29 June 2011 - OnlyOnePlanet
6 July 2011
Mr Guy Dickson
Secretary to the Committee
Select Committee on Marine Parks in South Australia
c/- Parliament House
GPO Box 572
Adelaide 5001
South Australia
SUBMISSION
TO THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON MARINE PARKS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Dr Jonathan Nevill, policy analyst
Director, OnlyOnePlanet Consulting
PO Box 106
Hampton Victoria 3188 Australia
Phone 0422 926 515
SUMMARY
The marine environment is in great danger, both in Australia and around the world. Section One below lists the five main threats. Of these threats, the most significant are fishing and increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. In many parts of the world, and in some parts of Australia, marine ecosystems, or significant components of these ecosystems, have collapsed, and collapses like these are increasing in frequency and severity worldwide. Section Two below outlines this disturbing situation.
A huge body of scientific evidence is available to guide the design and management of marine parks (Terms of Reference part (a)). Section Three below lists a small sample of the peer-reviewed literature relevant to the design and management of marine protected areas. At a general level, international law also offers policy guidance on the design and management of marine protected areas. As a nation signatory to the international Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 Australia has endorsed a formal agreement to develop networks of marine protected areas, having sanctuary (or no-take zones) at their core. The details of this agreement are contained in the CBD Jakarta Mandate. Section Four of this submission takes an overview of the literature supporting the design and management of marine protected areas, and includes a discussion of key policy issues – relevant to scales from international to local. Section Five below includes an indication of the support given to marine protected areas by Australian scientists.
This submission does not discuss Terms of Reference (b), (c) or (d).
With regard to Terms of Reference (e), I am aware that there have been moves in NSW, particularly sponsored by the NSW branch of the Shooters Party, to limit or reduce the extent of no-take sanctuary zones. However the general trend world-wide has been to expand sanctuary zones not to limit them. Member states of the European Union have been expanding no-take zones under an EU Directive dating back about a decade. The USA, particularly under the leadership of George Bush, designated huge expansions of no-take marine protected areas in Alaska and in the USA’s Pacific Ocean jurisdictions. Pacific nations, including Fiji, Palau and the states of Micronesia (as examples) have hugely increased no-take zones in recent years. South Africa too has added large additions to its no-take zones.
Terms of Reference (f) considers the correct balance of general marine park areas to no-take sanctuary zones. Section Six of this submission reviews scientific literature on this subject, and concludes that, as far as the conservation of marine biodiversity is concerned, a huge increase on no-take zones is required, both in Australia and overseas. Most of the studies reviewed conclude that sanctuary zones occupying 20% to 50% of marine habitats are required to stem the current erosion of biodiversity values. As far as support for the fishing industry (both commercial and recreational) studies find that no-take zones can provide protection for critical spawning, nursery and feeding areas, thus providing fished populations with buffers against both fishing mortality and environmental variations. The result is more stable and reliable fisheries from year to year. However if these effects are considered alone (ie not considering other biodiversity values) current science suggests that fishery benefits can be gained from carefully placed sanctuary zones occupying around 10% to 20% of habitats.
Given the very serious threats facing marine ecosystems, I strongly support the model provided by Queensland’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, where around 33% of the park is designated as no-take zones. I recommend that common ecosystem types which are not under significant threats be protected at a rate of at least 20% of the total area under that habitat type in the jurisdiction under discussion. However, where ecosystem types are rare or under threat, much greater protection is needed, up to 100% where very rare or highly endangered ecosystem types are concerned. It should be noted, as an example, that coral ecosystems are highly threatened by both fishing and climate change, where the latter threat will become increasingly severe over coming years. Yet only around 10% of coral habitats off the Queensland coast (including offshore and in the Gulf of Carpentaria) are protected in no-take zones. This situation is entirely inadequate.
I wish to conclude with two points about the management of fisheries in Australia. It is sometimes said that Australian fisheries management is so good that further protection of the marine environment from fishing impacts is unnecessary. This is certainly not the case.
My first point concerns the way Australian governments, both State and Commonwealth, define “overfishing”. Fifty years ago it seemed logical to define overfishing solely on the basis of the health of the stock being fished – in other words taking no regard of the effects of fishing the stock on the marine environment broadly. Consequently the practice grew up where fisheries management agencies would define overfishing relative to the stock’s maximum sustainable yield (MSY). Unfortunately, this approach is still in use, even though during the last 50 years Australia has made important commitments to protect marine ecosystems (eg: through the Convention on Biological Diversity process, and at a general level through the Law of the Sea).
In my view a logical modern definition of overfishing is a level of fishing which puts at risk values endorsed either by the fishery management agency, by the nation in whose waters fishing takes place, or within widely accepted international agreements. This definition would take into account damage caused by fishing to the surrounding ecosystem, and a fishery would be defined as ‘overfished’ if significant damage had occurred, irrespective of the health of the fish stock in question. Technically, this definition is a good deal more sensitive than the old-fashioned definition, so it is likely that most major Australian fisheries would be defined as overfished using this definition – and this sadly reflects the reality. At present fishing levels are usually so high that ecosystem damage is evident, and so high that the long term futures of the fisheries themselves are at risk. Management against this new definition would have the added advantage of protecting important fish stocks by imposing lower fishing mortality, thus providing a buffer against unpredictable natural variations – which over the years have seen many important fish stocks collapse (eg the recent collapse of the Western Rock Lobster fishery in WA).
My second point relates to the way that two modern management techniques, the ecosystem approach and the precautionary approach, are applied by Australian fisheries management agencies. I spent four years (2005 to 2009) conducting in-depth reviews of several important Australian fisheries. This is a difficult and time-consuming task, given the amount of managerial and scientific literature which must be considered. The conclusion I reached, set out in detail in my book Overfishing Under Regulation, is that, at least in the fisheries I studied, these modern approaches are not competently applied, in spite of policy assurances to the contrary. In some cases important information was excluded from public reports, apparently to create the impression that the approaches were being successfully applied. This can only be described as dishonest, and reflects badly on the caliber of senior management within the agencies.
It seems likely that my findings apply broadly across fisheries management in Australia. The existence of organisational cultures within fisheries agencies which condone incompetence and encourage dishonest reporting could go a long way to explaining the poor track record of the agencies, even assessed by old-fashioned criteria. Here I refer to the ability of the agencies to manage fisheries for sustained harvest levels over periods of decades.
To recapitulate:
1. There is a huge body of scientific evidence supporting the creation of very large marine protected area networks, centred around core sanctuary zones. The creation of such networks has been a central part of international efforts to protect marine biodiversity for many years.
2. The value of sanctuary zones has been clearly documented in the scientific literature, and the Australian science community strongly supports the expansion of no-takes zones (see Sections 4 and 5 of this submission).
3. Internationally, there are many programs, begun over the last decade and continuing, to support a massive expansion of no-take zones and networks built around such zones. These programs rest on important international agreements, such as the Jakarta Mandate, which guides the implementation of the international Convention on Biological Diversity 1992.
4. No-take zones are essential to protect marine biodiversity values against fishing effects. Worldwide, fishing at the present time represents the greatest threat to marine biodiversity, although the threats posed as a result of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide will become dominant in the near future.
5. Substantial no-take zones, strategically placed over key spawning, nursery and feeding areas, can boost and stabilize fisheries.
6. Blanket no-take area targets relating to large marine jurisdictions are of little value. Area targets should be set for all major habitat types. Common types under little threat should be protected with no-take areas covering at least 20% of the total area under that habitat type. Uncommon or highly threatened habitats should be protected at greater levels, with 100% protection for extremely rare or highly threatened habitat types. Examples of such rare and vulnerable habitats can be found on seamounts and steep deep canyons crossing the continental slope.
7. At present fisheries in Australia are assessed against a definition of overfishing which takes no account of the damage the fishery causes to impacted ecosystems. This unfortunately reflects the real priorities of Australian fisheries management agencies – priorities which are in urgent need of change.
8. All Australian fisheries agencies have made policy commitments to apply both the precautionary approach and the ecosystem approach to fisheries management. In-depth study of the application of these approaches however reveals reluctance to apply the approaches in practice, and dishonesty in reporting fishery outcomes. In many cases fishing represents the greatest danger to Australian marine ecosystems at a local and sometimes regional level.
Further contact:
I would be pleased to talk with the Committee in person if the Committee could fund a one-way budget airfare to Adelaide. I would pay the return flight. Alternatively I could address the committee through a telephone link. My number is 0422 926 515.
Contents:
Section One:
Threats to marine environments…………………………………………………………… 4
Section Two:
The marine environment in crisis………………………………………………………….. 10
Section Three:
A sample of scientific papers to guide design and management of MPAs………… 23
Section Four:
An overview of the science relating to marine protected areas……………………… 49
Section Five:
Scientific support for networks of MPAs around core sanctuary zones…………… 85
Section Six:
The balance between sanctuary zones and other managed areas………………….. 93
Section Seven:
Additional references…………………………………………………………………..……114
Endnotes………………………………..……………………………………………………..133
Section One:
Threats to marine environments.
1.1 Introduction:
In broad terms, the living inhabitants of the marine realm face five major threats:
• climate change: changes to oceanic temperatures, acidity, patterns of water movement (including currents, eddies and fronts), storminess and sea level, largely caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide, as well as impacts from damage to the ozone layer;
• overfishing with attendant bycatch problems, both from commercial fishing, recreational fishing, illegal unregulated or unreported fishing (IUU), and ghost fishing[i];
• habitat damage largely caused by fishing gear, especially bottom trawling, but also including the effects of coastal development: destruction of coral reefs, mangroves, natural freshwater flows (and passage), coastal foreshores, coastal wetlands and sometimes entire estuaries – which all support coastal marine ecosystems;
• pollution (in-sea and land-based, diffuse and point source) including nutrients, sediments, plastic litter, noise, hazardous and radioactive substances; discarded fishing gear, microbial pollution, and trace chemicals such as carcinogens, endocrine-disruptors, and info-disruptors; and
• ecosystem alterations caused by the introduction of alien organisms, especially those transported by vessel ballast water and hull fouling.
Amongst these five major threats to marine biodiversity, fishing has, until the present time, been the most damaging on a global scale. The destructive impacts of fishing stem chiefly from overharvesting, habitat destruction, and bycatch. Over the coming century the threats posed by increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases pose huge dangers to the marine environment (Veron 2008, Koslow 2007, Turley et al. 2006). At smaller scales, other threats (particularly pollution and habitat damage) are dominant at different localities. Coral reef, mangrove, estuarine, seagrass, mud-flat, and sponge-field habitats have been (and are being) extensively damaged. River passage, essential for anadromous and diadromous species, has been impaired or destroyed around the globe.
Overharvesting is probably as old as human civilization. There is evidence that ancient humans hunted many terrestrial animals to extinction (eg: Alroy 2001). Historically, fishing has rarely been sustainable (Pauly et al. 2002). On the global scene, modern fishing activities constitute the most important threat to marine biodiversity (Hiddink et al. 2008, Helfman 2007:8; MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005a:67, 2005b:8, 2005c:12; Crowder & Norse 2005:183; Kappel 2005:275; Myers & Worm 2003; Pauly et al. 2002; Reynolds et al. 2002; Jackson et al. 2001; Leidy & Moyle 1998 - noting contrary views from Gray 1997). Of all recently documented marine extinctions, the most common cause has been excessive harvesting activities (Malakoff 1997, Carlton et al. 1999, VanBlaricom et al. 2000).
