FORESTRY/AGROFORESTRY REPORT
FINAL REPORT ON STATUS OF FORESTRY AND AGROFORESTRY IN THE LOWER KAGERA, UGANDA
Submitted to
FAO Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Programme (TAMP)
By
John Okorio
Consultant
May 2006
Table of Contents
List of figures iv
List of tables iv
Executive Summary v
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Forestry and Agroforestry resources in Uganda 1
1.2 Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Programme (TAMP) 2
1.3 Objectives of the study 3
2 METHODOLGY 4
2.1 Description of the Kagera basin in Uganda 4
2.2 Study areas 6
2.3 Data collection and analysis 6
3: FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 10
3.1 Status of forest and tree resources in the basin 10
3.1.1 Kabale District (Bubale and Kamwezii transect walks) 10
3.1.2 Mbarara District (Mwiizi and Kikagate transect walks) 13
3.1.3 Rakai District (Kyalulangira and Bugamba transect walks) 16
3.2 Effects of current practices on resources, ecosystems and livelihoods 18
3.2.1 Natural resources and Ecosystems 18
3.2.2 Livelihoods and natural resources 19
3.3 Driving forces and pressures 20
3.3.1 Household level 20
3.3.2 Community /Landscape level 20
4 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 21
4.1 Main challenges to forestry and agroforestry 21
4.2 Opportunities 22
5 RECOMMENDATIONS ON SPECIFIC INTERVENTIONS 22
5.1 Adaptation and up scaling of appropriate technologies 22
5.2 Capacity building of major stakeholders 23
5.3 Building strategic partnerships 23
5.4 Development of a communication and dissemination strategy 23
REFERENCES 24
APPENDIX I - Tables 27
APPENDIX II – Terms of Reference 35
APPENDIX III - List of Persons met and Departments visited during study 35
List of figures
Figure 2.1 Location of the river Kagera basin districts in Uganda
Figure 2.2 Soil types in the river Kagera basin districts in Uganda
Figure 2.3 Livestock numbers in the Kagera basin districts in Uganda
Figure 3.1 Transect at Bubale Sub County, Kabale district
Figure 3.2 Transect at Kamwezii Sub County, Kabale district
Figure 3.3 Transect at Mwiizi Sub County, Mbarara district
Figure 3.4 Transect at Kikangate Sub County, Mbarara district
Figure 3.5 Transect at Bugamba Sub County, Rakai district
Figure 3.6 Transect at Bubale Sub County, Rakai district
List of tables
Table 2.1 Demographic trends in the Kagera basin in Uganda
Table 2.2 Kabale and Ntungamo border land cover changes between 1958 and 2000
Executive Summary
The report gives a summary of the status of forestry and tree resources in the Kagera basin of Uganda; the effects of current farming practices on natural resources, ecosystems and livelihoods; driving forces influencing resources use; and recommends interventions for TAMP to implement to address the highlighted problems in the region. The field study was conducted in October 2005 and covered the three district of Kabale, Mbarara (Kabungo) and Rakai which from part of the Kagera basin in Uganda. Prior to the field work, information from various secondary sources was collected, reviewed and summarized; and together with data collected from the field form the basis for this report. Field data was collected from transect walks and PRA’s surveys conducted in areas where the transect walks were done.
Results show that forest and tree resources in the basin have been highly degraded through destructive harvesting and expansion of agricultural and livestock activities in the area. The main reasons for this include the increasing levels of poverty, and lack of awareness and skills on how to manage these resources sustainably. The net result is the degradation of these resources, loss of plant diversity, and the pollution of the river bodies in the region. In some areas such as Kabale district, attempts have been made by various organizations to promote tree growing at farm and community levels. However, there are still some natural and plantation forests in the area but their access to the communities surrounding them very is limited. Major constraints to the sector identified in the study include inadequate knowledge on tree growing, lack of appropriate tree planting materials, tree pests and diseases, lack of awareness on forest regulations, drought and damage from domestic animals. The majority of the communities in the area also heavily rely on firewood and charcoal as their main sources of energy, while the main economic activities derived from tree resources include charcoal and brick burning, sale of tree seedlings, and sale of wood (firewood, poles, timber) and non-wood products (fruits, medicines). Major impacts of deforestation in the area include erratic rainfall resulting in prolonged dry seasons, reduction in crop yields as a result of serious soil erosion, scarcity of tree and non-tree products, disappearance of some species, and reduced grazing areas.
The study also found that the major driving forces that exert a lot of pressure on forest and tree resources at household level include lack of resources for investment in natural resource management, low income levels, low levels of education, lack of awareness and knowledge on sustainable management and utilization of forest and tree resources, and gender imbalance on access and control of natural resources. At the community and/or landscape level, high population, lack of bye-laws or lack of their implementation, communal ownership of natural resources, low levels of awareness on importance of natural resources, lack of community action, and lack of awareness on policies and regulations governing the management and utilization of forest and tree resources are the major driving forces in the area.
Challenges or threats for the sector were identified to include inadequate knowledge on tree growing, long gestation period of trees as a commodity, lack of and limited access to appropriate planting materials, inadequate information on market opportunities for forest and tree products, weak advisory services and farmer participation in planning, and the weak linkages between the relevant institutions in the sector. Several opportunities were identified that can greatly promote the role that forest and tree resources can play in the national economy. These include favourable government policies, existence of several government and non-governmental organizations involved in promoting the conservation, management and utilization of forest and tree resources, expanding markets for wood and non wood forest and tree products, and conducive socio-economic climate in the country.
The following recommendations are proposed to TAMP for implementation: -
• Acquisition, adaptation and scaling up of appropriate tree and other natural resource based technologies;
• Building the capacity of major stakeholders in forestry and tree resources especially in conservation, management and utilization;
• Building strategic partnerships with research institutions, NGO’s and CBO’s, local governments and departments, and farming communities in the planning, implementation and monitoring of tree based innovations and technologies; and
• Developing a communication and dissemination strategy for information and knowledge sharing for forest and tree based innovations and technologies.
