The Bible: Cheat Sheet A
The Most Important Parts of the Bible (Hebrew Bible & New Testament) for Literature Students
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The single most influential text in English literature is the Bible, which makes sense when the history of Western civilization in the past 2,000 years is the history of a Christian culture supplanting a Roman one, followed by a scientific culture that supplants Christian thought. However, an increasing number of students of literature are unfamiliar with the
Bible’s contents, which leads to a crippling inability to recognize Biblical allusion and religious references, which in the past twenty centuries were a familiar building block for authors of any canonical literary work. (Note that the word canonical itself is a religious reference, which illustrates how fully religious imagery permeates literary thought!).
To ease the dilemma, the following is a guide to some of the more important sections of the Bible as pertaining to literary studies. Studying these sections will allow students to get their feet wet. Remember that understanding the nuances of great literature does not mean that one need be religious, but rather that one be well read in its foundations and influences.
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Creation Myth and the Fall of Mankind:
▪ Adam, Eve, Cain, Abel, Noah’s Ark (Genesis 1:1-9:28)
▪ The Tower of Babel and the story of Abraham (Gen. 11:1 -16: 16)
▪ Sodom and Gomorrah, further tales of Abraham (Gen. 18:1-22:24)
▪ Jacob and Esau’s rivalry (Gen. 25:19-12:34, 27-33, 37, and 39-48)
▪ Moses and the flight from slavery in Egypt (Exodus 1-14, 16-21, and 37:1-9 (Israelites cross the Jordan, fight the battle of Jericho, and take the Promised Land; Joshua 1-6).
▪ Also be sure to read Leviticus chapter 26. This section sums up nicely the Hebrew idea of the rewards for good and bad behavior, which the Puritans later adopted and re-emphasized in their theology of “the blessed elect.”
Biblical Histories:
▪ Samson and Delilah (The world’s strongest man and the woman who betrays him) Judges 13:1-16:31
▪ Ruth (Do read the entire book; it’s short and it is one of the rare romantic works within the Bible)
▪ Esther (An excellent short story about how a young Jewish girl saves her people from Persian anti-semitism)
▪ More must-read material: First Samuel chapters 2:12-6, and chapter 17; Second Samuel chapters 11-12 (Those interested in Faulkner’s novels should also read chapter 18); First Kings chapters 1-4 and 10-11:13 (It includes the story of King Solomon; those interested in Old English poetry and riddles should also read chapter 17, verses 1-5 and chapter 19, verses 9-13); Second Chronicles chapters 1, 7, and 9.
Biblical Poetry:
▪ Job (It’s long, but do read the whole book. Book’s question is, “Why does God let evil things happen to good people”?)
▪ Psalms: (Over a hundred short songs and poems traditionally attributed to King David)
✓ 19, 51, 90 (These more famous Psalms serve as a suitable example of the whole collection)
✓ 22, 34, 69, 88 (These Psalms are the “prophecy psalms” that the Church fathers saw as prescient of Christ and his death, much to the bewilderment of Jewish theologians.)
✓ 42 (Try reading this somewhat erotic poem in contrast to John Donne’s “Batter My Heart”)
✓ 46 (For anyone who wants to understand the title of the film “Chariots of Fire” read this psalm in conjunction with the account of Elijah in 2 Kings 2:1-19).
✓ 74 (A lament about the Babylonian exile, this psalm appears repeatedly in literature about World War II concentration camps; in the 1300s, Christians in Italy thought the French papacy was in exile also.)
✓ 94 (The medieval concept of the ideal ruler: read this Psalm in conjunction with Machiavelli’s The Prince to see the cultural changes in political expectation from the Middle Ages to Renaissance thought.)
✓ 119 (one of the oldest acrostic poems in existence--its basis is the letters of the Hebrew alphabet.)
▪ Proverbs (a collection of common-sense wisdom attributed to King Solomon)
✓ chapters 8 and 26 serve as representative samples of Proverbs, which as a whole was an inspiration to Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Little Richard’s Almanac.