Fisheries in the deep sea have "undoubtedly had the greatest ecological impact to date" of all known threats (Thiel & Koslow 2001:9). Fishing was identified as the main threat to marine ecosystems in the northwest Atlantic over the period 1963-2000 (Link et al. 2002). The fisheries of the Bering Sea have long been recognised as among the world’s best managed (Aron et al. 1993); however Greenwald (2006) in a study of the region’s vertebrates, identified commercial fishing as the most important threat, followed by climate change, habitat degradation, ecological effects and pollution.
Historically, the impacts of fishing activities, even when regulated by governments, have in many cases caused major, often irretrievable damage to marine ecosystems (Jackson et al. 2001, Ludwig et al. 1993). The benthic ecosystems of large areas of the ocean seabed have been destroyed or damaged (Watling & Norse 1998, Watling 2005). The genetic effects of fishing may be substantial, yet are commonly ignored (Law & Stokes 2005). The failure of managers to learn from past mistakes appears to be a notable feature of the history of fisheries management (Mullon et al. 2005) in what Agardy (2000) has called the "global, serial mismanagement of commercial fisheries".
"In many sea areas, the weight of fish available to be harvested is calculated to be less than one tenth or even one one-hundredth of what it was before the introduction of industrial fishing." ( MEA 2005c:16)
On the Australian scene, fishing activities appear to be the primary threat to fishes (Pogonoski et al. 2002) and the second most important threat to marine invertebrates (Ponder et al. 2002) after habitat degradation.
Overfishing is defined in this discussion as a level of fishing which puts at risk values endorsed either by the fishery management agency, by the nation in whose waters fishing takes place, or within widely accepted international agreements. A point of critical importance in this regard is that a level of fishing intensity which successfully meets traditional stock sustainability criteria (for example fishing a stock at maximum sustainable yield) may well be considerably higher than a level of fishing intensity which meets criteria designed to protect marine biodiversity (Jennings 2007). The wide endorsement of the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 implies that the latter level is the critical level by which overfishing should be measured.
Amongst fishery scientists (and to lesser extent fishery managers) it is widely believed that “governance, and not science, remains the weakest link in the [fisheries] management chain” (Browman & Stergiou 2004:270). To a large extent fisheries managers, like bankers, do not learn the lessons of the past, they simply repeat them.
The core impacts of climate change are caused by:
• an increase in the temperature of ocean waters - causing, for example, coral bleaching (Veron 2008);
• the increase in the acidity of ocean waters, causing a rising aragonite saturation horizon, particularly in the North Pacific and Southern Ocean - with resulting impacts on organisms using calcium carbonate body structures (Turley et al. 2006), and
• a reduction in ocean overturning circulation, risking, for example, impacts on deep ocean oxygen content (Koslow 2007).
Important reviews of pollution in the marine environment are provided by:
• nutrients – a general review: Rabalais (2005), Carpenter et al. (1998); – in the Caribbean: Siung-Chang (1997); – on shallow coral reefs: Koop et al. (2001); – on the Great Barrier Reef: Alongi & McKinnon (2005); – on the Gulf of Mexico: Rabalais et al. (2002)
• plastic litter – Derraik (2002); Goldberg (1997); Koslow (2007); Gregory (1991, 1999)
• noise – Cummings (2007); Firestone & Jarvis (2007); NRC (2005); Koslow (2007)
• radioactive waste – Koslow (2007)
• armaments – Koslow (2007)
• heavy metals – Islam & Tanaka (2004); Hutchings & Haynes (2005)
• discarded fishing gear – Matsuoka et al. (2005); Brown & Macfadyen (2007)
• microbial pollution – Islam & Tanaka (2004)
• endocrine disruptors – Lintelmann et al. (2003); Porte et al. (2006)
• info-disruptors – Lurling & Scheffer (2007)
• other hazardous materials – Islam & Tanaka (2004); Koslow (2007).
Important papers on marine and estuarine habitat damage include:
• estuaries and rivers – Ray (1996, 2004, 2005), Jackson et al. (2001), Blaber et al. (2000), Lotze et al. (2006), Collett & Hutchings (1978), Kappel (2005); Drinkwater & Frank (1994);
• impacts of bottom trawling – Koslow (2007), Gray et al. (2006), Jones (1992), NRC (2002), Gianni (2004);
• coral ecosystems – Aronson & Precht (2006), Pandolfi et al. (2003), Gardiner et al. (2003), Hughes et al. (2003), McClanahan (2002), Jackson et al. (2001), McManus (1997);
• mangroves – Duke et al. (2007), Alongi (2002), Valiela et al. (2001); Ellison & Farnsworth (1996);
• seagrasses – Orth et al. (2006), Duarte (2002);
• kelp – Steneck et al. (2002), Dayton et al. (1998).
For a general introduction to the problem of alien species, see Mooney & Hobbs (2000), McNeely (2001), and Mack et al. (2000). General references on marine issues include Hewitt & Campbell (2007), Streftaris & Zenetos (2006), Carlton & Rutz (2005), Bax et al. (2003), and Rutz et al. (1997).
1.2 Threats and controls:
Over the last thirty years, broad controls have been proposed or developed relating to the five major threats. Controls can be categorised with threats (Table 2.1 below). Many nations have commendable statutes and policies; however implementation failures are widespread.
Table 2.1 Threats and controls: overview of general strategies:
|Threats |Controls |
|Overfishing and |Restricted entry to fishery, catch quotas, limits or requirements on gear, limits on fishing |
|bycatch |seasons, limits on fishing areas, no-take areas, prohibitions on dumping or discarding gear. |
| |Attempts to reduce or eliminate government subsidies contributing to fishing over-capacity. |
| |Control by flag States of high seas fishing particularly in regard to compliance with international|
| |and regional fishing agreements. |
| |Market-based fishery accreditation systems such as that of the Marine Stewardship Council. |
| |Government control programs based on minimising ecosystem effects. |
| |Surveillance and compliance programs including VMS[ii] and remote surveillance (video surveillance,|
| |and electronic catch recording and tracking, for example). |
|Habitat damage |Limits on gear, limits on fishing areas, no-take areas. |
| |Fixed mooring systems in sensitive (eg coral) environments. Surveillance and compliance programs. |
| |Land-based zoning schemes combined with project assessment and approval provisions aimed at |
| |minimising the loss of coastal habitat resulting from land-based developments. Special protection |
| |for high conservation value estuaries. Zoning of key migration rivers to exclude dams, weirs and |
| |other impediments to fish passage. Protection of the catchment of high conservation value estuaries|
| |and rivers to maintain natural water flows and water quality. |
|Threats |Controls |
|Climate change |International agreements, such as those focussed on greenhouse gasses or chlorofluorocarbons or |
| |(eg: the Kyoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol) - and the implementation programs which follow, |
| |including incentives, prohibitions and market-based schemes aimed at reducing greenhouse gas |
| |emissions. |
|Pollution |Controls focussed on fixed point sources, mobile point sources and diffuse terrestrial sources – |
| |including dumping and emissions to air and water. Controls on marine noise. |
| |Controls focused on specific pollutants, such as plastics or highly toxic or radio-active |
| |substances. |
| |Integrated coastal and river basin planning, including objectives to limit the passage of nutrients|
| |and other pollutants to the marine environment. |
| |Surveillance and compliance programs. |
|Alien organisms |Controls on ballast water and hull fouling based on risk minimisation rather than prevention. |
| |Import prohibitions relating to aquaculture stocks. Infestation monitoring and removal programs. |
| |Surveillance and compliance programs. |
Good general references covering threats and management options are Koslow (2007) and Norse & Crowder (2005).
1.3 Three core management concepts of modern marine management
Any overview of threat control programs would be incomplete without mentioning the evolution of three core concepts which have been endorsed (at least in principle) by most national marine conservation policy frameworks, and (at least in the case of protected area networks) many practical control programs:
• ecosystem-based fishery management (EBM);
• the precautionary principle (PP) and the closely-related precautionary approach (PA); and
• the strategic development of networks of marine protected areas (MPAs).
Active adaptive management, although the subject of much academic discussion for over 20 years, has yet to appear in operational fisheries management programs in any substantial way (see Chapter 9).
Several fishery experts made comments during the nineteenth century to the effect that the resources of the ocean were so vast as to defy any possible damage from human activities. These views, although proved incorrect more than a century ago, still linger on, particularly in fisher cultures. Within government fishery agencies and academic circles, the need to take into account the effects of fishing for particular species on marine ecosystems has been accepted for several decades. Promotion of ecosystem-based management was a core feature of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 1995. Although the concept is now embedded in key international and national law, fishery agencies have generally been slow to incorporate EBM in fishery controls, often citing the need for more research as the primary reason for the delay.
The precautionary principle, and its ‘softer’ version the precautionary approach, appeared in international discussions some decades ago[iii], and have been accepted, like EBM, into international and national law. Article 174 of the Treaty establishing the European Community requires, inter-alia, that Community policy on the environment be based on the precautionary principle. The principle was one of the core environmental principles contained in the Rio Declaration 1992 (UN Conference on Environment and Development) as well as the earlier World Charter for Nature 1982. A generic definition of the principle may be stated as follows:
Where the possibility exists of serious or irreversible harm, lack of scientific certainty should not preclude cautious action by decision-makers to prevent such harm. Decision-makers needs to anticipate the possibility of ecological damage, rather than react to it as it occurs.
Like EBM, use of the precautionary principle in practical control strategies has lagged behind its adoption in policy, not only in the EU but around the world. This remains the case, in spite of the prominence given to the principle on the FAO Code of Conduct.
Marine protected areas were largely unknown in an era when it was generally considered that the oceans needed no protection. However, as the damage to the marine environment became more widely understood, marine protected area programs have featured in international agreements as well as national conservation programs. The FAO Code of Conduct stresses the need to protect critical habitat in aquatic environments, for example.
One of the most widely quoted international statements calling for the acceleration of marine protected area programs around the world is that from the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) (Johannesburg 2002). The marine section of the WSSD Key Outcomes Statement provides basic benchmarks for the development of marine protected areas as well as other key issues of marine governance:
Encourage the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach for the sustainable development of the oceans.
On an urgent basis and where possible by 2015, maintain or restore depleted fish stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield.
Put into effect the FAO international plans of action by the agreed dates:
• for the management of fishing capacity by 2005; and
• to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing by 2004.
Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012.
Establish by 2004 a regular process under the United Nations for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment.
Eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, and to over-capacity.
The same statement also contains a commitment: “Achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current rate of loss of biological diversity.”
Two years later the 2004 Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biodiversity 1992 agreed to a goal of: “at least 10% of each of the world’s marine and coastal ecological regions effectively conserved” (by 2012) (UNEP 2005:44).