1. 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Forestry and Agroforestry resources in Uganda
Uganda has an exceptionally rich and varied natural resource base and a number of important protected areas possessing extremely high levels of biodiversity. Tropical high forests and woodlands in the country cover about 20% of the total land area [National Biomass Study, 2003]. In addition, there are substantial forest resources on-farm in some parts of the country. Over 40% of the land is put to subsistence agriculture, and this holds 24% of national biomass in the form of scattered trees, forest patches and agroforestry tree crops found within farming systems (National Biomass Study, 2003). In recent decades, lack of political stability, unregulated agricultural expansion, uncontrolled harvesting and weak institutional capacity have been the major causes of diminishing forests, savannah woodlands and wetlands across the country [Hamilton et al 1986; IFPRI, 2001]. Current estimates of deforestation in the country range from 0.9 to 3.2% annually (Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, 2002).
It is becoming clear that in order to reverse this trend, there is need to involve all stakeholders (communities, private sector, governments and NGO’s) in the management and sharing of benefits that accrue form natural resources. It has been shown in some countries that if people make money from their natural resources, they tend to manage them in a sustainable manner. For the case of Uganda where areas of natural vegetation is relatively small, the implementation of this approach would have to focus on small scale enterprises and include the domestication of selected species from the wild [Baldascini, 2002].
Forestry and agroforestry production systems have been found to provide a multitude of goods and services and hence the capacity to address different constraints for different consumers over different time periods [NRI, 2002]. They can contribute to household income/consumption directly through the production of goods (fruits, poles, fuelwood) and indirectly through goods and services such as fodder for livestock, reduction of land degradation, improved soil and water conservation. In addition, other benefits can be realized downstream through reduction of soil erosion and/or increased water flow control. These systems at a more aggregate level can also provide services for international consumers, through benefits for example of carbon sequestration and protection of international waters [NRI, 2002].
Two trends have occurred that have increased the importance of trees in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa [Place and Okorio, 2004]. The first is that scientific research has broadened the types of services that trees can provide to farmers such as soil fertility improvement, soil and water conservation and livestock fodder. Second, the conversion of natural forests and woodlands into agriculture and extraction of wood products coupled with the stagnation in plantation forestry has increased the importance of tree product supply from farms. Indeed, in many areas including Uganda, there is more standing woody biomass on farms than there is off-farm [Place et al, 2001; Okorio and Nsita, 2004].
The Kagera watershed falls in several districts in South-Western Uganda, and for several decades they were key food producing areas in the Uganda. However, high population (estimated to be 370 persons per km2), intensive land cultivation and land degradation are threatening food security in the region (Africare, 2002). The average land size per household (1.16 ha) is small compared to other regions of Uganda. The majority of the households do not use commercial fertilizers nor do they practice any form of fallow. Application of compost manure is limited to plots of land that are near homesteads because of land fragmentation. Recent studies in Kabale district indicate that an estimated 10% of formerly arable land in the region has become so degraded that it is now permanently out of production (Olson, 1996). In addition, the area of abandoned land is increasing by approximately 3% per year (Siriri, 2000). Land degradation undoubtedly contributes to low productivity. This deterioration of the natural resource base has increased rural poverty, malnutrition and inability to meet other basic social needs.
Bio-mass, primarily consisting of forest resources and other organic matter, remains the major source of energy in Uganda with up to 94 % of the population depending on it (National Biomass Study 2003; UNDP, 2005). Although bio-mass can be an environmentally sound source of energy, its production and use are often unsustainable and have adverse effects on the environment. Results from the National Bio-mass study indicate that fire wood production is only meeting 60% of the demand in the south western Uganda. The majority of the households are increasingly using crop residues as a source of energy for cooking. This practice, however, has negative implications on soil fertility management as this continually takes away the materials that would otherwise decompose and release soil nutrients.
Tropical forests and savanna woodlands in South Western Uganda were more widespread in the past with evidence of sequential deforestation resulting from high population (Purseglove, 1950). However, recent evidence shows that the area under these vegetation types in the Kagera basin has considerably reduced (Mugisha 2002; National Biomass Study 2003). On the other hand, an increase in the number of Eucalyptus woodlots on farms in the basin has been observed. These land use/cover changes in the Kagera basin in Uganda have been associated with undesirable effects such as massive alteration of water and carbon cycles, deforestation, loss of biodiversity and soil degradation (Stocking, 1984; Pomeroy et al, 2003). All these trends in the Kagera basin are worrying and need to be urgently addressed. The inception of the Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Programme (TAMP) being designed by FAO and the respective governments in the Kagera Basin, is a step in the right direction.
1.2 Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Programme (TAMP)
The natural resources of the Kagera river basin, which rises in Burundi and flows through Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania into Lake Victoria, are facing increasing pressures and degradation as a result of population pressures, the intensification of agricultural and livestock activities and unsustainable land use systems and management practices. The basin’s land and freshwater resource base, its associated biodiversity and thereby human livelihoods and food security, are threatened by declining productive capacity and resource value of the cropland, rangeland and forests and by wetland encroachment. The proposed project aims to improve knowledge and strengthen capacities at local, technical and policy levels for the preparation of an integrated agro-ecosystems and biodiversity management framework – the Transboundary Agro-ecosystems Management Programme (TAMP).
The full scale project will support the implementation of TAMP with the long-term goal to protect the integrity of the ecosystems of the lower Kagera Basin and to harness global environmental benefits through ensuring the productive and sustainable use of the biodiversity resources and agricultural ecosystems. The TAMP will mobilise the adoption of productive and sustainable land management and livelihood strategies of local populations in range, agro-pastoral and arable lands. An integrated ecosystem management approach across the transboundary river basin will help combat degradation, rehabilitate degraded lands and achieve local and global environmental benefits in terms of biodiversity conservation, protection of international waters and mitigating the effects of climate change through enhanced carbon sequestration.
The environment objectives of TAMP are to:-
• Mitigate the causes of land degradation and introduce appropriate integrated systems approach to restore ecosystem health and functioning;
• Achieve global environmental benefits through the conservation and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity and identification and testing of access and benefit sharing mechanisms for habitat, species and genetic levels; and
• Enhance carbon sequestration and thereby contribute to mitigating climate variability and change.