✓ chapter 31, verses 10-31 contains a famous scriptural depiction of the “ideal woman” (one very stressed out & overworked housewife!?)
▪ Song of Songs (an erotic and romantic love poem--one of the finest in literature and it deeply influenced Saint Bernard as well as the modern novelist Toni Morrison)
The Prophets
▪ Isaiah (Isaiah is the closest thing to a “typical” Old Testament prophet, if such a thing exists)
✓ 2, verses 6-26 (A good example of the Old Testament’s idea of a “fire and brimstone” sermon)
✓ 14, verses12-17 (Milton based Paradise Lost partly on this biblical passage of Satan being cast out of heaven)
✓ 9,11, 52, and 53 (the Church fathers considered these to be prophecies about Christ)
✓ 22, verses 21-23 (This verse historically has been the basis of papal authority for Catholics)
✓ 36 and 37 (Byron based his poem “The Destruction of Sennacherib” on these two chapters of the Bible)
▪ Ezekiel chapter 1 (Note the difference between the Hebrew depiction of an Angel with the later versions)
✓ chapter 37:1-14
▪ Jonah (Read the accounts of Jonah, the whale, and the withered vine as well as those wicked Ninevites)
Old Testament Apocalyptic Literature (The end of days as the Hebrews knew it!)
▪ Isaiah 24
▪ Ezekiel chapters 38-39
▪ Daniel chapters 1-3, 11, and 56
▪ Zechariah 12-14
▪ Joel 2:28-3:16 (also contains lines Christians interpret as prophecies of Christ's death)
▪ Malachi 2:17 through the end of book
New Testament Apocalyptic Literature (The end of days as the Christians knew it!)
▪ Revelation chapters 1, and 4 through 22 (the most famous and complex account of the last days according to John of Patmos: note how closely he follows in the steps of Daniel in maintaining the Hebrew tradition in Christian teaching)
▪ First Thessalonians chapter 4, verses 13-18
▪ Matthew 24
▪ Mark 13
▪ Luke chapter 21, verses 5-37
▪ Second Peter chapter 3, verses 1-13
▪ First John chapter 2, verses 18-27
Christ's Nativity: (The symbolic basis for Christmas presents)
▪ Matthew 1:18-2:23
▪ Luke 1:26-2:51, and 15
▪ Gospel of John chapter 15 verses 1-17
Samples of Christian Teaching (A survey of the ethical and eschatological doctrine of the church)
▪ Matthew chapters 4-10, 13, 16:13-16:17, and chapters 22-24.
▪ Mark chapters 4 and 12
▪ Luke 6:27-6:49, and 10:1-10:37
Accounts of the Crucifixion
▪ Matthew 20:17-20:19, 21:1-21:11, and finally 26:1-27:61
▪ Mark 14 and15
▪ Luke 22:1-23:56
▪ Gospel of John 18:1-19:42
Gathering of the Disciples and the Early Church (from the gospels and letters of Sts. Paul and Peter)
▪ Matthew 3:18-3:22, and 10:1-10:39
▪ Mark 3:13-3:19 and 6:7-6:12
▪ Luke 6:12
▪ Gospel of John 1:35-1:42
▪ Acts 2:1-6:7
▪ Acts 6:8-7:60 (Accounts the first Martyrdom of a Saint and sets a hagiographical trend for the next thousand years)
▪ Acts 22-29
▪ Titus 1:5-1:7 (The first inkling of the Church hierarchy that will dominate Europe for the next 1500 years)
Miscellaneous:
▪ Armor of Faith: Ephesians 5:14-5:18 (After Homer, the most famous arming description in Western Europe)
▪ Mary Magdalen: Luke 7:36-7:50
▪ Lazarus: Gospel of John: 1:35-1:42 (Read it in conjunction with Sylvia Plath’s “Lady Lazarus”)
▪ The Transfiguration: Mark 9:2-9:12 and Luke 9:28-9:36
▪ Scriptural basis for Protestant doctrine on Faith: Hebrew 11
▪ Scriptural basis for Catholic doctrine on good Deeds: James 2:14 though 2:22
Beware: Avoid confusing the various people with the same first name, such as St. John, John the Baptist, and John of Patmos, or the Virgin Mary with the prostitute Mary Magdalen. Do not confuse the Ark of the Covenant (a decorated box holding the fragmented Ten Commandments) with the Ark (Noah’s big boat). The word “gentiles” refers to everybody in the world except the Hebrews. The Israelites in the Old Testament are divided into 12 tribes (from the twelve grandsons of Abraham), ten of which are “lost” from history during the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE, the other two constitute the Kingdom of Judah in the Old Testament, from which the modern Jews descend.
