
FATE OF PYRUVATE
[pic]
OH
l
C=O
l
C=O
l
CH3
1
2
3
4
5
6
___ Pi
___ H2O
___ x ADP
___ x ATP
____ x P--C-C-C-C-C—P
ribulose biphosphate
____ x C-C-C—P
[G-3-P]
glucose
__ x C-C-C—P
[G-3-P]
____ x ________________________________
[G-3-P]
____ x _________________________
[3-PGA]
z ( Z protein 4 ( plastocyanin [PC] 8 ( ATP synthetase
1 ( photosystem II (P680) 5 ( photosystem I (P700)
2 ( plastoquinoe [protein Q] 6 ( ferridoxin [Fd]
3 ( b6-F complex 7 ( NADP reductase
6
z
4
7
5
3
2
1
8
thylakoid space
stroma
KREBS CYCLE
where
Acetyl-CoA
CH3
C=O
S-CoA
COOH
HOCH
CH2
COOH
COOH
CH
ll
HC
COOH
COOH
CH2
CH2
COOH
COOH
CH2
CH2
C=O
S – CoA
COOH
CH2
CH2
C=0
COOH
COOH
CH2
HC – COOH
HOCH
COOH
COOH
O=C
CH2
COOH
COOH
CH2
HOC – COOH
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COOH
+
enzyme _________ activation energy
activation energy
_________ enzyme
activation energy
____________with enzyme
____________ energy without enzyme
oxaloacetate
malate
fumarate
succinate
succinyl-CoA
alpha-ketoglutarate
isocitate
citrate
COOH
C=O
CH3
COOH
C—O—P
II
CH2
COOH
HC—O—P
HOCH2
COOH
HOCH
H2C—O—P
O=C—O—P
HOCH
H2C—O—P
2x
G
3
P
free energy
HO
OH
HO
OH
OH
OH
H
H
H
H
H
O
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
O
C
C
C
C
C
CH2O – P
OH
H
H
O
P – OCH2
C
C
C
C
H2 COH
OH
OH
H
H
O
P – OCH2
C
C
C
C
H2 CO – P
2
x
P
E
P
2x
2
P
G
2x
3
P
G
2x
1,
3BPG
D
H
A
P
+
G
3
P
F
1,
6
B
P
F
6
P
G
6
P
G
L
U
C
O
S
E
Relative energy levels in glycolysis intermediates
___________________
___________________
[1,3-BPG]
COOH
HOCH
H2C—O—P
O=C—O—P
HOCH
H2C—O—P
HC=O
HCOH
H2C—O—P
happens in all plants when ______________ is needed
the process produces only ATP and not ____________
one of the proteins in the thylakoid membrane ________
in order for the cycle to flow
photosystem I (P700) involved, ______________
photosystem II (P680)
6
3
2
1
................
................
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