While the development objectives of TAMP are to:-
• Contribute towards achieving the MDG’s (in particular poverty reduction and environmental sustainability); and
• Reduce food security of rural communities through better management of their natural resource base.
3 Objectives of the study
The overall objective of the study was to do a field assessment of the current status of forestry and tree resources of the Kagera basin agro-ecosystems in Uganda. The specific objectives were to: -
• Identify different forest and tree systems in the basin and establish their status in terms of diversity;
• Identify causes of existing land management practices and systems and their effects on resources, ecosystems and livelihoods with particular attention to agro-biodiversity, land degradation, carbon sequestration and international waters;
• Establish the driving forces and pressures influencing resource use and agriculture systems at household and community levels;
• Establish major threats/challenges and opportunities for promoting sustainable management and utilization of forest and tree resources; and
• Make recommendations on specific interventions to reverse the negative trends and enhance positive trends building on experiences and lessons learnt in the Kagera basin and other areas in the country.
The following sections of the report, therefore, describe the methodologies used in the study, the major findings from the study especially effects of current practices on forest and tree resources and livelihoods, the challenges and opportunities for forestry and tree resources, and specific recommendations on forestry and agroforestry interventions for the TAMP project.
2 METHODOLGY
2.1 Description of the Kagera basin in Uganda
Location
The Kagera Basin districts in Uganda are located between 9,972,145 and 9,838,443 metres south of the equator (or approximately 133 km on a north south direction); and between 149,258 – 397,003 meters east (or approximately 150 km east-west direction) as shown in Figure 2.1 shows the location of the Kagera River Basin Districts of Uganda. The basin is made up of three major landforms: low-lying and almost flat area that is adjacent to Lake Victoria; undulating and hilly areas and very hilly areas as one moves west of Lake Victoria. The altitude of the basin ranges from 1,108 m to 2,486 m above sea level. The nature of the landforms (dominated by the Ankole-Karagwean surface) yields a diversity of land resources (hydrology, soils, climatic conditions and vegetation) that make the region an important ecological and economic region of Uganda.
Soils
The basin has two major types of parent rocks: The Karagwe - Ankolean Phyllites which cover 28% of the area, while the phyllites, quartz and schists cover the remaining area. Recent uplifts in the earth surface, gave rise to the Ankole-Karagwean surfaces with a variety of soil types which characterize the Kagera river basin of Uganda. Kagera basin has 4 major mapping units according to FAO soil map: Orthic Ferralsols, Humic Gleysols; Humic Nitosols; and Mollic Andosols. The dominant soil texture of the above four mapping units is loams with percentages ranging from 75 – 100% (Figure 2.2).
Rangelands and livestock
Rangelands, based on the FAO Africover map, are widespread in the Kagera River Basin of Uganda covering 5200.5 km2 or 29 % of the area. The extensive rangelands have encouraged dairy/beef cattle keeping and most of the beef and milk consumed in major urban areas of the country originate from the basin. Livestock numbers vary in the different districts with the highest being in Mbarara region i.e. 727,000 based on 1995 national agricultural census.
Cropped areas
High population densities, combined with fertile soils in areas with well-distributed rainfall have allowed crop farming. The area covered by farmed ecosystems, according to FAO’s Africover map, is 4636.4 km2 or 26% of the area. Farming is at subsistence level with few commercial farms.
Population
In 1991 there were a total of about 363,113 households in the Kagera basin region. In 2002 the number of households was 501,222 over a period of 10 years the households increased by 38%. On the other hand, the total number of people in the Kagera basin region stood at 1,876,474 and 2,876,474 in 1991 and 2002 respectively, an increment of about 27%. A summary of both household and population trends are shown in Table 2.1
Table 2.1: Demographic trends in the Kagera basin in Uganda.
|District |Household variables |Population variables |
| |No. (1991) |No. (2002) |Increment |% change |
| |1955 |2000 |1985 - 2000 |1955 – 2000 |
|Tropical rain forest |3.4 |2.0 |-1.4 |-41.2 |
|Savanna |10.2 |10.2 |0.0 |0.0 |
|Seasonal swamps |43.8 |30.7 |-13.1 |-29.9 |
|Papyrus |36.5 |31.5 |-5.0 |-13.7 |
|Grass |336.3 |311.5 |-24.8 |-7.4 |
|Farming |1436.2 |1480.5 |44.3 |3.1 |
|Water |3.5 |3.5 |0.0 |0.0 |
|Total |1869.9 |1869.9 | | |
The mid catchment of the basin includes Mbarara district and parts of the cattle corridor. The main vegetation types in the area are mainly wooded savanna and grass savanna. There has been a significant in the vegetation as a result of increased small-scale farming. The bare hills that are characteristic of the area are said to be the result of overgrazing. Rakai district falls within the flood plains of Sango Bay. The vegetation types in the area include forest mosaic, grass savanna, wooded savanna and swamp forest (Langdale-Brown, 1960). Most of the area in now under cultivation and grazing, although no significant changes on the vegetation types have been recorded (Mugisha, 2002).
2.2 Study areas
The study was conducted in the three districts of Kabale, Mbarara and Rakai that fall within the Kagera watershed. In Kabale district, the study was conducted at two sites of Bubale and Kamwezi sub-counties. Bubale sub-county represented a highland area which is densely populated where farmers practice annual cropping, while Kamwezi sub-county represented a highland area which is moderately populated where farmers practice mixed farming (livestock keeping and growing of perennial crops). Rainfall in both areas is relatively high. In Mbarara district, the study was conducted in the sub-counties of Kikagati and Mwiizi. Kikagati is a predominantly a livestock keeping area, has a low attitude with a low population. There is also small scale cultivation of annual and perennial crops. Generally the area has low rainfall. Mwiizi on the other hand is predominantly a mixed farming area where livestock and cultivation of annual and perennial crops is done. It is a high altitude area with a medium population and rainfall. In Rakai district, the study was conducted in the sub-counties of Bugamba and Kyalulangira. In Bugamba sub-county, mixed farming is practiced where both crops and livestock are found. It is a medium altitude area, with medium population and rainfall. Kyalulangira sub-county is mainly a livestock keeping area with little cropping activities. It is also found in a medium altitude area with medium population density and medium annual rainfall.