Medieval Numerology: A Brief Guide
Numerology is the belief that particular numbers have mystical significance, a concept of key importance in the Jewish tradition of the Hebrew Bible (or, as Christians often call it, the Old Testament). Early Christians continued the tradition in the New Testament and in medieval literature. The following is only a partial list of the meanings associated with important numbers. It is not exhaustive, and it does not give complete account for multiples such as 49 (7x7) or 144 (12x12), which were thought to have elaborate meanings.
|Number |Meaning |
|1 |God, Spiritual Unity, Creation, the First Age of the World |
|2 |Adam and Eve, the creatures of the Ark, the two-fold nature of Christ (Christ as God and Man), the Flood, the Second Age of the World |
|3 |The Trinity, the Heavens, Jonah (in the whale), Christ (in the tomb), three elements in man (body, reason, spirit), three elements of faith|
| |(knowledge, assent, confidence), three elements of repentance (contrition, confession, and satisfaction/absolution), the three Theological |
| |or Christian virtues (faith, hope, and charity), Abraham, the three Magi, three periods in time before the Law (Adam to Noah, to Abraham, |
| |to Moses), the Third Age of the World |
|4 |The four corners of the earth with its four winds, the physical elements of alchemy (earth, air, water, fire), the four bodily humors |
| |(blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile), the Evangelists, the Horsemen of the Apocalypse, the Four Cardinal or Pagan virtues (prudence, |
| |temperance, fortitude, justice), the Four Gospels, the four seasons, the four rivers of Paradise, the Four Blessings (Clarity, Impassivity,|
| |Knowledge, Delectation), the "Last Things" (death, judgment, Heaven, Hell), King David, the Fourth Age of the World. |
|5 |The Flesh, the Physical Senses, sacrifice, the Five Wounds of Christ, the Wise Virgins (Matt. 25:1-13), the Old Law (Pentateuch), the five |
| |points of a star, the Babylonian Captivity, the number of zones in the world, the Fifth Age of the World |
|6 |The Incarnation, earthly imperfection, the sixth age of the world, the six days of labor before God rested |
|7 |Completeness, perfection, the Universe (4, the earth, and 3, the heavens), the day of rest after creation, the days of the week, the seven |
| |churches, the seven sorrows of Mary, the planets, the Sacraments, the Deadly Sins, the Seven Virtues (3 Theological Virtues + 4 Pagan |
| |virtues), the final days and end of the world, the seven trumpets and seven seals of the Apocalypse, the 7th age, seven petitions of the |
| |Lord's Prayer, seven journeys of Christ, seven parts of the mass, seven ages of man, seven last words of Christ, seven tones of a scale, |
| |the seven types of good works (and much more; seven is the most frequently-occurring of all the symbolic numbers). |
|8 |The Resurrection, regeneration (seven days of creation plus following time of grace), eight souls in Noah's ark, the Last Judgment, |
| |Baptism, the Beatitudes, the Circumcision of Jesus |
|9 |The choirs of angel, the fruits of the Holy Spirit (love, joy, peace, patient endurance, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, |
| |temperance), mystery, 3x3: the triple trinity |
|10 |Perfection and completion, the Ten Commandments, Order, and the lost tribes of Israel. (3x3+1) |
|11 |The disciples between the death of Judas and the choice of Mathias, transition, conflict, martyrdom, excess (10+1), incontinence, sin |
|12 |The twelve tribes of Israel, the twelve Prophets, the twelve Apostles, the gates of the New Jerusalem, heaven and earth (3X4), spirit |
| |penetrating matter (3x4), twelve parts of man, twelve articles of the Apostle's Creed, the zodiac, cosmic order, the months, the year |
|13 |Thirteen attendants at the last supper, thirteen days for three kings' journey to the Christ child |
