Factors that influence foreign policy



Factors that influence foreign policy |How does its importance modify over the period? |When is its importance hidden/overrated?

Is it ever used as a mask (e.g. hide other aims)? |Comparisons that can be made across the period |Contrasts that can be made across the period | |

| | | | | |

|Economic |At the start of Henry VII’s reign he is keen to establish |It could be suggested that Henry VII’s |Trade/economic |It is noticeable |

| |commercial treaties with the Holy Roman Emperor (1486), |motives for his commercial treaties |considerations are |that the only time |

| |similarly the Commercial treaty with France (made just |with France/HRE were not economic, but |particularly important for|in the Tudor period |

| |after he has joined the Holy League) shows the importance |to gain recognition (in the case of the|Henry VII, and then |that England pursue |

| |of such factors. The Treaty of Medina Del Campo also |HRE) and show they were no threat (in |Northumberland, Mary and |a resolutely anti |

| |involves certain trade concessions (although its main |the case of France). |Elizabeth (collapse of |Spanish policy |

| |motive was undoubtedly dynastic). In addition to this he | |Antwerp in 1551), however |(under Elizabeth), |

| |was also keen to break into the Mediterranean trade market|Henry VII’s main motive during Medina |they are not as important |their importance in |

| |and challenge the power of the Hanseatic League. |Del Campo was undoubtedly dynastic |for Henry VIII as he can |terms of trade has |

| | |security rather than economic gain (as |still trade with Antwerp. |decreased (as |

| |Henry VII is however willing to go against his own |shown by the fact he did not push | |Antwerp has |

| |economic interests when his dynasty is under threat, as |harder for access to the New World |Henry VII, Henry VIII and |collapsed, good |

| |shown by the embargo placed on Burgundy fro 1493-5, and |trading market in 1492). |Elizabeth are all willing |relations with Spain|

| |1506 (when trying to get Edmund De La Pole back). | |to follow courses of |are no longer |

| | |We perhaps underestimate its importance|action that may damage |needed). |

| |Henry VIII does not seem as motivated by economic factors;|under Henry VIII, as economic interests|their economy in order to | |

| |however it is important to remember that Henry VII had set|cause him to abandon his plans to |gain dynastic/national |In terms of pursuing|

| |up most trade links for Henry VIII. Interestingly, Henry’s|invade the Netherlands (although does |security. This is shown by|economic/ trade |

| |plans to attack the Netherlands in 1527/8 would suggest |the fact that he contemplated such an |Henry VII’s embargoes on |interests, Elizabeth|

| |that like Henry VII economic considerations were less |invasion suggest that such factors were|Burgundy, Henry VIII’s |seems more |

| |important than dynastic considerations, however the fact |not a key motive?)- in some ways Henry |plans to attack the |aggressive than any |

| |that he abandoned this plan in face of opposition from |VIII’s lack of interest and lack of |Netherlands, and |other monarch |

| |merchants/cloth producers possibly suggests otherwise. |alternative outlets made the support of|Elizabeth’s decision to |(possibly suggesting|

| |Furthermore, as he did not have the same number of trade |the Netherlands even more important! |seize the Spanish bullion |she attached more |

| |outlets as Henry VII, he was tied into maintaining | |in 1568 which led to the 5|importance to this |

| |positive relations with the Netherlands. |When Henry VIII was able to get limited|year trade embargo with |than any other |

| | |trade concessions in the Baltic, he was|the Spanish. |monarch). Her |

| |Although Henry VIII was able to gain certain trade |not really looking for this; he was | |aggressive economic |

| |concessions in the Baltic following his marriage to Anne |looking for any ally to end his | |policy towards Spain|

| |of Cleves (e.g. with the government of Lubeck), he |international isolation. | |pushed them into war|

| |certainly did not seem strongly motivated by this | | |with England |

| |particular factor. |Do we need to be careful of overstating| |(however it can be |

| | |the impact of the collapse of the | |argued that |

| |The collapse of the Antwerp cloth market in 1550 meant |Antwerp cloth market, given that until | |Elizabeth was |

| |that trade became on the agenda again. Northumberland made|at least 10 years into Elizabeth’s | |motivated out of a |

| |limited attempts to establish trade with Morocco in 1551 |reign it was still the most popular | |desire for national |

| |(discouraged by Philip of Spain) and set up a joint stock |market for English cloth? | |security, rather |

| |company aimed at finding a north east passage to China. | | |than economic gain).|

| |The collapse of Antwerp can go some way to understanding |Elizabeth’s delay in opening up | | |

| |decreased relations with Spain in the second part of the |negotiations with the Spanish to end | | |

| |Tudor period. |the trade embargo possibly suggests she| | |

| | |did not see trade as important, however| | |

| |Similar to Northumberland, Mary looked for new trade |by this time Elizabeth had been able to| | |

| |outlets and began trading with Russia, setting up the |set up a replacement market at Hamburg.| | |

| |Muscovy company in 1555. Mary was not however as | | | |

| |successful in other aspects of trade, and was let down by |Elizabeth’s determination to break the | | |

| |Philip who guarded Spain’s trading networks with the |Spanish monopoly over New World trade, | | |

| |Americas. |as shown by Hawkins’ slave voyages (in | | |

| | |which he attempted to sell slaves to | | |

| |By the late 1560s, Elizabeth had moved most English trade |the Americas), the actions of English | | |

| |to Hamburg as a replacement for Antwerp. |privateers (in seizing Spanish | | |