3 Data collection and analysis
The study was carried out over the course of three weeks in October 2005. The fist few days were used by the team to internalize data collection tools and linking up with district officials and selection of field sites for the study. Prior to the field work, some time was spent on collecting information from various secondary sources such as reviewing relevant literature (obtained from libraries, bookshops and internet) and interviewing key informants. The literature collected ranged from publications that addressed broad issues related to forest and tree systems, to publications that contained more detailed information on specific areas of the study.
Field data collection was done at landscape, plot and community levels. The plot and landscape levels were assessed using transects where observations on the tree cover, diversity of tree species and current observations on forestry and agroforestry practices were done. In each transect observations were made on current forestry and agroforestry practices, types of tree and shrub species, planting arrangements and location on landscape, associated crops, tree management practices, occurrence of pests and diseases, indigenous species and their main uses, and the major medicinal species.
During the PRA’s, discussions with the communities on forestry and tree resources were conducted. Issues that were discussed related to agroforestry included types of agroforestry practices, tree species and their uses, sources of planting materials, tree related production constraints, and existing projects and partners promoting agroforestry in these areas. Forestry related issues discussed with the communities included types of existing forests, main products from them and access by communities, endangered species, awareness on forest regulations, impacts of deforestation, accessibility and affordability of forest and tree products, and changes & trends in energy availability to communities. Information on threats to different forest types, and effects on livelihoods was also collected during the PRA’s. The main tools used in the data collection exercise were mainly focus group discussions, ranking and historical analysis. Data collected during the study were summarized both in tabular and narrative form.
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Figure 2.1: Location of the River Kagera basin districts in Uganda.
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Figure 2.2: Soil types in the River Kagera basin districts in Uganda.
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Figure 2.3: Livestock numbers in the Kagera river basin districts (Source: ILRI, Nairobi).
3: FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
1 Status of forest and tree resources in the basin
3.1.1 Kabale District (Bubale and Kamwezii transect walks)
Kabale district falls in the upper catchment in the Kagera basin, and was originally characterized by high altitude forests, forest savanna and permanent water logged vegetation (Langdale-Brown, 1960). Overtime, however, there has been considerable reduction in forest and savanna vegetation in the area (Mugisha 2002, National biomass Study, 2003). Other significant changes in the area are the increase in fallow land and Eucalyptus woodlots, and relocation of grazing land from hill slopes to valley bottoms (Olson 1996; Lindblade et al, 1998). A number of factors have been identified as major causes of forest degradation and loss of forest and tree cover. Major factors include conversion of forests into agricultural and grazing land, and over-harvesting for firewood, charcoal, timber and non-wood forest products (Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, 2002). In addition, a majority of rural people practice extensive subsistence agriculture, which creates the need for agricultural land. Combined with the strong dependence of the people on forest products for incomes and quality of life, and the absence of effective systems of regulation, this creates pressures for unsustainable harvesting of forest and tree resources.
A transect walk in Bubale sub-county, clearly indicated that the tree cover in the area was very low, although agroforestry appeared to be widely practiced by farmers (Figure 3.1). This is probably due to the fact that agroforestry research and development has been taking place for more than ten years in the area. The National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) through its Forestry Resources Research Institute in collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) have been developing various agroforestry technologies in the area (AFRENA Project 2003) while NGO’s such as Africare, Africa 2000 Network and the local governments have been actively promoting these technologies (Africare, 2002). There are still a few remaining natural forests in the area such as Echuya and Bwindii, and plantation forests such as Mafuga and Muko in the area.
Generally, trees and shrubs were observed to be planted mainly around homesteads, cropland and along foot paths or cattle tracks. Trees in crop gardens were planted either as scattered trees in cropped areas or were planted along contour bunds. The main agroforestry tree species, planting arrangement and associated crops found in the area are shown in appendix 1, Table 3.1 Discussions with the farming communities indicated that trees generally receive minimum management like weeding (when crops are wed) and pruning of branches to minimize shading of crops. Trees planted around homesteads were live fences and were mainly composed of indigenous trees used as medicine for the households and livestock. The other uses that trees are put into include staking material for climbing beans, firewood, fruits and making of household implements such as hoe handles. Remnants of indigenous trees and shrubs were also found in areas where crops were not grown (Appendix 1, Table 3.2). Other uses of indigenous tree and shrub species include fencing of homes and gardens, making of beehives and household implements (hoe handles, mortars). Generally in this farming system, there was low diversity of tree and shrub species.
Discussions with the communities during the PRAs revealed that the main products obtained from forests and agroforestry systems in the area include firewood, charcoal, timber and income from sale of these products. Commonly grown tree species and their uses as highlighted by the communities are shown in appendix 1, Table 3.3. The communities also identified the major constraints to forestry and agroforestry activities as damage to trees by wind, bush burning, pests and diseases (e.g. blue gum chalcid on eucalyptus), drought, shortage of quality planting materials, and damage by domestic animals. They also indicated that forests harbour wild animals which destroy crops, while lack of awareness on most forest regulations was the other major problem identified. Access to and control of forest and tree resources in the area as mentioned by the communities are shown in appendix 1, Table 3.4. Most of the members of the community such as the youth and women have access to these resources, but their control rests mainly with the men.
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Figure 3.1: Transect at Bubale showing distribution of tree resources in the landscape
The types of energy used by households as found during the PRA survey include firewood, charcoal and paraffin. Major sources of firewood are tree sources either from individual farms or purchases from markets or neighbours. Appendix 1, Table 3.5 shows the accessibility and affordability of energy types for the households in the area. Households indicated that both firewood and paraffin are not easily accessible while charcoal was. However, in terms of affordability all the three sources of energy were not affordable due to high costs especially paraffin. The communities indicated that wood and energy sources are getting more scare with time and their costs have risen significantly.