1.4 Protection of representative marine ecosystems:
Attention needs to be given to the use of the word “representative” in the WSSD text above. Requirements to provide adequate and comprehensive protection for representative examples of all major types of ecosystems date back many years. Clear requirements for action are contained in:
• the 1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.
• the 1982 World Charter for Nature (a resolution of the UN General Assembly); and
• the 1992 United Nations international Convention on Biological Diversity;
Principle 2 of the Stockholm Declaration 1972 states: “The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate.”
The 1982 World Charter for Nature states: “Principle 3: All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems, and to the habitat of rare or endangered species.”
An examination of the wording of both the Charter and the Declaration reveals that they place wide obligations, not only on governments, but on all agencies of governments as well as individuals. These instruments are however soft law, and as such carry no explicit reporting requirements or sanctions for non-compliance.
1.5 Summary
The oceans of the world are being severely damaged. Five major threats continue to undermine biodiversity values across the marine realm. According to a United Nations advisory committee (GESAMP 2001):
The state of the world’s seas and oceans is deteriorating. Most of the problems identified decades ago have not been resolved, and many are worsening. New threats keep emerging. The traditional uses of the seas and coasts – and the benefits that humanity gets from them – have been widely undermined.
Damage identified in 2001 has generally worsened. Since the 2001 report was written, a major new threat has emerged: ocean acidification. The international goal of ‘at least 10% of the world’s ecological regions effectively protected’ by 2010 will almost certainly not be met (Wood 2005).
It is generally believed that the major failings of national programs to protect marine biodiversity rest on failures of governance rather than failures of science. The three core governance concepts discussed above are crucial to all serious attempts to address marine conservation issues in a strategic way. However, in general, attempts to apply them have often been poorly resourced, badly planned and ineffectually implemented.
The primary ingredient missing from national programs across the globe is political commitment to address the issues in the face of short-sighted resistance from vested interests, such as polluters, fishers and coastal developers. This failure in turn rests on widespread ignorance of the severity of the issues amongst the general community in all nations, rich and poor alike.
In many cases, the degradation which is occurring now cannot be reversed within the timescale of a human life. Decisive and intelligent action by politicians and community leaders is urgent. Such action must be underpinned by programs aimed at developing an increased awareness of the issues amongst the general population.
Section Two:
The marine environment in crisis: ethics, fisheries, and the role of marine protected areas.
A system of conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly lopsided. It tends to ignore, and thus eventually to eliminate, many elements in the … community that lack commercial value, but are (as far as we know) essential to its healthy functioning. It assumes, falsely I think, that the economic parts of the biotic clock will function without the uneconomic parts”
Aldo Leopold 1948
Learning to coexist with the rest of nature presents us with a huge challenge, requiring not only technical solutions but more importantly a profound shift in our own attitudes and philosophy.
Nik Lopoukhine, Chair of the World Commission on Protected Areas (Dudley et al. 2005:2)
2.1 Introduction
The planet’s biodiversity is in decline, and marine ecosystems are in urgent need of protection. Fishing (in its many manifestations) is currently the single most important threat to marine biodiversity – from a global perspective (Chapter 2). In the coming decades the destruction caused by fishing will almost certainly be overshadowed by ocean acidification.
The creation of marine protected areas is usually justified in terms of utilitarian needs relating to the conservation of biodiversity or the protection and enhancement of fish stocks. Could such reserves also be justified in terms of ethics? In spite of the general absence of discussion of ethics within areas of marine science or fisheries management, a substantial and long-standing literature exists from which an ethical basis for the establishment of protected areas could be drawn. This chapter briefly reviews some of the landmarks within this literature, and ( without apology for an explicit ethical position ( recommends increased discussion and use of ethical arguments within the marine community. Far from harvesting other life forms in a sustainable way, humans are gradually but inexorably killing the wild living inhabitants of our planet, and destroying the places in which they live. It can be argued that the time to adopt a new ethical position has already passed with some talk but almost no action.
Many factors affect human behaviour, and to a large extent the remaining chapters of this thesis consider the reaction of fishery scientists and managers to knowledge about fish populations and the ecosystems in which they reside. However, the cultures in which people work are also important determinants of action, and this chapter explores ethical questions which permeate, or are excluded from, organizational cultures. This chapter argues that humans need to accord a right to ‘peaceful coexistence’ to at least a fair proportion of the other living residents of the planet – an approach which in fact aligns with the scientific recommendations of many conservation biologists. I argue that the matter is now so urgent that it requires the attention of every marine scientist.
Australia has declared its entire Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) as a whale sanctuary, and has proposed the creation of a South Pacific Whale Sanctuary at meetings of the International Whaling Commission (IWC). Australia’s international stance on whaling rests partly on two government-funded investigations: the Frost Inquiry (Frost 1978) and the National Task Force on Whaling (NTFW 1997) – both relying partly on ethical arguments to support their anti-whaling recommendations. These ethical arguments related to the perceived ‘special nature’ of whales and other cetaceans: their intelligence, their family behaviours, their ability to communicate, and their occasional voluntary contacts with humans. Both inquiries drew the conclusion that we should accord these animals greater rights than other sentient animals – essentially a ‘right to life’ and a right to a peaceful home. However, while the Australian government supported the recommendations of both inquiries, it appears noticeably reluctant to engage in any direct discussions of an ethical nature[iv].
The Australian Government and Australian scientists have criticised Japan’s scientific whaling program (Gales et al. 2005). Interviewed in a Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) ‘Four Corners’ program screened in July 2005, a Japanese government spokesman asked a very reasonable question: “Australians eat cows, pigs and sheep. Why shouldn’t we eat whales?”. Although this question was tangential to the immediate discussion, I found it interesting that it remained without discussion or reply, although it lies at the heart of the Japanese position. An ethical position underlies the Australian point of view, yet Australians seem reluctant to talk about it. In discussing the issue later with a colleague (a marine scientist) I asked: “have you ever heard a marine scientist talk about environmental ethics?” The reply was negative.
In this chapter I examine the reluctance of marine scientists to involve themselves with questions of ethics. I suggest that many marine scientists may be ignorant of the extensive environmental ethics literature, or see it as irrelevant. I argue that, while this is entirely understandable, it is now counter-productive. It is not un-scientific to adopt an explicitly ethical position, and I argue that discussion of ethics within the community involved in the management of marine resources should be strongly promoted until it seeps through to the level of the general community and thus to political decision-making.
2.2 Justifying marine protection
Terrestrial scientists do have a track record, if somewhat uneven, in using ethical arguments to justify the creation of protected areas – with Aldo Leopold being one of the most celebrated (more below). A well known example from more recent times is the controversial judgement of Justice Douglas (US Supreme Court) who argued that the moral rights of nature should be given legal recognition – based partly on the arguments of terrestrial ecologists (see Stone 1996). Jim Chen, a prominent academic US lawyer, continues to press such arguments (Chen 2005) again based on the findings of terrestrial biologists.
As a fairly typical example of a marine scientist arguing for the creation of marine protected areas, Professor Terry Hughes argued that a substantial proportion (30% or more) of coral reef ecosystems need to be protected from harvesting pressures in order to ensure ecosystem stability. According to Hughes (2004) (my emphasis): “Our final recommendation, the most challenging, is for the creation of institutional frameworks that align the marketplace and economic self-interest with environmental conservation. The ultimate aim is to secure future options for social and economic development” (my emphasis). It should be noted, however, that Professor Hughes on other occasions has adopted an explicitly ethical position in arguing for the need for major change in reef management around the world (Hughes et al. 2002) – unlike most other marine scientists who generally avoid taking ethics into public discussions.
The reliance on utilitarian arguments is of course not restricted to discussions of marine protected areas. Alfred Duda and Kenneth Sherman, in calling for urgent changes to existing fishery management strategies, state (my emphasis): “Fragmentation amongst institutions, international agencies and disciplines, lack of cooperation among nations sharing marine ecosystems, and weak national policies, legislation and enforcement all contribute to the need for a new imperative for adopting ecosystem-based approaches to managing human activities in these systems in order to avoid serious social and economic disruption” (Duda & Sherman 2002).
Verity et al. 2002, in a review of both the status of pelagic ecosystems and the scientific and political paradigms underpinning resource exploitation, conclude that “use of resources for the benefit of humanity” is the prime driver. In spite of finding the paradigms of resource exploitation unsustainable, Verity et al., in recommending paradigm changes, do not attempt to expand this narrow ethic (2002:226).
Sissenwine and Mace (2001) in defining ‘responsible fisheries’ state: “…we believe ‘responsible’ means sustainable production of human benefits, distributed fairly, without causing unacceptable changes in marine ecosystems.”
In their review of marine pollution, Islam & Tanaka (2004) stated: “Effective and sustainable management of coastal and marine environments should be initiated… to ensure .. the best possible utilization of resources for the broader interest and benefit of mankind.”
The FAO published a report Ethical issues in fisheries in 2005. The words “deep ecology” and “humanism” are not mentioned in the entire document, which revolves almost completely around the ethics of distributing fishery benefits between existing and future human populations (FAO 2005a). While these are important issues, they are not the subject of this chapter.
All these human-focused views are expressed by eminent and well-respected scientists, and their reliance on utilitarian motives, and their avoidance of any discussion of ethical motives is typical of the approach of marine scientists generally. Almost certainly each of these scientists speaks from an underlying ethical position; however this is seldom or never articulated.
There are, thankfully, exceptions. Unusual papers by Balon (2000) and de Leeuw (1996) take a strongly ethical position in opposing recreational fishing - based partially on arguments of unnecessary cruelty and the trivial destruction of life.
Coward et al. (2000) discuss fisheries ethics at length, focussing on “four kinds of justice: distributive, productive, restorative and creative.” Of these, the most relevant to the present discussion is “restorative justice” which refers to a need to restore degraded ecosystems, both for the benefits of the plants and animals which live in the ecosystem, and the humans which depend on the ecosystem for food and livelihood. In conclusion, they suggest: “Recognizing that we have the right to use our environment as a necessary resource… we must also recognize the concurrent responsibility not to abuse that right by taking more than we need, or more than the ecosystem can sustain…” Their recommendations include promotion of the precautionary principle, and promotion of marine protected area development.
Another important exception (directly relevant to the subject of this chapter) is a paper by Bohnsack (2003), while the well-respected American philosopher Callicott has specifically addressed the ethics of marine resource use (Callicott 1991, 1992). After examining the roll of shifting baselines in undermining public expectations of what constitutes a healthy marine environment, Bohnsack concludes: “marine reserves not only protect marine resources but can help restore human expectations and provide a basis for new conservation ethics by providing a window on the past and a vision for the future.” These thoughts are echoed by Safina (2005) in an eloquent plea to extend Leopold’s land ethic to the ocean.