| | |shipping), and the 1596 raid on Panama | | |

| |Elizabeth experienced a trade boycott with Spain from |all suggest economic influences were | | |

| |1568-73; her willingness to negotiate the convention of |key. The main reasons for this course | | |

| |Bristol suggests she did not wish for this to continue, |of action would however appear to be | | |

| |however the fact that she was willing to wait 5 years |based around national security, as by | | |

| |before commencing negotiations suggests she was not unduly|following this aggressive action she | | |

| |worried by this. |was hoping to remove the power and thus| | |

| | |the threat posed by Spain. | | |

| |In the 1570’s she does increasingly use trade as a weapon,| | | |

| |and tries to break into the lucrative slave market in the | | | |

| |New World. It would however seem that her motives were to | | | |

| |limit the power of Spain through economic means. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |In 1585, Philip of Spain seized all English trade ships in| | | |

| |Spanish waters. Could this suggest that Elizabeth’s | | | |

| |animosity and aggressive policies towards Spain was | | | |

| |partially motivated by this? (doubtful- but a case could | | | |

| |still be made). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth’s raid on Panama in 1596 was largely motivated | | | |

| |by a desire to stop the Spanish silver trade (although | | | |

| |this was motivated by a desire to reduce their national | | | |

| |security threat). | | | |

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|Financial |Henry VII was driven by such factors as shown by the |Although Henry VII was motivated by |Both Henry VII and |Northumberland is |

| |Treaty of Redon in 1489 which dictated that he would only |financial factors, as soon as France |Elizabeth were both |the only monarch/ |

|I feel that a good |send troops to defend Brittany from France if these were |threatened his dynastic security by |motivated by financial |protector not to |

|distinction between|paid for by the Bretons. |supporting Warbeck he sent troops to |factors to an extent, yet |involve himself in a|

|economic and | |France, regardless of the financial |they were willing to |costly war. Does |

|financial is that |Henry VII’s general desire to avoid foreign adventures |cost; this is further reinforced by the|abandon such concerns when|this suggest he was |

|economic factors |abroad were to a large extent motivated by his desire to |actions towards the end of his reign |they felt their |more motivated by |

|are to do with |save money. |when he feared for the security of his |national/dynastic security|financial factors |

|trade and the | |dynasty. |was under threat. E.g. |than anybody else? |

|general economy, |On the other hand, he did give the Habsburgs £342,000 in | |although at the end of her| |

|whereas financial |cash and jewels from 1505-9 in their conflict against the |Elizabeth, like Henry VII tries to |reign Elizabeth’s troops |Henry VII was |

|factors cover a |Trastamaras, raising questions as to how much he was |avoid foreign entanglements (e.g. |in the Netherlands were |influenced by |

|desire to save the |driven by financial factors. |learns from her mistakes after |funded by the Estates |financial factors as|

|king’s money/ raise| |involving herself in the French Wars of|General , and in the early|he wanted to leave a|

|his personal |Henry VIII was certainly not influenced by financial |Religion), however how much of this is |stages of the Breton |large amount of |

|revenue through |factors as demonstrated by his constant war mongering and |due to a desire to save money, and how |Crisis Henry VII’s troops |money to his son |

|pensions etc. |his determination to keep hold of Tournai even though it |much is due to a fear of provoking |were funded by the |(fearful as the |

| |cost him more to garrison than it brought in tribute! The |foreign powers? |Bretons, both were willing|dynasty may still be|

| |price revolution on the 1540s (caused by Henry’s decision | |to fund their own troops |vulnerable). Henry |

| |to debase the coinage in order to fund the 1544 invasion | |when the situation was |VIII, Somerset and |

| |of France) again demonstrates the lack of attention he | |critical. A similar thing |Mary spent most of |

| |paid to such factors. He spent £1 million from 1512-14 and| |can be seen in Scotland, |this getting the |

| |£2 million from 1542-6 on wars abroad. | |where Elizabeth was |country into debt, |

| | | |willing to send troops in |therefore Elizabeth,|

| |On the other hand, financial considerations at home forced| |1560 once the French did. |like Henry VII was |

| |him to abandon his plans to send an army to France in 1525| | |forced into adopting|

| |(to take advantage of the French defeat at the Battle of | | |a more financially |

| |Padua) as his attempts to raise taxation through the | | |minded foreign |

| |Amicable Grant led to a rebellion! | | |policy. |

| | | | | |

| |Somerset was to an extent motivated by financial factors, | | | |

| |as his garrisoning policy was supposed to be cheaper than | | | |

| |regularly invading Scotland (it was not!). Northumberland | | | |

| |was strongly motivated by financial factors, as shown by | | | |

| |his determination to avoid any potential foreign policy | | | |

| |entanglements and his unpopular decision to sell | | | |

| |Boulogne. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Like Henry VIII, Mary did not seem particularly concerned | | | |

| |by financial factors, as shown by her involvement in the | | | |

| |Italian Wars, at a time where England could scarcely | | | |

| |afford it. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth was initially quite cautious (e.g. she sent just| | | |

| |£2,000 to the Scottish Protestants in the first instance),| | | |

| |however this was perhaps more due to a worry of provoking | | | |

| |the French than due to financial caution. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |In fact, as her reign progresses, she becomes less | | | |

| |cautious (suggesting that she is willing to spend money in| | | |

| |order to defend her national security). This is best | | | |

| |demonstrated by her decision to pay for mercenaries for | | | |

| |the Dutch rebels in 1578 and send English troops in 1585 | | | |

| |(Treaty of Nonsuch) at her own expense. From 1589-95 she | | | |

| |spent £1.1 million on war in the Netherlands/defending the| | | |

| |French Channel ports. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |On the other hand, by the time of the fall of Groningen in| | | |