The main impacts of deforestation as highlighted by the communities included reduction in crop yields through soil erosion, erratic rainfall and prolonged dry seasons, decreasing sources of wood and energy products, and the disappearance of some species such as Acacia mearnsii, and Ficus natalensis. The major forestry related economic activities in the area included charcoal and brick burning, selling of tree seed and seedlings, and selling of fruits and timber. Projects and organizations promoting tree based activities in the area include Africa 2000 network, National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS), World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), NARO, Kyantobi Agroforestry Association and local CBO,s.
In the perennial cropping system represented by Kamwezii sub-county, trees in pasture and scattered in cropped areas were common features in the landscape. There were also isolated bushes composed mainly of shrubs and herbs in areas that are not cultivated (Figure 3.2). The transect walk showed that the area is mainly a grazing area with little agriculture being practiced in it. There were a lot of indigenous trees and shrubs found scattered in the pastures with a few species forming thickets (Appendix 1, Table 3.7). There many banana plantations in the area with scattered fruit trees and few indigenous species such as Ficus natalensis found in them (Appendix 1, Table 3.6). Pastures and areas under fallow with scattered small bushes of indigenous trees and shrubs composed mainly of Dodonaea mixed with grasses were also found along the transect. Generally, little agroforestry was practiced in the area. However, woodlots of Eucalyptus or Acacia mearnsii are commonly found, confirming what Lindbrade et al (1998) indicated was happening in the area.
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Figure 3.2: Transect at Kamwezii showing distribution of tree resources in the landscape
Discussion with the communities during the PRA’s indicated that there were no major natural or plantation forests in the area except for several eucalyptus woodlots planted by individual farmers and naturally regenerating scattered Acacia mearnsii stands that are communally owned. Agroforestry is not widely practiced by farmers in the area. However, some agroforestry practices such as scattered tree planting in cropland and trees planted along farm boundaries were encountered during the transect walk. The trees are mainly planted to provide tree products especially fuelwood, poles and timber. Other uses of trees include fruits, fodder for livestock and use of trees to improve crop production through soil fertility enhancement and soil and water conservation.
Generally in the Kabale area, the main threat to forestry and tree resources is the increasing human population which has led to the clearance of most of the natural vegetation to give way for agricultural expansion and also for income generation for the communities through sale of forest products. This has resulted in the loss of forest and tree resources that have led to the deterioration of the ecosystem integrity, decreased plant biodiversity and reduced carbon sequestration in the area. It was also apparent that a lot of exotic indigenous trees and shrubs are being introduced on farms and as woodlots in the farming systems as the indigenous species have declined over time. This is shown by the low tree and shrub diversity in the area.
3.1.2 Mbarara District (Mwiizi and Kikagate transect walks)
Mbarara district is found in the mid catchment of the basin and used to be characterized by wooded and grass savannas (Langdale-Brown, 1960). These ecosystems have decreased over time as a result of immigration from neighbouring over populated areas as well as gradual transformation of pure pastoral to mixed farming. The bare hills in the area have resulted from many years of over grazing on soils that are inherently poor (Pomeroy, 2003). The wide spread invasion of alien weeds, unpalatable plants are said to be indicators of land use/cover change resulting from land degradation associated with overgrazing. Currently the district is a predominantly livestock keeping area with mixed cropping in some other areas. It is mainly a rangeland area with forest and tree resources composed mostly of Acacia species and other dry land species.
In the mixed cropping system represented by Mwiizi sub-county, the area was found to be dominated by agricultural crops with few indigenous trees and shrubs found scattered in them (Figure 3.3). There were a few fruit and other tree species interplanted in the banana plantations found to be dominating in the area (Appendix 1, Table 3.8). A few eucalyptus woodlots and several bushes composed mainly of indigenous shrubs and a few tree species were also found (Appendix 1, Table 3.9). A few swamps are also found in the area.
The area still has a few forests such as Magaju natural forest reserve and Bugamba forest plantation. However, the use of these forests by the communities is highly restricted to activities such grazing of livestock and collection of firewood for domestic use. These are only permitted in natural forests but not in the forest plantations. Generally, the communities have no control over these forest resources but have limited access to them for only specific products. Compared to Kabale district, there are very few organizations that are involved in forest and tree promotion activities in the communities.
Results from the PRA in the area indicate that the major constraints to forestry and agroforestry activities include uncontrolled burning especially during the dry season; over cutting for firewood, timber, and charcoal, agricultural land, building materials; pests and diseases and prolonged droughts. Over cutting was generally ranked as the major constraint in the area leading to diminishing forest resources. The main sources of energy include firewood and charcoal which are mainly used for cooking and house warming, while paraffin is used by few households for lighting. The major impacts of deforestation in the area include shortages of wood and non-wood products, droughts resulting in water shortages for both humans and livestock, especially in the dry season. The major economic forestry related activities carried out by communities include brick making, carpentry, sale of charcoal, firewood and timber. These are usually done by the males in the community.
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Figure 3.3: Transect at Mwiizi showing distribution of tree resources in the landscape
In Kikagate sub-county, the transect walk showed that this is a predominantly livestock keeping area with some crop production. Some areas are, however, under fallow (Figure 3.4). Few agroforestry trees are found planted near the homesteads, especially fruit trees, or scattered in pastures or crop land (Appendix 1, Table 3.10). Indigenous trees and shrubs are also found scattered in fallow and/or pasture land (Appendix 1, Table 3.11). Scattered within some banana plantations are some fruit trees such as avocado, pawpaw, mangoes and oranges (Appendix 1, Table 3.12).
Discussions with the communities in this area showed that few people own eucalyptus woodlots and a majority still rely heavily on the remaining indigenous vegetation for their wood and energy requirements. All members of household, however, have access to tree resources especially in the low lands. The main uses of trees include medicine, provision of wood products and fruits. Women are usually allowed to collect firewood for domestic use from some of these woodlots. Men collect mainly local medicines and fencing poles from these forests. The major constraints to forest resources in the area include lack of ownership of land by women who normally plant trees more than the men, damage from termites and ignorance in tree establishment and management. Most tree planting in the area is usually on individual plots rather that on land that is communally owned.