2.3 Environmental ethics and the development of an ecological conscience
Many religions contain concepts of care which extend beyond responsibilities to other humans. As Bohnsack (2003) points out, indigenous people in many parts of the world have strong beliefs that man is a part of, and not dominant over, nature. Traditional belief systems in many parts of Oceania, for example, have emphasised cultural and social controls and taboos on fishing, with strict and enforced codes of conduct (Johannes 1984). Buddhism combines a core ‘ecological’ concept, the ‘inter-connectedness of all things’ with an admonition to avoid causing suffering to any sentient being (BDK 1966). Hill (2000:161) has argued that Judeo-Christian teaching contains the concept that “nature serves something beyond human purposes, and as such it must be respected and honoured”. The recently-developed Baha’i faith advocates responsibilities relating to maintaining the health of the planet, while Pantheism is more explicit in it’s ‘unity of all life’ teaching (refer parative-). More contemporary authors such as Birch (1965, 1975, 1993) argue for the recognition of intrinsic values in nature, rather than its purely instrumental value to mankind.
These concepts have appeared in popular western literature for well over 100 years (see for example Tolstoy 1903), without significant influence on government or corporate decision-making, which are pervaded (globally) by John Stuart Mill’s anthropocentric ‘enlightened self-interest’ (Mills 1863). Callicott traced the roots of the now widely held ‘resource conservation’ ethic, which essentially aims at “the greatest good for the greatest number for the longest time” (Callicott 1991:25). Bohnsack (2003) provides an excellent summary of Callicott’s detailed chronology of schools of resource ethics.
In a classic essay “The historical roots of our ecologic crisis” Lynn White (1967) argues that modern technology and its application, the immediate cause for the twentieth century’s environmental problems, emerged from an anthropocentric culture of thought which rests in large part on Judaism. The particular passage cited is the ‘dominion’ passage of the Book of Genesis 1:26,28):
Then God said "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground". So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him: male and female he created them. God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves along the ground.”
White’s essay continues to create discussion and controversy. Many support his basic contention (eg: McKibben 1989). Christian writers (eg: Birch 1993, Hill 2000) inheriting in part a Judaic foundation, have argued for the expansion of Christian philosophy to encompass strong environmental stewardship ethics. However, such arguments appear to have limited sway over the bulk of the Christian churches or their leaders. Consider, for example, the Christian ‘Cornwall Declaration on Environmental Stewardship’ 2000, which criticises “unfounded and undue concerns [including] fears of destructive manmade global warming, overpopulation, and rampant species loss”. The evidence suggests that these three issues are in fact three of the most important facing the immediate future of our planet (MEA 2005, Novacek & Cleland 2001). On July 14, 2008, the Catholic Archbishop of Sydney, Cardinal Pell, appeared on the ABC TV Seven O’clock News, calling on people in countries where the birth rate was slowing to “have more babies”. It is also noticeable that modern Buddhist leaders, in spite of the inherent environmental concepts within their philosophy, do not speak strongly for comprehensive environmental stewardship concepts (see for example The Dalai Lama 1995 and other works by the same author). For a detailed discussion of various religious positions on the environment, see Nash (1990).
Henry James Thoreau, John Muir and Aldo Leopold (referred to by Callicott 2003 as “the three giants of American environmental philosophy) all advocated a reverence for nature, and argued the need to set aside large areas away from human impact (wilderness areas) in order to preserve intrinsic natural values.
2.4 Aldo Leopold’s “land ethic”
Of the writings of these three, Aldo Leopold’s ‘Land ethic’ (Leopold 1948) has made perhaps the most lasting impression, and continues to be extensively quoted. I consider his views to be powerful and coherent, and warrant examination in more detail.
Suppose no law prevented you from killing your neighbour and taking his land – would you do it? Hopefully not. Suppose your ‘neighbour’ belonged to a different racial or cultural group, and lived in another land. Would you kill him and take his land? Would you enslave him? Again, hopefully not. Yet that is exactly what our forefathers did – and what they did seemed ‘right’ within the moral framework of the time. In certain parts of the modern world, slavery still continues (). These questions are not far-fetched. If you discovered an uncharted island, populated only by a forest and its animals, would you take possession, clear the land, kill the animals, build a house and plant crops? Maybe you would. If everyone else acted in the same way, where would it end? With increasing human domination of the planet’s ecosystems (MEA 2005; Vitousek et al. 1997) that end is now in sight.
I agree with Balint’s view (2003:14): “Scientists often do not recognize, or hesitate to raise relevant ethical issues when participating in environmental policy debates, relying instead on scientific theories, models, and data.”
As Balint also points out, Leopold urges humanity to undergo a change of heart towards the environment and extend society’s ethical structure to include the natural world. Leopold reminds us that slavery, including the killing of slaves as property, was once considered normal and right. Leopold equates movement towards a ‘‘land ethic’’ with previous cultural changes that led, for example, to abolishing slavery and recognizing the rights of women. In contrast to anthropocentric utilitarian views of nature, in which morally right acts are those that protect or increase human well-being, Leopold offers the following recommendation:
…quit thinking about decent land-use as solely an economic problem. Examine each question in terms of what is ethically and esthetically right, as well as what is economically expedient. A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise (Leopold 1948:240 – my emphasis).
In a rare paper focused directly on fishery ethics, Callicott (1991:25) called Leopold’s words (quoted above) “the golden rule of the land ethic”.
Leopold wrote, ‘‘There is as yet no ethic dealing with man’s relation to the land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it … The land-relation is still strictly economic, entailing privileges but not obligations.’’ Movement toward such an ethic, he suggested, is “…an evolutionary possibility and an ecological necessity …Individual thinkers since the days of Ezekiel and Isaiah have asserted that the despoliation of land is not only inexpedient but wrong. Society, however, has not yet affirmed their belief. I regard the present conservation movement as the embryo of such an affirmation.” (Leopold 1948:218)
Apart from the immediate issue of technological capability, the planet’s environmental crisis stems from the way humans act as if they own the planet – dubbed by Ehrenfeld (1981) the “arrogance of humanism”. Balint concludes (2003:22) “Leopold argued that the unlimited prerogative to own nature ( defined to include ‘soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land’ ( that humans have bestowed upon themselves should be replaced by a constrained set of rights and an expanded set of responsibilities founded on principles of membership and citizenship in ( rather than domination and exploitation of ( the community of nature.”
It is this concept of mankind as part of a ‘community of nature’ which provides the essential basis for the ethic we now so badly need.
It is one thing to catch a fish and eat it, but it is another to over-fish that species to extinction, and yet another to destroy the place where that species lives. Do humans have the right to do all three?
2.5 Contemporary environmental ethics
Why are contemporary biologists and ecologists generally unwilling to engage in discussions of ethics? There are, of course, exceptions. According to Balint (2003:21): “Michael Soule has listed the postulate ‘‘Biodiversity has intrinsic value,’’ as one of four key tenets in the field of conservation biology, which he helped found, giving the idea that all life has intrinsic value the status of a first principle.”
Like White, David Ehrenfeld, in his critique of humanism (1981) argues that management of the planet’s resources is almost universally founded on the idea that the features and objects of the natural world were created primarily for the benefit of humanity, and that it is the responsibility of humanity to accept this gift and accept stewardship of the natural world. Stanley (1995) in applying Ehrenfeld’s arguments to ecosystem-based management, finds ample evidence that humanity’s belief that effective ecosystem management is both possible and necessary lacks a strong factual basis – the history of such management being paved with failures. Stanley suggests that such failures will continue without a change in underlying ethics: “Humanity must begin to view itself as part of nature rather than the master of nature. It must reject the belief that nature is ours to use and control” (Stanley 1995).
Arne Naess and George Sessions are often seen as the founding fathers of ‘deep ecology’ – an ecology explicitly based on ethics which acknowledge the intrinsic value of non-human life forms. According to Naess & Rothenburg (1989:c1) ”The inability of the science of ecology to denounce such processes as the washing away of the soil of rainforests suggests that we need another approach which involves the inescapable role of announcing values, not only ‘facts’.” Deep ecology is based on a ‘deep’ consideration of the values behind human use and abuse of the natural environment.
James Lovelock proposed the ‘Gaia hypothesis’ which sees the entire planet as resembling a single organism in the inter-connection of its biological components: "the self-regulation of climate and chemical composition is a process that emerges from the tightly coupled evolution of rocks, air, and ocean - in addition to that of organisms. Such interlocking self-regulation, while rarely optimal - consider the cold and hot places of the earth, the wet and the dry - nevertheless keeps the Earth a fit place for life" (Lovelock 1995). The ethical extension of this concept involves care of the planet as a living organism – with, Lovelock argues, reverence, humility and caution.
These ethical positions are broadly termed “biocentric”. Those opposing the extension of such ethics to the management and protection of planetary ecosystems are apt to highlight extreme versions as manifestly unworkable. For example, according to Hill (2000:161):
[T]he effort to move beyond an anthropocentric to a biocentric view neither fits with our moral sensibilities nor yields useful policy prescriptions. First of all, the various attempts to derive a biocentric theology have been stymied in determining agreed-upon stopping points for the rights of nature. Although early efforts concentrated on the concept of sentience, philosophers and theologians have been unable to present a workable definition of what sentience includes. Edward Abbey, a leading deep ecologist, has said, “unless the need were urgent, I could no more sink the blade of an axe into the tissues of a living tree than I could drive it into the flesh of a fellow human.” Rene Dubos, a prominent bacteriologist, believes that just as people and wolves should coexist, so should people and germs. Philosopher Paul Taylor argues, “The killing of a wildflower, then, when taken in and of itself, is just as much a wrong, other-things-being-equal, as the killing of a human.” But even granting rights to living creatures does not solve the problem, since several leading figures in the environmental movement now argue, in the words of Michael J. Cohen, that “rocks and mountains, sand, clouds, wind, and rain, all are alive. Nothing is dead…”
Most environmental philosophers, however, take more defensible, moderate positions. Stone (1987, 1996) in addressing questions relating to the standing of those without voices, argues for increasing weight to be placed on intrinsic biological values in reducing further erosion of natural ecosystems, as well as the need (Stone 1995) to develop institutional protection for the rights of future generations of humans. Chen (2005) argues within a traditional but precautionary ethical framework for the development of stronger legal mechanisms to protect global biodiversity. The modern philosopher Peter Singer (1993) echoes the earlier approach by Passmore[v] (1974) in grounding his ethical framework largely on enlightened self-interest informed by long-term and precautionary ecological science, with a generally accepted need to reduce suffering of sentient beings[vi]. Such views are anything but radical.
2.6 Ethics in international instruments and government policy
With a few environmental philosophers expressing apparently extreme views, perhaps the reluctance of marine scientists and managers to adopt explicit ethical positions is in some way understandable. The university courses in marine biology that I am familiar with contain little or no formal exposure to issues of environmental ethics – which seem generally left within social science faculties. Keeping up with current science, past graduation, is a demanding task, and practising scientists mostly have little time to explore ethical issues. Where a scientist holds an ethical position (as many, even most perhaps do) it will often seem more useful to couch arguments about ecosystem protection in terms which are clearly understandable within the utilitarian framework of politics and economics. I argue, however, that this approach is now unnecessarily conservative. We can, in fact, look to international agreements and documents to legitimise an explicit ethical position.