| |1594, Elizabeth made sure that the English troops that | | | |

| |remained in the Netherlands were funded by the Estates | | | |

| |General. | | | |

| | | | | |

|Dynastic/ national |Under Henry VII his desire for dynastic security was |Certainly under Henry VII the |All monarchs (and |Whereas Henry VII |

|security |demonstrated early on with the Treaty of Medina Del Campo |importance of dynastic/ national |Somerset, but not |and Elizabeth (and |

| |(by gaining a betrothal between Arthur and Catherine of |security factors are perhaps |Northumberland) all take |possibly Somerset/ |

|Could also go under|Aragon he was securing support for his dynasty from one of|underrated, as his commercial treaties |moves early on to secure |Northumberland) |

|the umbrella of |Europe’s great powers). Similarly, the series of truces he|were more than likely motivated by |their dynasty. Henry VII |faced dynastic |

|political factors |negotiated in the early years of his reign e.g. truce with|these factors. In addition to this, as |pursues truces/ Medina Del|rivals that needed |

| |France, 3 year truce with Scotland were motivated by a |financially strong monarch is a more |Campo, Henry VIII marries |dealing with |

| |desire to focus on gaining international recognition for |stable monarch, therefore economic |Catherine of Aragon, |(Simnel, Warbeck and|

| |his dynasty, and stabilising his regime internally. |prosperity is a way of gaining |Somerset tries to secure |Mary Queen of |

| | |financial security. |the marriage of Edward and|Scots), Mary I and |

| |The importance of dynastic factors in influencing foreign | |Mary Queen of Scots |Henry VIII did not. |

| |policy continue, a shown by his actions regarding Warbeck.|Henry VIII was clearly extremely |through the garrisoning | |

| |Henry invades France in 1492 (note that although he had |strongly motivated by personal glory in|policy, and Elizabeth |Elizabeth and Edward|

| |been involved in the Breton Crisis from 1489, he was only |the first part of his reign, although |tries to reduce the power |are unique in that |

| |willing to attack France when they directly threatened his|it is important to remember that he was|of Mary Queen of Scots |they are the only |

| |dynasty by supporting the pretender Warbeck), and placed a|able to do this as he felt he had |through involvement in |two monarchs to give|

| |trade embargo on Burgundy from 1493-5 and 1506 (Suffolk) |secured his dynasty through marrying |both French and Scottish |no consideration to |

| |showing how he was willing to damage trade if it meant |Catherine (notice as well that even by |politics (link with Henry |the need to secure |

| |securing his dynasty (also shows the importance of |1523 he is trying to protect/secure his|VII during Warbeck’s |an heir (could it be|

| |dynastic factors through to the very end of his reign). |marriage by marrying his daughter to |Rebellion). |argued that |

| | |Charles V. | |Elizabeth’s Treaty |

| |Although dynastic factors are not seemingly as important | | |of Friendship with |

| |to Henry VIII this can be questioned, as one of his first |On the other hand Henry abandoned his |Henry VII and Elizabeth |James VI in 1586 in |

| |actions is to marry Catherine of Aragon in order to |plans to invade the Netherlands in |(and possibly Henry VIII) |a strange way |

| |provide him with an heir, and gain international support |1527/8 fearful of the economic effects;|are willing to take |secured her an heir?|

| |for his dynasty. However from this point onwards, dynastic|does this question the importance of |actions which may damage | |

| |concerns seem less important (in spite of this he did gain|dynastic concerns? |the economy in order to | |

| |an agreement in 1523 that his daughter and only child Mary| |safeguard their dynastic |It is noticeable |

| |would marry Charles V in an attempt to secure his dynasty,|Perhaps his invasion of France in 1544 |interests. |that Henry VIII’s |

| |however Charles repudiated this in 1525) as shown by his |was motivated by dynastic factors (stop| |desperate attempts |

| |pursuit of glory in France (1512-13, 1522-3). |them supporting the Scots), and |All monarchs and |for an heir post |

| | |therefore increase the chance of Henry |protectors (except |1527 puts England’s |

| |By 1527 however, Henry VIII became far more motivated by |forcing Mary Queen of Scots to marry |Northumberland and maybe |national security |

| |dynastic factors as he only had one female heir, hence his|Edward and thus remove the major threat|not Mary) are willing to |under more threat |

| |determination to obtain a divorce. The fact that he |to his dynasty. Alternatively, does |risk/declare war to secure|than ever before |

| |contemplated an invasion of the Netherlands and funded a |this suggest that glory was more |their dynasties 1492, |(does this mean that|

| |French army against the Spanish (1527) shows the |important? |1527, 1547 (Battle of |he takes it more |

| |importance of dynastic motives at this point as he was | |Pinkie) 1562. Was Mary’s |seriously than |

| |willing to turn against his traditional ally, and risk |Were Elizabeth’s aggressive economic |decision to fight the |anybody else?) |

| |losing trade with the Netherlands and Antwerp. Similarly |policies towards Spain/defence of the |French in 57 an attempt to| |

| |the decision to divorce Catherine and break with Rome in |Netherlands motivated by solely |secure her dynasty, or | |

| |1533 (which greatly threatened his national security) |economic factors, or was her main |were there other motives? | |

| |shows just how seriously he now took dynastic security- he|motive to safeguard national and | | |

| |was willing to prioritise this over national security. |dynastic security? | | |