[pic]
Figure 3.4: Transect at Kikagate showing distribution of tree resources in the landscape
Access to forestry and tree resources is for all members of the community, but control on the use and benefits from them rests mainly with the males in the community. Women have to get permission from men to cut trees. A few farmers have started growing trees in the area for commercial purposes. The main type of energy used by the communities is mainly firewood, although a few use charcoal and paraffin. The main impacts of deforestation include reduction in crop yields, soil erosion, drought and soil exhaustion, and lack of grazing lands. The main economic activities related to forestry and tree resources include brick making, especially by boy child and males. Institutions and projects in the area that are involved in forestry and tree based activities include the National Forestry Authority (NFA), NAADS, Mbarara district Farmer’s Association and UNICEF.
In this area, the main threats and pressures on forestry and tree resources are mainly over grazing and over cutting of forested areas. Despite this trend, there are still some fair amounts of natural forests and woodlands in the area. The diversity of tree and shrub species in the area was found to be than found in the Kabale area. However, there are also reported cases of invasive plant species such as Senna spectabilis and Lanata camara that are invading forested areas and grazing lands respectively. Due to its location in the cattle corridor, which is a relatively dry area, the effects of vegetation clearance on ecosystem integrity are more pronounced.
3.1.3 Rakai District (Kyalulangira and Bugamba transect walks)
Rakai district is found in the flood plains of the Kagera basin and is characterized by swamp forests of Sango bay, grass and wooded savannas (Langdale-Brown, 1960). Land use/cover change analysis of the area show significant changes as most of the area has been converted to subsistence farming and grazing by immigrant pastoralists (Mugisha, 2000).
In Kyalulangira sub-county, the transect walks revealed that the area is mainly under pasture and indigenous trees and shrubs with the Acacia species dominating (Figure 3.5). Some areas are under agriculture mainly comprised of banana plantations and annual crops. Agroforestry trees were found scattered within the cropped areas and some were planted around homesteads (Appendix 1, Table 3.14). However, a few indigenous trees and shrubs were also found scattered in pastures or fallow land (Appendix 1, Table 3.13). Areas near swamps and lakes have very fertile soils with several indigenous trees and shrubs dominated by Acacia trees and papyrus reeds.
[pic]
Figure 3.5: Transect at Kyalulangira showing distribution of tree resources in the landscape
The PRA in the area revealed that fruit trees were more preferred than other species when it comes to intercropping with crops. Most planting materials for fruit trees were said to be obtained from neighbours or local markets. Other trees that were preferred include Ficus natalensis and Grevillea robusta. The communities also appreciated trees for providing shade to humans and livestock. They also prefer growing trees individually since there are no communal areas for community tree planting. The major constraints to tree growing activities in the area include lack of land and planting materials such as seeds or seedlings. Other constraints cited include growing trees together with crops which results in reduce yields, and some trees also attract crop pests (e.g. oranges).
Firewood is the main source of energy for the communities and is obtained mainly from shrubs around homesteads. Other sources are woodlots of Eucalyptus, Acacia mearnsii and Grevillea which are the species farmers are willing to plant. Reduced availability of firewood has been attributed to increase in population which has led communities to access firewood from natural vegetation. The main impacts of deforestation as cited by the communities are scarcity of firewood and building poles, droughts resulting in crop failures, scarcity of water for domestic use and livestock, and hot weather. There are no projects related to forestry or agroforestry activities in the area, while the major activity that is related to forestry resources is the use of building poles and timber for house construction.
During the transect walk in the mixed farming system in Bugamba sub-county, it was noted that the area was under agriculture but with most of it was under pasture and fallow (Figure 3.6). The dominant tree species in the area was noted to be Acacia hockii, while many other indigenous trees are found in small bushes in fallow or pasture land. Few trees are found in the cropped area especially fruit trees that are scattered in banana plantations (Appendix 1, Table 3.15). Small bushes of indigenous trees and shrubs are also found scattered in the landscape mainly in fallow or pasture land (Appendix 1, Table 3.16).
[pic]
Figure 3.6: Transect at Bugamba showing distribution of tree resources in the landscape
The PRA exercises revealed that there were a few eucalyptus woodlots in the area which were privately owned. A few isolated woodlands do exist but there are no natural forests found in the area. It was also found that all members of the household have access to forest and tree resources but the youth and women have no control of these resources. Income generating activities related to forest and tree resources include brick making, carpentry and charcoal making. It was also revealed that tree species such as Albizia coriaria, Elaeis guineensis, Combretum molle, Teclea nobilis and Rumex abyssinicus are slowly disappearing in the area. Historical analysis with the communities indicated that there has been a decline in vegetation cover, decline in soil fertility, increased soil and water loss, decline in rainfall leading to low vegetation cover and low crop yields.
The area is generally sparsely populated and there are a lot of immigrants coming to settle in it. Most of these immigrants own large numbers of livestock, hence there is overgrazing, bush burning and clearing of bush and woodlands for agriculture purposes. The tree and shrub species diversity is still relatively high, although some species are becoming rare in the area. It is also apparent that a few tree/shrub species exist in the area, an indication that there are few institutions that are promoting tree growing in the area.
3.2 Effects of current practices on resources, ecosystems and livelihoods
3.2.1 Natural resources and Ecosystems
The high demand for food, fuel and fibre exert pressure on all natural resources including forest and tree resources. Continuing conversion of land to agriculture and increasingly intensive land use systems indicate serious land degradation in the future. Drastic changes in the forest cover in the country during the past century. Forest cover has reduced from 52% in 1890 to only 24% of the land surface area in the country today (MWLE, 2002). As indicated earlier land use/cover in the Kagera basin has considerably reduced. The combined effects of deforestation and high consumption result in an accelerating imbalance between demand and supply of forest and tree products in the area. A recent study also indicates that the overall biodiversity in the country, including the Kagera basin, is declining (MUIENR, 2000).
Overgrazing, rampant deforestation and encroachment on forested areas and rangelands for non-crop production have led to severe degradation of these areas. The relatively rich biodiversity in the Kagera basin has been cleared for expansion of agricultural land; and by charcoal/firewood production for domestic cooking and income generation through charcoal sales to urban centres; and wild fires set by pastoralists. This has led to significant loss of the natural vegetation, and the role of trees acting as global carbon sink in controlling climate change is impaired and much of the native biodiversity of medicinal, cultural, food and economic value is being lost in the degradation process.