The World Charter for Nature 1982 (a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly) was supported by the Australian Government in its development through the UNGA. Although hortatory and without compliance provisions, and thus non-binding, the Charter nevertheless represents an important commitment. Commitment obligations apply not only to government agencies, but, through article 24, to corporations and individuals.
In the preamble, the Charter notes that “civilization is rooted in nature… and living in harmony with nature gives man the best opportunities for the development of his creativity, and for rest and relaxation”. Importantly, the Charter also notes “Every form of life is unique, warranting respect regardless of its worth to man, and, to accord other organisms such recognition, man must be guided by a moral code of action”.
Foreshadowing the Convention on Biological Diversity[vii] which was to develop a decade later, Article 1 of the Charter requires that “Nature shall be respected, and its essential processes shall not be impaired”. Article 2 focuses on the protection of genetic diversity, and article 3 requires that “all areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems, and to the habitat of rare or endangered species.” Article 10, perhaps particularly relevant to fishery management, states in part: “Living resources shall not be utilized in excess of their natural capacity for regeneration”. I suggest that flagrant violation of these principles has become such common practice that we now think of these transgressions as ‘normal’.
The Earth Charter was developed to extend the World Charter for Nature by adding social objectives, including the eradiation of poverty and the universal adoption of democracy. The Earth Charter was developed over many years following a 1987 initiative of the United Nations. An Earth Charter Commission was formed in 1997 with help from influential UN figures and funds from the Dutch Government. After many years and much consultation, the Charter was endorsed by the Commission in 2000, and was put to the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg - with a view to it being endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly.
The Earth Charter is important, as it embodies an explicit ethic of respect for the planet. The preamble states: “The protection of Earth’s vitality, diversity and beauty is a sacred trust”. Both Taylor (1999) and Bosselmann (2004) consider the Charter to be of considerable significance in regard to its long-term ability to influence both international law, and environmental law in general[viii]. According to Bosselmann (2004): “Among its ground-breaking principles are ecologically defined concepts of sustainability, justice, rights and duties.”
Article 1 advocated the recognition “that all beings are interdependent, and every form of life has value regardless of its worth to human beings”, and article 15 requires that “all living beings” be treated with respect and consideration. Many fishery practices flagrantly violate these requirements – consider, for example, the habitat damage routinely caused by trawling operations (Appendix 4) or the incidental kill caused by prawn fisheries (Chapter 11).
Although it is a conservative document, shying away from important issues such as the need to reduce the human population of the planet, and the need to reform democratic governance, the Earth Charter has nevertheless failed ( so far ( to get widespread government endorsement. It has, however, considerable support amongst the global community (including the scientific community) within many nations, and remains open for public endorsement. Over three thousand organisations worldwide have endorsed the Charter, including UNESCO and the World Conservation Union (IUCN) ().
Writing shortly before the UN Johannesburg summit, Callicott had high hopes for the Earth Charter: “The prospective adoption of the Earth Charter by the General Assembly of the United Nations may have an impact on governmental environmental policy and performance similar to the impact on governmental social policy and behaviour of the adoption by the same body in 1948 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” (Callicott 2002). It is to be hoped that Callicott’s expectations in this regard will ultimately be fulfilled ( however for this to happen there will need to be a growing awareness, particularly within agencies which provide direct advice to politicians, of the need to articulate the policy implications of ethical positions.
Australia’s National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity (DEH 1996:2) underwent wide agency consultation prior to publication, and, in its final form, was endorsed by the Australian (Commonwealth) Government, all State and Territory Governments, and by Local Government’s peak body. In it we find an articulate ethical statement:
There is in the community a view that the conservation of biological diversity also has an ethical basis. We share the earth with many other life forms which warrant our respect, whether or not they are of benefit to us. Earth belongs to the future as well as the present; no single species or generation can claim it as its own.
This clear expression (in a widely-endorsed government policy document) of the beginnings of a ‘land ethic’ provided Australian scientists with an opportunity to build discussion and use of deeper ethical positions, yet almost nothing has happened, and nearly a decade has passed, since this statement was published.
2.7 Oceans in crisis
Global trends:
Driven by the demands of an expanding human population combined with increasing per capita resource consumption, global ecological assets and processes are being seriously eroded. As the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment puts it: “Human activities have taken the planet to the edge of a massive wave of species extinctions” (MEA 2005c:3). Outside protected areas (IUCN categories I-VI) which cover about 12% of the terrestrial areas and about 1.4% of the marine realm (unep-) humans have already affected almost all terrestrial and freshwater habitats (Cracraft & Grifo 1999, Wilson 2002). About half of all natural terrestrial ecosystems have been destroyed or severely damaged, with this percentage escalating (Vitousek et al. 1997). Most of the remaining terrestrial natural habitat is significantly degraded (MEA 2005a, 2005b), and major degradation is occurring inside many protected areas, particularly in underdeveloped countries (Carey et al. 2000).
About one-quarter of the Earth’s ‘modern’ bird species have already been driven to extinction (Vitousek et al. 1997), with notable marine species such as albatrosses currently on extinction trajectories (Baker et al. 2002, Dulvy et al. 2003). Of the planet’s vertebrates, amphibians are the most threatened, followed by freshwater fishes (Helfman 2007). Helfman estimates one quarter to one third of all freshwater fish species are threatened. Marine fishes are the least endangered, with possibly 5% threatened (Leidy & Moyle 1998).
Considerable uncertainty surrounds estimates of threatened terrestrial plants, as poor data exists for the tropical regions where the bulk of plant species reside. Estimates by Pitman and Jorgensen (2002) suggest that “as many as half of the world’s plant species may qualify as threatened with extinction under the IUCN classification scheme”. Recent anthropogenic changes to the earth’s atmosphere may not produce smooth changes in the earth’s major ecosystems or the processes which underpin climate itself (such as the global thermohaline circulation – Koslow 2007). The resilience of the planet is being undermined; abrupt changes could occur and could prove to be both damaging and effectively irreversible (Steffen 2004).
The oceans as well as the planet’s terrestrial areas are being severely damaged. According to a United Nations advisory committee (GESAMP 2001):
The state of the world’s seas and oceans is deteriorating. Most of the problems identified decades ago have not been resolved, and many are worsening. New threats keep emerging. The traditional uses of the seas and coasts – and the benefits that humanity gets from them – have been widely undermined.
After two intensive workshops examining global fisheries, the FAO editors concluded:
Over the last 15 years, the marine fishery resources of the world have been increasingly subjected to overexploitation, detrimental fishing practices, and environmental degradation. The phenomenon now affects a majority of fisheries worldwide, with very severe consequences in terms of resource unsustainability, massive economic waste, increasing social cost and food insecurity (Swan & Greboval 2003:1).
The workshops found that “poor governance” – including importantly a lack of political and managerial will – was the “major cause for the inability to achieve sustainable fisheries” (Swan & Greboval 2003:2).
Winter & Hughes(1997:22) characterised loss of biodiversity as “one of the four greatest risks to natural ecology and human well-being”.
Overfishing
Overfishing is one of the greatest threats to the marine environment (GESAMP 2001:1) – and fishing overall is the greatest threat when attendant effects of habitat damage, overfishing, IUU[ix] fishing and bycatch are taken into account (Dulvy 2003, MEA 2005).
Overfishing, far from being a modern phenomenon, has been occurring in certain regions for a considerable time. Overfishing has been the rule rather than the exception, even in artisanal fisheries. As Jackson (2001) points out: “Untold millions of large fishes, sharks, sea turtles and manatees were removed from the Caribbean in the 17th to 19th centuries. Recent collapses of reef corals and seagrasses are due ultimately to the losses of these large consumers as much as to more recent changes in climate, eutrophication, or outbreaks of disease.” According to Pauly et al. 2002: “Fisheries have rarely been ‘sustainable’. Rather, fishing has induced serial depletions, long masked by improved technology, geographic expansion and exploitation of previously spurned species lower in the food web”.
Populations of ocean fishes have been hugely reduced over the last two centuries. Historical evidence suggests that earlier stocks may have been an order of magnitude[x] greater than stocks in the last half-century (Steele and Schumacher 2000) – which themselves have now often been reduced by another order of magnitude (see below). The last few decades have witnessed accelerating inroads into marine habitats, which in many instances are now broadly approaching ecological collapse. Many coastal ecosystems have already passed the point of collapse when compared with their pristine state – some well past, like the Black Sea (Daskalov 2002, Daskalov et al. 2007) and the Baltic Sea (Osterblom et al. 2007). The dramatic decline of coastal fisheries is the signal we see (Jackson et al. 2001) – masked to some extent by shifting baselines (Pauly 1995) where each generation of fisheries scientists forgets (or never learns) about the state of the oceans before their own lifetimes.
According to Jackson (2001): “Ecological extinction caused by overfishing precedes all other pervasive human disturbance to coastal ecosystems, including pollution, degradation of water quality, and anthropogenic climate change”. Duda & Sherman (2002) express similar concerns: “Continued over-fishing in the face of scientific warnings, fishing down food webs, destruction of habitat, and accelerated pollution loading ( especially nitrogen export ( have resulted in significant degradation to coastal and marine ecosystems of both rich and poor nations.”
Subsidization of national fishing fleets continues, in spite of warnings by scientists (eg: Pauly 1995) and the FAO[xi] () that excessive fishing pressures are the primary cause of fisheries collapse. Global fishing fleets are two or three times the size necessary to harvest the approximate reported annual global catch of around 90 million tonnes. Many fisheries have “staggering levels of discarded bycatch” which, when combined with unreported, unregulated and illegal fishing, pushes the true global annual catch to around 150 million tonnes (Pauly & Christensen 1995). These figures, although a decade old, are still roughly accurate if Chinese reports of fishing take are excluded. This estimate does not include ‘ghost fishing’ ( the take by lost or abandoned fishing gear. While difficult to estimate, ghost fishing may be causing significant damage. The plastics used in many nets, once removed from the effects of UV radiation in sunlight, last virtually indefinitely.
Many marine animals have suffered dramatic declines due to over-fishing. Roman & Palumbi (2003) estimate that “pre-whaling populations [of fin and humpback whales in the northern Atlantic] [were] 6 to 20 times higher than present-day population estimates”. Jennings and Blanchard (2004) in their study applying macro-ecological theory to the North Sea, suggest that the current biomass of large fishes is over 97% lower than it had been in the absence of fisheries exploitation.
Dayton et al. (1998) describing the kelp forest communities of western USA, state: “…fisheries have had huge effects on the abundances, size-frequencies, and/or spatial distributions of sheephead, kelp bass, rays, flatfish, rock fish, spiny lobsters and red sea urchins. Now even sea cucumbers, crabs and small snails are subject to unregulated fishing. …most of the megafauna have been removed with very little documentation or historical understanding of what the natural community was like.”
Studies by Myers and Worm (2003) have estimated “that large predatory fish biomass today is only about 10% of pre-industrial levels”. This decline may have caused serious damage to ocean ecosystems, and species extinction is a real possibility (Malakoff 1997). Baum and Myers (2004) estimate that oceanic whitetip and silky sharks, formerly the most commonly caught shark species in the Gulf of Mexico, “have declined by over 99% and 90% respectively”. Grey nurse sharks were the second most commonly caught shark on Australia’s eastern seaboard in the early 1900s (Roughley 1951); today their total population is estimated at 400 individuals and is continuing to decline (Otway et al. 2004). Worm et al. (2005) confirms the generality of declines in large predators across the world’s oceans.