| | | | | |

| |Similarly his aggressive policy towards Scotland in the |Could it be suggested that her aid to | | |

| |1540s (such as the invasion in 1542 and the Rough Wooing) |the Protestants during the Scottish | | |

| |which came at great financial cost (showing how dynastic |Civil War, and her aid to the Huguenots| | |

| |factors were far more important than financial factors) |during the French Wars of Religion | | |

| |was aimed at securing his dynasty by marrying his son |shows that she was motivated more by | | |

| |Edward to Mary Queen of Scots (Treaty of Greenwich), thus |religious factors? | | |

| |removing Mary as a major rival of Edwards. | | | |

| | |By the end of her reign, could it be | | |

| |It is interesting how the 1544 invasion of France should |argued that she was more motivated by | | |

| |be viewed, does it suggest that Henry was not that |personal factors (e.g. a fanatical | | |

| |interested by dynastic factors? (the Scottish parliament |hatred of Philip) rather than national | | |

| |had rejected the Treaty of Greenwich, therefore surely he |security/dynastic factors? | | |

| |should be focussing on Scotland rather than France), or | | | |

| |was Henry trying to defeat France in order to subdue the | | | |

| |Scots and force them to agree to her demands? | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Such dynastic factors were the most pressing concern faced| | | |

| |by Protector Somerset, whose invasion of Scotland in 1547 | | | |

| |and garrisoning policy was an attempt to secure the | | | |

| |marriage first touted by Henry VIII | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Surprisingly such factors did not seem to influence | | | |

| |Northumberland as much, who abandoned the garrisons in | | | |

| |Scotland given their expense (he was far more motivated by| | | |

| |financial factors). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Mary’s early marriage to Philip of Spain was both an | | | |

| |attempt to establish a dynasty and gain international | | | |

| |support/protection for this. Such an alliance would also | | | |

| |provide England with protection from France (who had | | | |

| |declared war on England in 1549 under Somerset). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth is interesting as she appears to focus more on | | | |

| |national rather than dynastic security- she is able to | | | |

| |help national security to some extent at Cateau Cambresis | | | |

| |by getting the French to pull down their garrison at | | | |

| |Eyemouth. | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Her willingness to sign the 1560 Treaty of Edinburgh | | | |

| |(committing England to withdrawing troops from Scotland | | | |

| |provided the French followed suit) was also strongly | | | |

| |motivated by dynastic factors/national security as it both| | | |

| |reduced the national security threat from French troops | | | |

| |stationed in Scotland, and reduced the danger of Mary | | | |

| |Queen of Scots at a dynastic level. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Her decision to involve herself in the French Wars of | | | |

| |Religion (1562) is seemingly motivated by dynastic factors| | | |

| |as it may reduce the power of the Guise (supporters of her| | | |

| |main dynastic rival Mary Queen of Scots). Similarly the | | | |

| |aid she gives to the Scottish Protestant rebels in 1560 | | | |

| |(initially money and then troops when the French get | | | |

| |involved) was possibly motivated by dynastic as well as | | | |

| |religious factors (victory fro the Protestants would | | | |

| |reduce the challenge posed by Mary Queen of Scots). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |The 1572 Treaty of Blois also demonstrates Elizabeth’s | | | |

| |determination to safeguard her dynastic security, with the| | | |

| |French agreeing to no longer support Mary Queen of Scots. | | | |

| |Similarly, her actions in Scotland, helping Regent Morton | | | |

| |capture Edinburgh Castle in 1572 was motivated by | | | |

| |dynastic/national security factors, as it made sense to | | | |

| |keep a Protestant Protector on the throne (as they were | | | |

| |anti Mary Queen of Scots and would resist foreign | | | |

| |involvement). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth’s increased aggression towards Spain in the late| | | |

| |1560’s following the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt (e.g. | | | |

| |seizure of the Spanish bullion, encouraging privateers to | | | |

| |attack Spanish shipping) was strongly motivated by a | | | |

| |desire to maintain national security by keeping the | | | |

| |Spanish out of the Netherlands. This continued with the | | | |

| |sending of mercenaries in 1578 and more significantly with| | | |

| |the Treaty of Nonsuch in 1585 which committed English | | | |

| |troops to the protection of the Netherlands. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth is willing to continue to anger the Spanish in | | | |

| |order to maintain dynastic/national security. She executes| | | |

| |Mary Queen of Scots in 1587, launches the raid on Cadiz | | | |

| |and Panama in 1596 (both aimed at reducing the threat from| | | |

| |Spain) and sends 20,000 troops to help France safeguard | | | |

| |the channel ports from 1489-94. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |The 1586 Treaty of Friendship with Scotland is extremely | | | |

| |important at a dynastic level as this (unofficially at | | | |

| |least) would appear to guarantee that James VI of Scotland| | | |

| |would succeed her upon her death. | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

|Religious factors |Before the break from Rome under Henry VIII religious |Although the marriage to Anne of Cleves|Although all monarchs post|Religious factors |

| |factors were not a motive in foreign policy, however such |was to an extent motivated by religion,|Henry VII seem motivated |played no role in |

| |factors became important as Henry VIII began to look for a|it was also motivated out of a desire |by religious factors on |influencing foreign |

| |divorce. In 1532 for example Henry signed a defensive |for national security; given England’s |the surface, close |policy until 1527 |

| |alliance with the French in the hope that they would |isolation, Henry could not afford to be|investigation suggests |(contrast Henry VII |

| |follow him and break from Rome. |picky as t his choice of ally! |differently. |with later monarchs/|