It was evident from the transect walks and discussions with the communities in all the districts that current farming practices have had a profound effect on forest and tree resources. Overall, there is a general decline on forest and tree resources resulting in the scarcity of products derived from them (National Biomass Study 2003). Generally, rural development has been found to be critically important for economic growth and poverty reduction and virtually all rural people depend on small holder agriculture as their primary economic activity (Von Braun, 2004). Agriculture is the economic nexus of rural areas, generating employment (both on and off-farm sectors), income, and providing food security. There were several examples of income generating activities that are based on forest and tree resources that were highlighted by the communities in the study area. Most of them are based on the exploitation of forest and tree resources rather than on planned and managed harvesting. The result is the disruption of the ecosystems from which these forest and tree products are extracted.
It has been argued that, investment in rural areas is crucial for the efficient and sustainable use and management of natural resources (soils, water and forests) which are strongly linked to long-term growth and poverty reduction (Von Braun, 2004). However, the high levels of poverty in rural areas perpetuate the unsustainable utilization of natural resources including forest and tree resources by rural communities. This implies that natural resources may be irrevocably harmed to the long-term detriment of rural areas. It is very clear that natural resources in the Kagera basin in Uganda are facing serious exploitation with limited efforts aimed at reversing the trend. It is a well known fact that forest and tree resources help to meet people’s basic needs and are frequently an important basis for economic and social development. The twin problems of low agricultural productivity and severe deterioration of the rural environment are major manifestations of rural poverty (ICRAF, 2000). For a number of complex reasons – including overuse of natural resources, poor land management, and ineffective and inappropriate government policies - the natural resource base on which agriculture depends is becoming severely degraded through deforestation, soil fertility depletion (Nkonya et al., 2004), water scarcity, and erosion of both soil and genetic resources. This state of affairs has, therefore, to be reversed if sustainable agricultural growth and natural resource utilization are to be attained.
In the study area, current agricultural practices have been found to generally decrease forest and tree diversity, lead to land and forestry resource degradation and reduced carbon sequestration as more and more forests are converted to agricultural land. The overall effect of all these is the pollution of regional and international waters such as river Kagera as the regulating effect of forests on water flow is removed. It is, therefore, imperative that these issues be addressed if rural development through agricultural transformation is to be achieved in Uganda in general and the Kagera basin in particular.
3.2.2 Livelihoods and natural resources
In Uganda, as elsewhere, low funding and incentives, inadequate livelihoods perspectives, inappropriate skills, and over-centralization have all reduced the effectiveness of the management of natural resources (Harrison et al., 2004). The livelihoods approach has been found to be useful in understanding the livelihood options adopted by the resource poor rural farming households (Chambers and Conway 1992; Ashley and Carney, 1999) such as how household members access resources, barriers that prevent access (e.g. ethnicity, gender), ability of households to build and use assets, (physical, financial, natural, social, environmental, political); and structures that control resources, governance structures and long-term uncertainty.
The sustainability of the enterprises that farmers engage in, is put to question if the natural resource base on which they depend is continuously exploited. This underscores the need to understand the factors and actors that shape the livelihood options of these communities, as a basis for developing potential strategic options that respond to their unique circumstances, while ensuring sustainable use of the natural resources. For instance, policies, institutions and social processes play a pivotal role in helping or hindering peoples’ livelihood options. This is even more significant in light of the fact that most natural resources are common property resources (FAO 1993; 1999).
A recent study north-eastern Uganda indicated that the livelihoods of rural communities rely heavily on the natural resources as a result of social and climatic changes that have reduced the dependence on subsistence agriculture (UPIMAC, 2004). However, this has resulted in the natural resources being mined to the detriment of the future generations. The major natural resources are diminishing in the face of increasing human population and changed livelihood coping mechanisms that have been adopted by the communities. Open access of communities to forest and wetland resources has reduced as they become restricted and privatized. Individual owners of these resources place more restrictive measures that limit their availability to the communities, who revert to the remaining common property resources for their livelihoods.
Although there are well known regulations on the utilization of various natural resources, these are not implemented due to lack of capacity by the local institutions and the insecurity that prevailed in these areas. The combination of these forces has rendered the natural resource base more vulnerable to depletion. There is a need, therefore, to build capacity to implement these regulations and consequently popularize them at various levels.
From the field visits and above experiences it is clear that a majority of the current livelihoods engaged in by the communities in the study area are based on the natural resources which unfortunately are being degraded hence endangering the very survival of these communities. It is, therefore, imperative that sustainable land management options be developed to ensure present and potential livelihoods options based on these resources are sustained and enhanced.
3.3 Driving forces and pressures
There are several driving forces and pressures that exert a lot pressure on natural resources including forestry and tree resources in the Kagera watershed in Uganda. They occur at household, community or landscape levels.
3.3.1 Household level
At the household level several factors are the major driving forces that led to unsustainable management and utilization of natural resources including forest and tree resources. They include lack of resources for investment in natural resources, low income levels, low levels of education, lack of awareness and knowledge on sustainable management and utilization of natural resources, gender imbalance on access and control of natural resources, and gender imbalance importance of
3.3.2 Community /Landscape level
High population, lack of bye-laws or lack of their implementation, communal ownership of natural resources, low levels of awareness on importance of natural resources, lack of community action at landscape level, and lack of awareness on policies and regulations governing the management and utilization of natural resources are some of the major driving forces in the Kagera watershed in Uganda.
4 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
4.1 Main challenges to forestry and agroforestry
Generally in the country, there are several challenges that need to be overcome in order for forestry and tree related activities to greatly contribute to national development. These challenges include but are not restricted to the following [Okorio et al, 2003]: - inadequate knowledge on tree growing, long gestation period of trees as a commodity, lack of and limited access to appropriate planting materials, inadequate information on market opportunities for forest and tree products, weak advisory services and farmer participation in planning, and the weak linkages between the relevant institutions in the sector.