As Botsford et al. (1997) point out, it is abundantly clear that, at a global level, “[fishery] management has failed to achieve a principal goal, sustainability”.
Habitat damage
In spite of the admonitions of many international agreements and national policies aimed at the protection of habitats and ecosystems, trawling continues to cause massive damage to fragile benthic communities (Dayton 1998, Koslow et al. 2000, NRC 2002, Koslow 2007). The advent of recent technologies in navigation, sonar and deep fishing gear have permitted damaging fishing of the deep sea (Roberts 2002). Due to very slow recovery times in deep sea ecosystems, damage already caused by deep sea trawling is likely to take many hundreds of years to repair, if full recovery is possible at all.
Vulnerable coastal habitats, such as mangrove, salt marsh, seagrass, and coral reefs have been seriously – in many cases irrevocably – damaged by human activities through pollution, alteration of tidal flows, and deliberate damage (e.g. from blast fishing or mining operations – Oakley 2000).
Coral, global warming and biogeochemistry
Coral reef ecosystems have been declining globally for many decades (Wilkinson 2004, Pandolfi et al. 2003, Jackson 1997). Average coral cover in the Caribbean region has declined from about 50% to 10% in the last 30 years (Gardner et al. 2003), and similar declines are common in heavily fished reef ecosystems globally. Even given these dramatic declines, for coral ecosystems the worse is yet to come.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere has increased by about 30% since the beginning of the industrial revolution (Vitousek et al. 1997) with a continued massive increase effectively unavoidable over the coming decades. Carbon dioxide levels are now higher than any time in the last 400,000 years, and possibly the last 50 million years (Koslow 2007, Veron 2008).
According to the Royal Society (2005) many marine organisms dependent on calcium carbonate structures, including corals, are unlikely to survive increases in ocean acidity predicted at the close of the next century, if global emission rates of carbon dioxide continue along current trajectories. Coral reefs are already degrading under the effects of overfishing, increasing sea surface temperatures, and nutrient-laden runoff from the agricultural and urban development of nearby coasts (Bellwood et al. 2004, Hughes et al. 2003). According to Pandolfi et al. (2003): “[Coral] reefs will not survive without immediate protection from human exploitation over large spatial scales”. Veron (2008) is even more pessimistic.
Pollution
Excessive anthropogenic nitrogen inputs to coastal marine ecosystems are causing ‘dead zones’ (oxygen-depleted zones) of substantial size. Moffat (1998) reported a zone “the size of the State of New Jersey, expanding westward from the coast of Louisiana into Texas waters”. Since then other similar zones have been identified (Diaz & Rosenberg 2008). As mentioned above, shallow coral ecosystems are readily damaged by nutrients (Harrison & Ward 2001) sediment, and pesticides in runoff from adjacent agricultural land (Hutchins et al. 2005). Trace metal pollution may also be important; copper for example has been found to inhibit coral spawning even at very low concentrations (Reichelt-Brushett & Harrison 2005). Pollution from plastic litter has reached epidemic proportions (Islam & Tanaka 2004). Ingested plastics accumulate in the guts of some marine animals, causing starvation. Most plastics do not degrade once removed from UV radiation, making the problem of plastic accumulation particularly severe in marine environments.
According to Islam & Tanaka (2004): “Coastal and marine pollution has already caused major changes in the structure and function of phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic and fish communities over large areas… Most of the world’s important fisheries have now been damaged to varying extents…”.
Trophic cascades: catastrophic shifts in ecosystems
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment biodiversity synthesis (2005a:25) highlights damage which can occur to ecosystems by removing species which supply local services critical to key ecosystem processes, such as grazing in coral reefs, or pollination in terrestrial ecosystems. Examples of damaging trophic cascades in the marine environment listed in MEA include overharvesting of Californian sea otters, Alaskan sea lions, Kenyan trigger fish, and Caribbean reef fish (MEA 2005a:27).
2.8 Conclusion
Human activities are undermining the biological fabric of planet Earth. Critical problems identified decades ago by the international community have not been addressed in any effective way, and are worsening. “Business as usual” – resting on existing anthropocentric cultures within science, government and the community at large – is not working.
As Callicott (1991:27) argued more than ten years ago: “The public conservation agencies [read: fishery management agencies] are still ruled by the 19th century Resource Conservation Ethic, but as Aldo Leopold realized some 40 years ago, the Resource Conservation Ethic is based upon an obsolete pre-ecological scientific paradigm. Since the Land Ethic is distilled from contemporary evolutionary and ecological theory it should, therefore, be the new guiding principle of present and future conservation policy.”
The single most important issue the world faces today is the need to develop an ecocentric ethic of planetary stewardship, based on notions of participation in the community of nature rather than domination of it – as advocated by Leopold (1948). Such ethics need to be underpinned by a reverence for the beauty and complexity of our "water planet" and its diversity of life forms. Without this ethic, the forces behind our industrial-consumer society are pushing global resource consumption to higher and higher levels, eroding the essential life support systems of the planet. The expansion of ‘human habitats’ is now so pervasive that it is quite simply destroying the homes of other inhabitants of our planet on a massive scale.
Much is at stake. The human onslaught on the marine environment has, until the last few decades, been concentrated in estuaries and coastal oceans – through overfishing, habitat damage, pollution and the introduction of invasive species. This has, however, changed dramatically in recent times. While coastal marine areas continue to suffer, massive damage is now being inflicted over oceanic environments, primarily by industrial over-fishing (Gianni 2004).
As Ludwig et al. (1993:17) argued: “There are currently many plans for sustainable use or sustainable development that are founded upon scientific information and consensus. Such ideas reflect ignorance of the history of resource exploitation and misunderstanding of the possibility of achieving scientific consensus concerning resources and the environment. Although there is considerable variation in detail, there is remarkable consistency in the history of resource exploitation: resources are inevitably over-exploited, often to the point of collapse or extinction.” In the decade since Ludwig wrote, evidence is still accumulating that over-exploitation of marine resources remains the rule rather than the exception (Koslow 2007; Kieves 2005; Verity et al. 2002; Wilson 2002).
A voluminous and long-standing literature on environmental ethics exists, but is seldom referred to by marine scientists. While little of this discussion has permeated international and national policies, a few notable documents, such as the UN World Charter for Nature 1982, the Earth Charter, and Australia’s national biodiversity strategy (Commonwealth of Australia 1996) do contain statements reinforcing the idea of respect and reverence for nature. But where is this concept being expressed? What part should it play in strategies and programs to protect natural ecosystems which continue to be exploited and degraded by the incremental expansion of human activities?
Over the thousands of years of human civilization, it is only recently that a ‘right to life’ has become a universally accepted part of the way humans treat each other – along with rights to property and ownership of land. At present we humans accord the rest of the living world scant rights. Fish, for example, are not even accorded the right to a humane death, nor have we provided a right to an undisturbed home: no-take reserves (as of 2004) amount to only a miniscule proportion of the marine realm. Humans, like other predators, have always eaten plants and animals; however humans are now destroying both species and ecosystems.
A few nations are, at present, moving along a path which would accord a ‘right to life’ to whales and other cetaceans (Commonwealth of Australia 2002, 2004). However this extension of rights is hotly debated by other nations, and international agreement (even in the long-term) seems unlikely (Danaher 2002, Molenaar 2003).
Given the pressing need to put ethics into action to protect the planet’s ecosystems, a search for a right to life for particular species – resting as it does on highly controversial arguments – is a path which we have no time to explore. However, I believe scientists and the community generally need to extend the concepts of respect for and community with nature (concepts which have at least some wide general acceptance) to rights of peaceful coexistence. This concept, in practice, means setting aside large parts of the planet where human impacts are kept to a minimum, and consumptive harvesting does not occur.
There is scope to do this in the marine realm – if we are willing to pay for it. At present only 1.5% of the oceans have protective management regimes (meeting the IUCN protected area criteria I-VI), and only 0.18% of the ocean is protected to the criteria I level (no-take zones). The World Parks Congress 2003 (WPC) recommended the establishment of national networks of marine no-take areas (NTAs) covering 20-30% of habitats by 2012. Many scientists support such a target purely on ecosystem management grounds (.au). As Pimm et al. (2001) have said: “Enforceable protection of remaining natural ecosystems is an overarching recommendation”.
Providing refuges for at least a substantial part of marine biota is an idea that finds support amongst many conservation biologists. Browman & Stergiou (2004:270) ask “…why is it so difficult to recognize the inherent rights that marine fauna have to a safe haven?”. The fact of the matter is that the establishment of marine protected areas will place short-term costs on those who have traditional (or formal) rights to harvest from the sea. These rights must be recognised and compensation must be paid.
Victoria (Australia) established no-take areas over 5.3% of its coastal seas (to 3 nm) in 2002. The program of establishing these protected areas nearly failed due to intense political pressure applied by fishers incensed by the government’s lack of compensation provisions. The State government was at first unwilling to formalise a compensation program for fear of excessive costs – which no-one had bothered to estimate in any detail. Three years later, the lesson from the Victorian program is that compensation costs need not be high: claims have in fact amounted to only half a million dollars (Phillips 2005), much less than many had predicted, and trifling in the circumstances[xii].
There is a desperate need to protect marine environments. While utilitarian arguments must continue to be used, I believe it is now essential that scientists and policy-makers enter into ethical debate. Our species is gradually but inexorably killing the other wild living inhabitants of our planet, and destroying the places in which they live. The time to adopt a new ethical position has already passed with some talk but no action. The matter is now so urgent that it demands the attention of every marine scientist. In Callicott’s words: “we … must rise to the challenge of our time” – requiring an explicit change of the underlying ethics of our use of marine ecosystems (Callicott 1991:27).
My conclusion is that biological scientists are amongst the few residents of the Earth who can appreciate the gravity of the changes which are taking place. We need to speak for the planet, and we need to use ethical as well as scientific arguments to do so. The ‘right to peaceful coexistence’ is a concept in need of urgent and widespread discussion. We need to discuss “the arrogance of humanism” and the ethics of resource use on a planet whose ecosystems are in crisis. Marine protected areas need to be developed for many reasons, one of which is to provide peaceful and secure homes to other living residents of this planet, in addition to their role in safeguarding the integrity of ecosystem processes we barely understand.
Section Three:
A sample of peer-reviewed scientific papers relevant to the design and management of MPAs.
Abesamis, RA & Russ, GR (2005) 'Density-dependent spillover from a marine reserve: long-term evidence', Ecological Applications 15(5): 1798-812.
Adam, D (2002) 'Fire from ice', Nature 415(29 August): 913-4.
Adrianov, AV (2004) 'Current problems with marine biodiversity studies', Russian Journal of Marine Biology 30(Supplement 1): S1-S6.
Agardy, T (2000) 'Effects of fisheries on marine ecosystems: a conservationist's perspective.' ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 57: 761-5.