| | | | |protectors. |

| |The Break from Rome in 1533 was due to Henry’s desire for |After the 1536 Pilgrimage of Grace, |It would appear that | |

| |a divorce, rather than a real belief in Protestantism. |Henry VIII brings in the Catholic 6 |Sonmerset and Elizabeth |Elizabeth perhaps |

| | |Articles (restore certain elements of |were more strongly |seems more motivated|

| |After the break from Rome in 1533 Henry becomes isolated |Catholicism); this made cooperation |motivated by this than |by religion than |

| |within Europe, and by 1538 it looks like Spain and France |with Spain more palatable to the |anybody else, Elizabeth |anybody else, as she|

| |are planning to launch a crusade against him. By the time |Spanish. |gave aid to Protestant |actually gives aid |

| |he starts to look for a 4th wife, he is forced to look for| |rebels in Scotland, France|to the Protestant |

| |a Protestant, hence the marriage to Anne of Cleves (this |Although Elizabeth seems to be strongly|and the Netherlands, and |Dutch, the Huguenots|

| |religious alliance with the Duke of Cleves was strongly |motivated by religious factors, closer |one of Somerset’s main |and the Protestant |

| |pushed for by Cromwell, who was keen for a Protestant |investigation suggests there were other|motives behind |Scots. Henry VIII |

| |German Alliance). |more pressing motives which are masked |establishing garrisons in |never gives aid to |

| | |by the apparent importance of religion.|Scotland was to protect |Protestant countries|

| |However the long term importance of religion as a foreign | |the Protestant Scottish |(and is only married|

| |policy motive should not be overestimated under Henry | |nobles HOWEVER IN THIS |to Anne of Cleves |

| |VIII, given the fact that by 1544 the Spanish were willing| |CASE, RELIGION WAS USED AS|for 6 months!). |

| |to side with him once more against the French. | |A METHOD OF SUBDUING THE |Although Somerset |

| | | |SCOTS- IT WAS NOT THE AIM.|introduces the |

| |Although war is declared on the Scottish under Edward (the| | |garrisoning policy |

| |French also declare war on Edward), and on the French by | | |in Scotland to help |

| |Mary, neither were motivated by religious factors. Edward | |Both Henry VIII and |protect |

| |(or Somerset) was motivated by dynastic factors, with Mary| |Somerset use religion as a|Protestantism, his |

| |motivated by more personal factors (in fact Pope Paul IV | |method- for Henry VIII |involvement is not |

| |even supported the French!) | |religion is used to break |quite at the same |

| | | |from Rome and let him |level as Elizabeth. |

| |Mary’s determination to marry Philip (a staunch Catholic) | |solve his dynastic | |

| |does suggest she was strongly motivated by religious | |problems. For Somerset, | |

| |factors (she could have married an English Protestant in | |spreading Protestantism | |

| |order to avoid provoking unrest internally). | |into Sctoland throught he | |

| | | |garrisoning policy is an | |

| |On the surface, Elizabeth would seem more driven by | |attempt to solve the | |

| |religious factors (it was her who properly established the| |national security threat | |

| |Protestant Church in England); she helped the Protestants | |they pose to England by | |

| |in Scotland in their rebellion from 1559-60, helped the | |getting them to turn away | |

| |Huguenots in 1562 (Throckmorton, one of Elizabeth’s | |from France. | |

| |councillors was strongly motivated by religion here, but | | | |

| |Elizabeth was not) and gave increased amounts of aid to | | | |

| |the Dutch. On the other hand, her motives here were not | | | |

| |simply religious; her major motive for helping such groups| | | |

| |was the desire for national/dynastic security. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Between 1589-94 sent 20,000 troops to protect France (this| | | |

| |was when Henry IV was still Protestant- he switched to | | | |

| |Catholicism in 1594!) | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

|Marriage |Marriage to foreigners is however important in influencing|The important thing to remember when |Henry VII is strongly |Henry VII’s foreign |

| |relations. Arthur is betrothed to Catherine of Aragon in |looking at marriage agreements is their|influenced by marriage (he|policies were |

|THIS IS OFTEN MORE |1589- marry 1501. This begins a period of friendship that |purpose; marriage agreements tended to |goes against neither Spain|largely influenced |

|OF A METHOD THAN AN|save for minor interruptions (e.g. the last few years of |be made to either cement or help create|nor Scotland following the|by marriage |

|AIM |Henry VII’s reign, 1527, and 1533-40) that continues until|a dynasty, or provide national security|marriage agreements), this|agreements (he only |

| |the start of Elizabeth’s reign. |through the provision of an ally |can be compared to Mary |went against Spain |

|BUT MARRIAGE TO A | |therefore the two factors are extremely|(however she did only rule|at the end of his |

|FOREIGNER WILL |Margaret marries James IV of Scotland in 1503 (ratifying |closely linked. |very briefly!). Even Henry|reign after Arthur |

|INEVITABLY |the 1502 Treaty of Ayton), however this does not lead to a| |VIII (with the possible |had died), yet Henry|

|INFLUENCE TUDOR |long term change in direction of foreign policy as the |Medina Del Campo was more than just a |exception of the Treaty of|VIII had little |

|FOREIGN POLICY |improved relations flounder under Henry VIII (notice |marriage agreement; Henry VII laid down|the More in 1525) |respect for previous|

| |however that in this instance, Henry VII is using marriage|a statement that Spain would be |generally follows a Pro |marriage agreements |

| |to strengthen the good relationship that was established |England’s main ally for the next 70 |Spanish foreign policy up |as shown by his |