|24 |Twenty-four elders seated around God's throne, Twenty-four hours of natural day, (many other complex interpretations based on 2x12, 3x8, |
| |4x6, 10+8+6, 10x2+4, etc.) |
|30 |Christ's age when he began to preach. |
|40 |Forty days of Lent, Forty days of Moses on Mount Sinai, Forty days of Christ in the wilderness, Forty years to a generation, the years the |
| |Israelites wandered in the wilderness, the number of days and nights the flood covered the earth, the Old Testament law perfected with |
| |Christian Virtues (4x10) |
|49 |(7x7) |
|72 |The number of followers Jesus sent out into the world to preach during his ministry. |
|100 |Completeness (10x10) |
|168 |Hours of the week |
|248 |Number of bones in the body. |
|666 |Man's number, imperfection tripled. The number of the Beast in Revelations |
|1,000 |Perfection, 1000 acts of the Devil |
|7,000 |Universal perfection (perfection, 1000 x universality) |
|144,000 |Number of the virgins in heaven. All of God’s created people receiving spiritual blessing (12x12x1000) = (Trinity x parts of the earth x |
| |apostles or tribes x perfection). |
The Seven Deadly Sins: A Convenient Guide to Eternal Damnation
The medieval period and the early Renaissance period inherited an elaborate Christian model of sin. Over a dozen such models exist. The most popular one lists seven sins and subdivides them into three “spiritual” sins and four “corporal” (bodily) sins. All seven of the sins were deadly evils (i.e., potentially a cause of damnation), but the spiritual sins were generally acknowledged as more dangerous than sins that arose only from the weakness of the body.
The Seven Deadly Sins
Three Spiritual Sins
1. Pride (spiritual sin)
2. Envy (spiritual sin)
3. Wrath (spiritual sin affected by body)
Four Corporal Sins
4. Accidia or Sloth (corporal sin)
5. Avaricia/Cupiditas or Greed
(corporal sin)
6. Gluttony (corporal sin)
7. Lust (corporal sin)
The Seven Holy Virtues
Three Spiritual (or Theological) Virtues:
1. Fides (Faith)
2. Spes (Hope)
3. Caritas (Charity)
The Four Cardinal (or Pagan) Virtues:
4. Prudence
5. Temperance
6. Fortitude
7. Justice
The Seven Virtues opposed the Seven Sins. In one scheme, the Seven Virtues are based on the three spiritual virtues listed by Saint Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:1-13: Faith, Hope and Charity, followed by the four Cardinal or “Pagan” virtues: Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude, and Justice. (The idea was that any person, whether he or she was a Christian or not, might possess the four Cardinal Virtues. Only a Christian in medieval belief would possess faith in God, hope for an afterlife, and caritas-- the type of charity in which one does good deeds out of love for God alone.)
An alternative but equally popular version of the Seven Virtues was the “remedial” or “contrarian” model, which listed specific virtues as the “cures” or "remedies" that stand in opposition to each of the seven sins. Prudentius devised this model in 410 AD in his allegorical poem the Psychomachia (“The Battle for the Soul”). His scheme of virtues and vices looked something like this:
Humility cures Pride
Kindness cures Envy
Abstinence cures Gluttony
Chastity cures Lust
Patience cures Wrath
Liberality cures Greed
Diligence cures Sloth
Continuing the numerological mysticism of seven, the medieval church assembled a list of seven good works in the catechism as cures to the seven deadly sins: these included sheltering strangers, feeding the hungry, giving drink to those thirsting, clothing the naked, visiting the sick, ministering to the imprisoned, and burying the dead. All these traditional views, however, were objects of much theological tinkering in the Renaissance when Protestant Christians sought to separate themselves theologically from the older Catholic teachings, and Catholic theologians sought to distinguish themselves from the upstart Protestant groups.
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