Agardy, T, Bridgewater, P, Crosby, MP, Day, J, Dayton, PK, Kenchington, R, Laffoley, D, McConney, P, Murray, PA, Parks, JE & Peau, L (2003) 'Dangerous targets? Unresolved issues and ideological clashes around marine protected areas.' Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13(4): 353-67.
Agrawal, A (2002) 'Common property institutions and sustainable governance of resources', World Development 29(10): 1649-72.
AHTEG Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (2004) Technical advice on the establishment and management of a national system of marine and coastal protected areas, Secretariat (Executive Secretary) to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal Canada.
Aiken, JJ, Godley, BJ, Broderick, AC, Austin, T, Ebanks-Petrie, G & Hays, GC (2001) 'Two hundred years after a commercial marine turtle fishery: the current status of marine turtles nesting in the Cayman Islands', Oryx 35(2): 145-51.
Alpine, J (2007) 'Spatial management of the open ocean', Marine and Freshwater Research.
Alpine, J & Hobday, AJ (2007) 'Area requirements and pelagic protected areas: is size an impediment to implementation? ' Marine and Freshwater Research 58: 558-69.
Andelman, S & Willig, MR (2003) 'Present patterns and future prospects for biodiversity in the western hemisphere', Ecology Letters 6: 818-24.
Anderson, PK (2001) 'Marine mammals in the next one hundred years: twilight for a Pleistocene megafauna?' Journal of Mammalogy 82(3): 623-9.
ANZECC Task Force on Marine Protected Areas (1999) Understanding and applying the principles of comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness for the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas; version 3.1 - report prepared by the Action Team for the ANZECC TFMPA, Marine Group, Environment Australia, Canberra.
Apitz, SE, Elliott, M, Fountain, M & Galloway, TS (2006) 'European Environmental Management: Moving to an Ecosystem Approach', Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 2(1): 80-5.
Arlinghaus, R, Cooke, SJ, Schwab, A & Cowx, IG (2007) 'Fish welfare: a challenge to the feelings-based approach, with implications for recreational fishing', Fish and Fisheries 8(1): 57-71.
Arlinghaus, R, Schwab, A, Cooke, SJ & Cowx, IG (2009) 'Contrasting pragmatic and suffering-centred approaches to fish welfare in recreational angling', Journal of Fish Biology 75: 2448-63.
Arnason, R (2000) 'Marine reserves: is there an economic justification?' paper presented to the Conference on the Economics of Marine Protected Areas, Vancouver, July 6-7, 2000.
Ascher, W (2006) 'Long-term strategy for sustainable development: strategies to promote far-sighted action', Sustainability Science 1(15-22).
Aswani, S & Lauer, M (2006) 'Benthic mapping using local aerial photo interpretation and resident taxa inventories for designing marine protected areas', Environmental Conservation 33(03): 263-73.
Aswani, S, Albert, S, Sabetian, A & Furusawa, T (2007) 'Customary management as precautionary and adaptive principles for protecting coral reefs in Oceania', Coral Reefs 26(4): 1009-21.
Auster, PJ & Langton, RW (1998) The effects of fishing on fish habitat, University of Connecticut, Groton Connecticut USA.
Auster, PJ (1998) 'A Conceptual Model of the Impacts of Fishing Gear on the Integrity of Fish Habitats', Conservation Biology 12(6): 1198-203.
Ayling, AM & Choat, HJ (2008) Abundance patterns of reef sharks and predatory fishes on differently zoned reefs in the offshore Townsville region: final report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville.
Babcock, RC, Kelly, S, Shears, NT, Walker, JW & Willis, TJ (1999) 'Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves', Marine Ecological Progress Series 189: 125-34.
Babcock, RC, Kelly, S, Shears, NT, Walker, JW & Willis, TJ (1999) 'Large-scale habitat change in temperate marine reserves', Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-34.
Babcock, RC (2003) 'The New Zealand marine reserve experience: the science behind the politics', in PA Hutchings & D Lunney (eds), Conserving marine environments: out of sight, out of mind?, Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mossman New South Wales.
Babcock, RC, Shears, NT, Alcala, A, Barrett, N, Edgar, GJ, Lafferty, KD, McClanahan, TR & Russ, GR (2010) 'Decadal trends in marine reserves reveal differential rates of change in direct and indirect effects', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences online 30 March 2010: 1-6.
Badalamenti, F, Ramos, AA, Voultsiadou, EA, Nchez Lizaso, JL, D'Anna, G, Pipitone, C, Mas, J, Fernandes, JAR, Whitmarsh, D & Riggio, S (2002) 'Cultural and socio-economic impacts of Mediterranean marine protected areas', Environmental Conservation 27: 110-25.
Baelde, P (2005) 'Interactions between the implementation of marine protected areas and right-based fisheries management in Australia', Fisheries Management and Ecology 12(1): 9-18.
Baird, AH, Campbell, SJ, Anggoro, AW, Ardiwijaya, RL, Fadli, N, Herdiana, Y, Kartawijaya, T, Mahyiddin, D, Mukminin, A, Pardede, S, Pratchett, M, Rudi, E & Siregar, A (2005) 'Acehnese reefs in the wake of the Asian tsunami', Current Biology 15(21): 1926-30.
Baker, JL, Shepherd, SA & Edyvane, KS (1996) 'The use of marine reserves to manage benthic fisheries, with emphasis on the South Australian abalone fishery', in R Thackway (ed.), Developing Australia’s Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Criteria and guidelines for identification and selection. Workshop at South Australian Aquatic Sciences Centre Adelaide, 22-23 April 1996, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, pp. 103-13.
Baker, JL (2000) Guide to marine protected areas, Department for Environment and Heritage South Australia, Adelaide.
Bakun, A & Weeks, SJ (2006) 'Adverse feedback sequences in exploited marine systems: are deliberate interruptive actions warranted?' Fish and Fisheries 7(4): 316-33.
Baldwin, C (1990) Impact of elevated nutrients in the Great Barrier Reef, GBRMPA, Townsville.
Balint, PJ & Mashinya, J (2008) 'CAMPFIRE during Zimbabwe's national crisis: local impacts and broader implications for community-based wildlife management', Society and Natural Resources 21: 783-96.
Ball, I & Possingham, HP (2000) MarXan marine reserve design using spatially explicit annealing: a manual, University of Queensland, Brisbane Australia.
Ballantine, W (1989) 'Marine reserves: lessons from New Zealand', Progress in Underwater Science 13(1-14).
Ballantine, W & Langlois, T (2008) 'Marine reserves: the need for systems', Hydrobiologia 606(1): 35-44.
Ban, NC, Adams, V & Pressey, RL (2010) 'Promise and problems for estimating management costs of marine protected areas: a case study in the Coral Sea', Conservation Letters 12: 34.
Barrett, JH, Locker, AM & Roberts, CM (2004) 'The origins of intensive marine fishing in medieval Europe: the English evidence', Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 271(1556): 2417-21.
Bascompte, J, Melian, CJ & Sala, E (2005) 'Interaction strength combinations and the overfishing of a marine food web', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102: 5443-7.
Baskett, ML, Yoklavich, MM & Love, MS (2006) 'Predation, competition, and the recovery of overexploited fish stocks in marine reserves', Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63: 1214-29.
Bastyan, GR & Cambridge, ML (2008) 'Transplantation as a method for restoring the seagrass Posidonia australis', Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79: 289-99.
Bax, N & Williams, A (2002) 'Designing representative and adequate MPAs in a structured environment', paper presented to the ASFB Conference on Aquatic Protected Areas, August 2002, Cairns Australia.
Beck, MW, Heck, KL, Able, KW, Childers, DL, Eggleston, DB, Gillanders, BM, Halpern, B, Hays, CG, Hoshino, K, Minello, TJ, Orth, RJ, Sheridan, PF & Weinstein, MP (2001) 'The Identification, Conservation, and Management of Estuarine and Marine Nurseries for Fish and Invertebrates', BioScience 51(8): 633-41.
Beger, M, Jones, GP & Munday, PL (2003) 'Conservation of coral reef biodiversity: a comparison of reserve selection procedures for corals and fishes', Biological Conservation 111: 53-62.
Bene, C & Tewfik, A (2003) 'Biological evaluation of marine protected areas: evidence of crowding effect on a protected population of Queen Conch in the Caribbean', Marine Ecology 24(1): 45-58.
Benton, MJ & Twitchett, RJ (2003) 'How to kill (almost) all life: the end-Permian extinction event', Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18(7): 358-66.
Bianchi, G, Gislason, H, Graham, K, Hill, L, Jin, X, Koranteng, K, Manickchand-Heileman, S, Paya, I, Sainsbury, K, Sanchez, F & Zwanenburg, K (2000) 'Impact of fishing on size, composition and diversity of demersal fish communities', ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57(3): 558-71.
Bjørndal, T, Kaitala, V, Lindroos, M & Munro, GR (2000) 'The management of high seas fisheries', Annals of Operations Research 94(1): 183-96.
Blaber, SJM, Cyrus, DP, Albaret, J-J, Day, J, Elliot, M, Fonseca, MS, Hoss, DE, Orensanz, JML, Potter, IC & Silvert, W (2000) 'Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems', ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 57: 590-602.
Blanchard, F, LeLoc'h, F, Hily, C & Boucher, J (2004) 'Fishing effects on diversity, size and community structure of the benthic invertebrate and fish megafauna on the Bay of Biscay coast of France', Marine Ecology-Progress Series 280: 249-60.
Bleakley, C (2004) A review of critical marine habitats and species in the Pacific Islands region, SPREP, Apia Samoa.
Blyth-Skyrme, RE, Kaiser, MJ, Hiddink, JG, Edwards-Jones, G & Hart, PJB (2006) 'Conservation Benefits of Temperate Marine Protected Areas: Variation among Fish Species', Conservation Biology 20(3): 811-20.
Bohnsack, JA (1998) 'Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management', Australian Journal of Science 23: 298-394.
Bohnsack, JA (1999) 'Incorporating no-take marine reserves into precautionary management and stock assessment.' in VR Restrepo (ed.), Providing scientific advice to implement the precautionary approach under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-FF/SPO-40., National Oceans and Atmospheric Administration, Washington.
Bohnsack, JA (2003) 'Shifting baselines, marine reserves and Leopold's biotic ethic', Gulf and Caribbean Research 14(2): 1-7.
Bohnsack, JA, Ault, JS & Causey, BD (2004) 'Why have no-take marine protected areas?' American Fisheries Society Symposium 42: 185-93.
Botsford, LW, Hastings, A & Gaines, SD (2001) 'Dependence of sustainability on the configuration of marine reserves and larval dispersal distance', Ecology Letters 4: 144-50.
Botsford, LW, Micheli, F & Hastings, A (2003) 'Principles for the design of marine reserves.' Ecological Applications 13(1): S25-S31 (Supplement).
Botsford, LW, Brumbaugh, DR, Grimes, CB, Kellner, JB, Largier, JL, O'Farrell, MR, Ralston, S, Soulanille, E & Wespestad, V (2008) 'Connectivity, sustainability, and yield: bridging the gap between conventional fisheries management and marine protected areas', Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries .
Bowen, BW (1999) 'Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations of conservation policy', Molecular Ecology 8(s1): S5-S10.
Bowen, BW, Bass, AL, Chow, S-M, Bostrom, M, Bjorndal, KA, Bolten, AB, Okuyama, T, Bolker, BM, Epperly, S, Lacasella, E, Shaver, D, Dodd, M, Hopkins- Murphy, SR, Musick, JA, Swingle, M, Rankin-Baransky, K, Teas, W, Witzell, WN & Dutton, PH (2004) 'Natal homing in juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta)', Molecular Ecology 13(12): 3797-808.
Bowen, BW, Bass, AL, Soares, L & Toonen, RJ (2005) 'Conservation implications of complex population structure: lessons from the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta)', Molecular Ecology 14(8): 2389-402.
Bowen, BW, Grant, WS, Hillis-Starr, Z, Shaver, DJ, Bjorndal, KA, Bolten, AB & Bass, AL (2007) 'The advocate and the scientist: debating the commercial exploitation of endangered hawksbill turtles', Molecular Ecology 16(17): 3514-5.
Branch, TA, Stafford, KM, Palacios, DM & Allison, C (2007) 'Past and present distribution, densities and movements of blue whales Balaenoptera musculus in the Southern Hemisphere and northern Indian Ocean', Mammal Reviews 37(2): 116-75.
Breen, DA, Avery, R & Otway, NM (2004) Broad-scale biodiversity assessment of the Manning Shelf Marine Bioregion, Marine Parks Authority New South Wales, Sydney.
Brewer, D, Heales, D, Milton, D, Dell, Q, Fry, G, Venables, B & Jones, P (2006) 'The impact of turtle excluder devices and bycatch reduction devices on diverse tropical marine communities in Australia's northern prawn trawl fishery', Fisheries Research 81(2-3): 176-88.
Bridgewater, PB & Cresswell, ID (1999) 'Biogeography of mangrove and saltmarsh vegetation: implications for conservation and management in Australia', Mangroves and Salt Marshes 3(2): 117-25.
Broadhurst, MK, Suuronen, P & Hulme, A (2006) 'Estimating collateral mortality from towed fishing gear', Fish and Fisheries 7(3): 180-218.
Brodziak, J & Link, J (2002) 'Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management: What is it and how can we do it?' Bulletin of Marine Science 70: 589-611.
Browman, HI & Stergiou, KI (2004) 'Marine protected areas as a central element of ecosystem-based management: defining their circulation, size and location', Marine Ecological Progress Series 274: 271-2.
Browman, HI & Stergiou, KI (2005) 'Introduction to theme section: Politics and socio-economics of ecosystem-based management of marine resources', Marine Ecology Progress Series 300: 241-96.
Brown, I (2002) 'Oldest marine protected area in the world: Royal National Park, New South Wales Australia, designated 1879.' MPA News 3(6): 5.
BRS Bureau of Rural Sciences Australia (2003) Implementing the Representative Areas Program in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park - assessment of potential social impacts on commercial fishing and associated communiites, BRS, Canberra.
Bruton, MN (1995) 'Have fishes had their chips? The dilemma of threatened fishes', Environmental Biology of Fishes 43(1): 1-27.
Burridge, CY, Pitcher, CR, Wassenberg, TJ, Poiner, IR & Hill, BJ (2003) 'Measurement of the rate of depletion of benthic fauna by prawn (shrimp) otter trawls: an experiment in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia', Fisheries Research 60(2-3): 237-53.
Bush, SR & Hirsch, P (2005) 'Framing fishery decline', Aquatic Resources, Culture and Development 1(2): 79-90.
Buxton, C, Haddon, M & Bradshaw, M (2006) Regional impact assessment for the marine protected areas proposed for the south-east region, Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute, Hobart.
Byers, JE (2005) 'Marine reserves enhance abundance but not competitive impacts of a harvested non-indigenous species', Ecology 86(2): 487-500.
Caddy, JF (1983) An alternative to equilibrium theory for management of fisheries, FAO Rome.
Caddy, JF (1999) 'Fisheries management in the twenty-first century: will new paradigms apply?' Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 9(1): 1-43.
Caddy, JF (2000) 'Marine catchment basin effects versus impacts of fisheries on semi-enclosed seas', ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 57: 628-40.
Caddy, JF & Agnew, DJ (2003) Recovery plans for depleted fish stocks: an overview of global experience, ICES, Copenhagen Denmark.
Caddy, JF & Seijo, JC (2005) 'This is more difficult than we thought! The responsibility of scientists, managers and stakeholders to mitigate the unsustainability of marine fisheries', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 360(1453): 59-75.
Callicott, JB (2002) 'The pragmatic power and promise of theorectical environmental ethics: forging a new discourse', Environmental Values 11: 3-25.
Campbell, ML & Gallagher, C (2007) 'Assessing the relative effects of fishing on the New Zealand marine environment through risk analysis', ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 64(2): 256-70.
Campbell, LM, Gray, NJ, Hazen, EL & Shackeroff, JM (2009) 'Beyond baselines: rethinking priorities for ocean conservation', Ecology and Society 14(1): 14-25.
Campbell, ML, Grage, A, Mabin, CJT & Hewitt, CL (2009) 'Conflict between International Treaties: Failing to mitigate the effects of introduced marine species', Academy of the Social Sciences Dialogue 28(1): 46-59.
Caputi, N, Chubb, CF & Brown, RS (1995) 'Relationships Between Spawning Stock, Environment, Recruitment and Fishing Effort for the Western Rock Lobster, Panulirus Cygnus, Fishery in Western Australia', Crustaceana 68: 213-26.
Cárdenas-Torres, N, Enríquez-Andrade, R & Rodríguez-Dowdell, N (2007) 'Community-based management through ecotourism in Bahia de los Angeles, Mexico', Fisheries Research 84(1): 114-8.
Caro, TM & O'Doherty, G (1999) 'On the use of surrogate species in conservation biology', Conservation Biology 13(4): 805-14.
Carpenter, S, Caraco, NF, Correll, DL, Howarth, RW, Sharpley, AN & Smith, VH (1998) 'Nonpoint Pollution of Surface waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen', Ecological Applications 8(3): 559-68.
Carr, MH & Raimondi, PT (1999) 'Marine protected areas as a precautionary approach to management', CalCOFi Reports 40.
Carr, MH (2000) 'Marine protected areas: challenges and opportunities for understanding and conserving coastal marine ecosystems', Environmental Conservation 27: 106-9.
Carr, MH, Dayton, PK, Gaines, SD, Hixon, MA, Leonard, G, Palumbi, SR & Warner, RR (2002) Comments on ASA report entitled "No take marine protected areas as a fishery management tool; a pragmatic perspective, viewed November 12 2005, .
Carr, MH, Neigel, JE, Estes, JA, Andelman, S, Warner, RR & Largier, JL (2003) 'Comparing marine and terrestrial ecosystems: implications for design of coastal marine reserves', Ecological Applications 13: S90-S107.
Carruthers, TJB, Dennison, WC, Longstaff, BJ, Waycott, M, Abal, EG, McKenzie, LJ & Long, WJL (2002) 'Seagrass habitats of Northeast Australia: Models of key processes and controls', Bulletin of Marine Science 71: 1153-69.
Castilla, JC & Defeo, O (2005) 'Paradigm shifts needed for world fisheries', Science 309(26 August 2005): 1324-5.
Castilla, JC, Campo, MA & Bustamante, RH (2007) 'Recovery of Durvillaea antarctica (Durvilleales) inside and outside Las Cruces Marine Reserve, Chile', Ecological Applications 17(5): 1511-22.
Causey, D, Corbett, DG, LefÈVre, C, West, DL, Savinetsky, AB, Kiseleva, NK & Khassanov, BF (2005) 'The palaeoenvironment of humans and marine birds of the Aleutian Islands: three millennia of change', Fisheries Oceanography 14(s1): 259-76.
Chapman, MR & Kramer, DL (1999) 'Gradients in coral reef fish density and size across the Barbados Marine Reserve boundary: effects of reserve protection and habitat characteristics', Marine Ecological Progress Series 181: 81-96.
Chapman, L & Beare, S (2001) 'Optimal fisheries management instruments under biological uncertainty', paper presented to the 45th Annual Conference of the Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society, Adelaide, 22-25 January 2001.
Chapman, DD, Pikitch, EK, Babcock, EA & Shivji, MS (2005) 'Marine reserve design and evaluation using automated acoustic telemetry: a case study involving coral reef-associated sharks in the Mesoamerican Caribbean', Marine Technology Society Journal 39: 42-55.
Christensen, V, Garces, LR, Silvestre, GT & Pauly, D (eds) (2003) Fisheries Impact on the South China Sea Large Marine Ecosystem: A Preliminary Analysis using Spatially-Explicit Methodology, Assessment, Management and Future Directions for Coastal Fisheries in Asian Countries: Proceedings o fthe WorldFish Center Conference Proceedings 67, WorldFish Center, Penang Malaysia.
Christensen, V, Aiken, KA & Villanueva, MC (2007) 'Threats to the ocean: on the role of ecosystem approaches to fisheries', Social Science Information 46(1): 67-86.
Clark, CW (1996) 'Marine Reserves and the Precautionary Management of Fisheries', Ecological Applications 6(2): 369-70.
Clark, MR & O'Driscoll, R (2003) 'Deepwater fisheries and aspects of their impacts on seamount habitat in New Zealand', Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science 31: 151-63.
Clarke, A & Harris, CM (2003) 'Polar marine ecosystems: major threats and future change', Environmental Conservation 30: 1-25.
Cochrane, K, Butterworth, DS, de Oliveira, JAA & Roel, BA (1998) 'Management procedures in a fishery based on highly variable stocks and with conflicting objectives: experiences in the South African pelagic fishery', Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 8: 177-214.
Cochrane, K & Doulman, D (2005) 'The rising tide of fisheries instruments and the struggle to keep afloat', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 360(1453): 77-94.
Cocklin, C, Craw, M & McAuley, I (1998) 'Marine reserves in New Zealand: use rights, public attitudes, and social impacts', Coastal Management 26: 213-31.
Coe, JM & Rogers, DB (eds) (1997) Marine debris: sources, impacts and solutions, Springer-Verlag, New York.
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Cole, R & McBride, G (2004) 'Assessing impacts of dredge spoil disposal using equivalence tests: implications of a precautionary(proof of safety) approach', Marine Ecology Progress Series 279: 63-72.
Coleman, FC, Figueira, WF, Ueland, JS & Crowder, LB (2004) 'The impact of United States recreational fisheries on marine fish populations', Sciencexpress 10.1126: 4.
Coles, SL & Eldredge, LG (2002) 'Nonindigenous Species Introductions on Coral Reefs: A Need for Information', Pacific Science 56(2): 191-209.
Coll, M, Palomera, I, Tudela, S & Sarda, F (2006) 'Trophic flows, ecosystem structure and fishing impacts in the South Catalan Sea, Northwestern Mediterranean ', Journal of Marine Systems 59(1-2): 63-96.
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