| |between the two nations through the 1497 Truce of Ayton). |years! |until 1527. |attitude towards |

| |This aims to safeguard national security (northern border)| | |Scotland, his |

| |whereas Medina Del campo aimed to guarantee dynastic |A marriage agreement (except when Henry|All monarchs attach great |annulment of the |

| |security by locking the Spanish into supporting the Tudor |VII marries Margaret to James, and |importance to marriage |marriage to Anne of |

| |dynasty. |Henry VIII tries marrying Edward to |except Elizabeth (look |Cleves and his |

| | |Mary Queen of Scots) is essentially |generally at how they all |determination to |

| |The betrothal of Arthur to C of A (Medina Del Campo) and |choosing an ally to support England’s |make marriage arrangement |divorce Catherine |

| |then later marriage (followed by Henry VIII’s marriage to |national security/a monarch’s dynastic |for themselves or their |(thus breaking from |

| |C of A) would greatly shape foreign policy, with England |security. Therefore monarchs must be |children very early), |Rome). |

| |largely pursuing a Pro Spanish foreign policy (3 joined |willing to overturn this if a better |however this is probably | |

| |invasions under Henry VIII, Mary’s marriage to Philip and |offer from a stronger power comes along|due to the dynastic |Unlike other |

| |subsequent involvement in Habsburg-Valois Wars, Philip II |e.g. in 1523 Henry betroths his |benefits that this brings.|monarchs, Henry VIII|

| |supporting Elizabeth in the early part of her reign at the|daughter Mary to Charles V as he is |Even Elizabeth is open to |was not bound by |

| |Cateiu Cambresis negotiations). |stronger than the Dauphin who she had |marriage negotiations with|marriages; he went |

| | |previously been betrothed to. |Philip II in the first few|against the Spanish |

| |Henry VIII clearly attached great importance to marriage, | |years of her reign, |in 1527 and 1533 |

| |marrying Catherine of Aragon in 1509. He also married his |Marriage agreements can still be |skilfully using this to |when he wanted a |

| |sister Mary to Louis XII of France in 1514 (he died 1515),|important to Elizabeth, even though she|reduce the potential for a|divorce, and |

| |and then betrothed his daughter Mary to Charles V in 1523 |does not marry! |French invasion. |annulled his |

| |(Charles renounced this in 1525). Although Henrys’ | | |marriage with Anne |

| |marriage to Catherine ensured good relations with Spain, |The marriage of Margaret to James IV, |Like Henry VIII, Elizabeth|of Cleves when it |

| |these cooled by 1527 and ended in 1533 (although he was |Mary Tudor (Henry VIII’s sister) to |is willing to turn against|stood in the way of |

| |able to re establish these). Similarly the betrothal/ |Louis and Henry VIII to Anne of Cleves |the Spanish (however |European integration|

| |marriage of his sister and daughter did little to |have little impact in shaping foreign |unlike Henry she was never|in 1540. |

| |significantly alter the direction of English foreign |policy. Louis dies the same year of |actually married to a | |

| |policy. |marriage (1516), Henry divorces Anne of|Spaniard!) | |

| | |Cleves within 6 months. Margaret’s | | |

| |In later years he tried to secure the marriage of his son |marriage although improving relations | | |

| |Edward to Mary Queen of Scots through the 1543 Treaty of |with Scotland in the short term did not| | |

| |Greenwich (to secure his dynasty). This caused him to |prevent them attacking at Flodden, and | | |

| |adjust his foreign policy and saw him become increasingly |she fled from Scotland in 1515. | | |

| |involved in Scotland, as demonstrated by the Rough Wooing.| | | |

| |This was similarly continued by Somerset as demonstrated | | | |

| |by his garrisoning policy. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Henry marries Anne of Cleves in 1540 (however this is | | | |

| |motivated by his desire to end his isolation in Europe). | | | |

| |It has virtually no effect on future foreign policy, as | | | |

| |the changing European situation means he is no longer | | | |

| |isolated by late 1540, hence the annulment (although he | | | |

| |did keep positive trading relations with Cleves). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Mary’s direction and course of foreign policy was very | | | |

| |much influenced by marriage, as her decision to get | | | |

| |involved in the Italian Wars on the side of Spain can be | | | |

| |traced to her marriage to Philip II of Spain, and her | | | |

| |determination to prove England’s worth as an ally to him. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Although Elizabeth did not marry (meaning that she did not| | | |

| |have the ulterior motive of gaining a dynasty through | | | |

| |marriage), she did use marriage negotiations particularly | | | |

| |well. The best examples of this are her negotiations with | | | |

| |the Duke of Anjou in 1571 and 1578. The 1571 negotiations | | | |

| |played a crucial role in helping her negotiate the Treaty | | | |

| |of Blois (provided dynastic security), and the 1578 | | | |

| |negotiations made her much less suspicious of France (this| | | |

| |culminated with her sending troops to help protect the | | | |

| |French Channel ports in 1589). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Similarly, early in her reign she skilfully conducted | | | |

| |marriage negotiations with Philip of Spain in order to | | | |

| |secure his support when she was most vulnerable post | | | |

| |Treaty of Cateau Cambresis. | | | |

| | | | | |

|Political | | | | |

| |Henry VII was forced to abandon his plans to invade |The threat of invasion was sufficient |Ultimately, all monarchs |It would seem that |

|NB if you are asked|Scotland in 1497 in face of the Cornish Rebellion; after |for James IV to stop supporting |had complete control over |Mary I gave less |

|about the influence|the rebellion he could not risk such a move. |Warbeck, therefore political factors |their direction of foreign|attention to |

|of political | |did not really have much of an effect |policy, therefore |political factors |

|factors, I would |Similarly, Henry VIII had to abandon his plans to attack |in determining foreign policy. |ultimately all could |than other monarchs.|

|suggest that |France in 1525 after resistance to the Amicable Grant. | |ignore the views of other |Although her |

|national/dynastic |Does his decision not to attack the Netherlands in 1527/8 |Was Henry VIII more influenced by |political figures. |decision to marry |

|security as well as|show he was partially influenced by political factors, as |economic rather than political factors?| |Philip split the |

|marriage alliances |he was motivated by a desire not to isolate the |It is impossible to fight a war without|Henry VII and Henry VIII |council (e.g. Paget |

|are all political |politically and economically important merchants? |money (however he does not start |did not have to worry as |was pro, but |

|factors, whereas | |debasing the coinage until the 1540s- |much about isolating |Gardiner was anti), |

|financial/ |In his first few years, Henry VIII was constrained by |possibly countering this claim). |political figures, |the decision to go |

|religious/ economic|conservative Councillors e.g. Foxe, who kept the Privy | |therefore were generally |to war with France |

|factors are not. |Seal and were able to prevent him from following an over |Although Henry VIII was clearly |not held hostage by |was opposed by all |

| |aggressive foreign policy. By the time Henry was 21 |influenced by political figures such as|ministers (in the way that|in the council. By |

|The crucial thing |however he took over all aspects of government, making it |Cromwell to an extent, the fact that he|Elizabeth could at times |badly misreading the|

|is that in your |difficult to exert any real control over him. |was willing to execute Cromwell in 1540|be by Cecil). |political situation |

|intro/early on you | |shows he had no emotional attachment to| |she provoked serious|

|define what a |Henry VIII was generally reluctant to listen to others, |such figures; surely this suggests he |All monarchs had to think |problems as shown by|

|political factor |however the influence of Cromwell saw him agree to the |would not be excessively influenced by |about the effects that |Wyatt’s Rebellion. |

|is/isn’t. |marriage with Anne of Cleves in 1540 (yet later that year |them. |their policies would have | |

| |he had Cromwell executed). On the other hand, Cromwell, as| |on their own internal |On the other hand, |

|As national/ |a religious reformer had long being keen for a Protestant |Elizabeth seems heavily motivated by |political stability (with |councillors felt |

|dynastic security |alliance, the fact that one was only agreed briefly in |Cecil, yet she appears to not have |the exception of Mary who |they had more right |

|and marriage |1540 (and that the marriage lasted just 6 months) raises |attached particularly much importance |angers the people of |to be consulted when|

|agreements have |questions as to how much such factors motivated Henry. |to the views of other more |England with her marriage |the monarch was a |

|already been | |“adventurous” councillors, most notably|to Philip, and Somerset |queen, meaning that |

|covered |It could be said his decision to go to war with France in |Dudley and Essex. |who launches his expensive|there was more of an|

|I will look at the |1544 was partially motivated by pressure from younger | |campaign in Scotland). |expectation that |

|importance of |courtiers, however Henry had never previously needed much | |Henry VII and VIII back |Mary/ Elizabeth |

|political pressure |of an excuse to attack France! | |down at points (1497, |should consult them.|

|from either | | |1525, 1527), and | |

|ministers within |After the fall of Somerset in 1549, Northumberland’s | |Elizabeth’s use of |It is noticeable |

|government/courtier|decision to avoid any real foreign policy entanglement can| |privateers to raise money |that Elizabeth seems|

|s as well as other |be seen as a response to the dangerous political situation| |was designed to mitigate |more concerned by |

|internal political |at the time (1549 was the “Year of Rebellion”- Kett’s | |avoid angering the people |political factors |

|considerations. |Rebellion, the Western Rebellion and Anti enclosure riots | |of England and thus |than other monarchs;|

| |that swept the country). | |upsetting her political |is this because more|

| | | |security (only 4 people |than any other |

| |Mary did not seem particularly motivated by political | |join the 1596 Oxfordshire |monarch she realises|

| |factors; in fact her lack of awareness of the political | |rising showing some |the vulnerability of|

| |implications of her choice of marriage policy led to the | |success!) |her position? |

| |outbreak of Wyatt’s Rebellion in 1554! | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth was at times influenced heavily by certain | | | |

| |councillors, most notably Cecil. In 1560 she only agreed | | | |

| |to send troops to Scotland when he threatened to resign if| | | |

| |she refused. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |In 1562 he three main councillors (Dudley, Cecil and | | | |

| |Throckmorton) were all keen for involvement in the French | | | |

| |Wars of Religion, however it would appear that Elizabeth | | | |

| |was as well and was not “bullied” into it by them. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth’s later actions, e.g. her refusal to escalate | | | |

| |her aid to the Dutch, and her refusal to take the title of| | | |

| |protector of Holland and Zeeland, and her refusal to set | | | |

| |up a base at Cadiz in 1596 as demanded by Essex | | | |

| |demonstrated that she would not be influenced by | | | |

| |politicians (on the other hand, Cecil, her chief advisor | | | |

| |had supported Elizabeth’s increased caution after 1562). | | | |

| | | | | |

| |Elizabeth’s determination to fund her foreign policy | | | |

| |through privateering also shows an awareness of political | | | |

| |factors, as she did not want to risk creating political | | | |

| |unrest, as Henry VIII Somerset and Mary had done (the | | | |

| |price revolution occurred at the end of Henry VIII reign, | | | |

| |continuing through to Mary’s reign as they had funded | | | |

| |aggressive foreign policy by debasing the coinage, leading| | | |

| |to inflation). | | | |

| | | | | |

|Personal factors |Henry VII is strongly motivated by a desire to save money |Is it fair/valid to look at the idea of|Were Mary and Elizabeth |Look how the nature |

| |(financial motives), a desire to further trade (economic |“personal motives”? Each monarch faced |both motivated by personal|of “personal |

|This is another |motives), safeguard his dynasty and avoid foreign |unique challenges (most notably Henry |glory to an extent (like |factors” change. |

|tricky one. I would|entanglements wherever possible (e.g. he only joins the |VII as founder of the dynasty), |Henry VIII). Mary possibly|Under Henry VII and |

|say that certain |Holy League on the premise that he will not be bound for |therefore often their motives were not |hoped to regain Boulogne |Elizabeth their |

|factors e.g. |war with France). His desire to avoid foreign |personal as such, but a response to the|when involving herself in |personal aims are |

|national/dynastic |entanglements (although he does support Brittany against |unique position that they found |the Italian Wars, and |characterised more |

|security are |France, suggesting he would go against this if his |themselves in. |Elizabeth hoped to regain |by caution, yet |

|motives for all |national security was threatened) demonstrates the | |Calais through supporting |under Mary and Henry|

|monarchs/ |importance of “personal factors”, and it could also be |In addition to this, almost all had to |the Huguenots (or was this|VIII they are |

|protectors, whereas|said the extent to which he was determined to protect his |be prepared to abandon “personal |partly national security |characterised |

|“personal factors” |dynasty became a “personal factor”. Was his commitment to|preferences” when necessary; Henry VII |as Calais was useful |possibly more by |

|are motives that |further trade/protect his finances a “personal factor”, or|had to go into France in 1492, Henry |defensively)? |glory/ aggression. |

|are relevant more |were these factors common to all other monarchs? |VIII had to abandon his plans for an | |Why may this be the |

|to that person. | |invasion of France in 1525 following |Both Henry VII and |case? |

| |Henry VIII is certainly motivated by a desire for personal|the resistance to the Amicable Grant, |Elizabeth are keen to | |

| |glory in a way that no other monarch is, as shown by his |Elizabeth had to send troops to aid the|avoid spending money |Mary I was the only |

| |invasions of France in 1512 and 1522. Although it could be|Protestant Scots in 1560 when the |unnecessarily, and eager |monarch whose |

| |argued his attack on them in 1544 was partially to gain |French got involved. |to prevent foreign policy|foreign policy seems|

| |dynastic security for his son (French support for the | |entanglements (Elizabeth |motivated by a |

| |Scots had encouraged the Scots to reject the 1543 Treaty |Perhaps the best way to look at the |is after 1562), yet they |desire to please her|

| |of Greenwich), it is possible to refute this suggestion. |importance of personal motives is to |are willing to involve |spouse, and possibly|

| | |look at the policies carried out by |themselves in European |explains why |

| |By 1527 Henry VIII becomes increasingly driven by dynastic|particular monarchs at the very start |affairs when necessary, |Elizabeth was |

| |factors (possibly more so than any monarch), although it |of their reigns. After a few years, |showing that |reluctant to marry. |

| |is hard to see this as a personal factor, as it applied to|they are often forced to abandon their |national/dynastic security| |

| |every monarch. |“personal aims”, as they are forced to |takes priority. |Henry VII is quite |

| | |react to constantly changing political | |interesting, as he |

| |Somerset was driven strongly by events in Scotland, most |developments within Europe. Notice how |With the possible |has to get involved |

| |notably a desire to secure a marriage between Edward and |in Elizabeth’s early stages she is |exception of Mary/ |in European affairs |

| |Mary Queen of Scots. Whilst this was not perhaps the most |cautious, before becoming more |protectors, all monarchs |quite early on to |

| |important priority for Henry VIII at the end of his reign |aggressive as Spain become more of a |have to be willing to |secure national/ |

| |(as shown by his invasion of France in 1544), Somerset |threat. |abandon their “personal |dynastic security, |

| |devoted the majority of his time and attention to | |aims” at times. |however having done |

| |achieving this. In contrast, Northumberland opted to avoid| | |this he can than |

| |foreign policy entanglements wherever possible. | | |keep out of |

| | | | |entanglements more |

| |Mary I was strongly motivated by a desire to please her | | |in the mid/later |

| |husband Philip II, entering the Italian Wars in 1557 | | |part of his reign, |

| |against the French. | | |as was his |

| | | | |intention. |

| |Elizabeth was motivated by an overriding caution, as | | | |

| |demonstrated by her reluctance to give aid to the | | | |

| |Protestant Scots 1559-60, her initial caution to give | | | |

| |excessive aid to the Dutch rebels, and her decision to use| | | |

| |privateers, rather than the royal navy to attack Spanish | | | |

| |shipping. | | | |

| | | | | |

| |After the launching of the Spanish Armada, she does | | | |

| |however become more driven by hate, as seen by her more | | | |

| |aggressive policy towards the Spanish (most notably Philip| | | |

| |II) post 1588.It is noticeable that she relaxes her | | | |

| |aggressive policy to Spain somewhat when Philip II dies | | | |

| |and is replaced by Philip III, suggesting she was | | | |

| |partially motivated by personal hatred. | | | |

| | | | | |

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