One of the major constraints to the promotion and wide scale promotion and adoption of forestry and agroforestry innovations by farmers and the communities is the lack or inadequate knowledge on tree growing. However, through some training by several programmes, some achievements have been realized in this area but a lot more needs to be done. For most tree species being promoted, there is inadequate quantity and quality of plating material or germplasm. This can be in the form of seed, seedlings, cuttings or scions. The National Tree Seed Centre was expected to deliver effective and efficient germplasm supply for most tree farmers in the country. Under the NFA, the centre is trying to re-structure itself in order to have a country wide frame work for distributing quality seed to clients. The long gestation periods for investments in tree growing make it unpopular especially among the poor who prefer to invest in areas where returns are short term. There is currently very little information on the demand and quantities of available forest and tree products in the country. This leads to low profits and production of low quality products since there is no link between the products and the markets. The establishment of NAADS has greatly improved agricultural advisory services to farmers and communities. However, messages in forestry and agroforestry are not usually on the priority list of farmers and the communities. There is also need to have strong linkages between the various institutions in the sector for better development and utilization of forest and tree resources.
Other challenges faced in the sector include damage to forest resources through uncontrolled bush burning, damage to planted trees by domestic livestock and drought, tree pests and diseases, and the perception that forests and tree harbour wild animals and birds that destroy both food and cash crops. There is a lot of damage to natural forests and tree resources through uncontrolled bush burning especially during the dry seasons when livestock keepers induce fires to regenerate fresh grass for cattle. In some cases damage to trees form strong winds is also reported as a problem. As far as newly planted trees are concerned, the major problems are damage from roaming domestic animals and prevalent droughts in these areas that lead to high mortality rates of newly planted seedlings. Tree pests and diseases are also reported as major problems to tree growing especially such as on eucalyptus. Currently in the country, Eucalyptus is under very serious attack from the blue gum chalcid believed to have originated from Australia and was probably introduced in the region accidentally through seed scions [Kiwuso 2005]. The other major hindrance to tree growing by communities is the perception that forests & trees harbour wild animals and birds that destroy both food and cash crops. This in most cases discourages people to grow trees in as much as they know their value.
4.2 Opportunities
Despite the above challenges, there are several opportunities that can be utilized to greatly promote the role that forest and tree resources can play in the national economy. These include favourable government policies, existence of several government and Non-governmental organizations involved in the sector, expanding markets for wood and non wood forest and tree products, and conducive socio-economic climate in the country.
The current forest policy [National Forestry Policy, 2001] spells out some of the strategies for its implementation such as decentralized farmer driven service delivery, ownership of planted trees, participatory development of forestry and agroforestry technologies, and the development of high quality planting materials among others. These strategies are geared towards expanding the forest and tree resources for economic development and conservation of the environment. There are also many NGO’s and CBO’s in the country whose activities include tree growing. Most development partners now channel resources through these organizations that are characterized by less bureaucracy hence are able to reach households more effectively than government departments. The expanding markets for wood and non wood forest and tree products offer very good chance for households and communities to increase their incomes. It therefore becomes increasingly more profitable to invest in forest and tree related enterprises. Problems of environmental degradation and the belief that agroforestry is a community development strategy has given the sector a lot of political support both at local and national government levels. Therefore, activities aimed at enhancing forestry and agroforestry practices at household and community levels will receive considerable support. Under decentralization, political support will translate into increased public investment for farmers and communities through NAADS and other programmes.
Other opportunities for forestry and agroforestry activities include the loss of tree cover and the resulting highly degraded landscapes. This has awakened the government and the general public on the importance of tree growing. In addition, poor crop and animal productivity resulting from loss of vegetation has also raised awareness on importance of the sector. There is now willingness to devote time, effort and resources to this area by both government and the communities. Several communities and some local governments in these areas are actively promoting tree growing. The high level of awareness on deforestation and its impacts is another opportunity that can be utilized in promoting tree growing and reforestation efforts in these areas.
5 RECOMMENDATIONS ON SPECIFIC INTERVENTIONS
Given the findings of the study and the major challenges and opportunities that exist in the area, the following forestry and agroforestry interventions are proposed: -
5.1 Adaptation and up scaling of appropriate technologies
There will be need to adapt and promote relevant forestry & agroforestry technologies in these areas if current trends are to be reversed. Currently there are several existing technologies and innovations that can address these issues and they can be obtained from within the country, in the region or globally. They include technologies on wood & energy production, tree based land management technologies, tree based crop and livestock production technologies, growing and management of high value trees (e.g. fruits, medicinal) and many others. These need to be evaluated and promoted together with the communities and the local governments.
Numerous technologies have been developed by national, regional and international research centres and are being promoted in different areas by governments, NGO’s and CBO’s. There will be a need to select those that are appropriate for the Kagera basin and then validating them with the communities and local governments. For those that are already being promoted in some parts of the basin e.g. improved tropical fruits and apples, it is necessary to up scale their promotion in the region., while for those technologies that have been found to be working elsewhere (e.g. improved fallows in Southern Africa) the acquisition of quality planting materials and then testing them will be paramount.
5.2 Capacity building of major stakeholders
Building the capacity of the communities and local governments on the growing and management of forest and tree resources in the Kagera basin in Uganda will be critical to the success of the TAMP project. This can be done in several ways including but not restricted to awareness creation on importance of forest and tree resources, training on relevant forestry and agroforestry skills, training on the production of planting materials (seeds, seedlings and scions), production of promotion materials, and study tours or exchange visits.
Without the capacity to establish, manage and utilize forest resources, communities and local governments will continue to witness more impacts of deforestation. In order to reverse this trend, it is important for them to develop this capacity in order to have sustainable management and utilization of forest and tree resources.
5.3 Building strategic partnerships
During the implementation of TAMP, it will be very crucial to develop partnerships with key partners involved in natural resource management in the Kagera basin of Uganda. Such partners include those from research, development, local governments and the farming communities. Experience has shown that where such partnerships have been developed, the successes of the programmes being implemented are very high. In the area of forest and tree resources such partners for TAMP will include the Forestry Resources Research Institute; National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO); National Forestry Authority (NFA); National Environment Management Authority (NEMA); Forestry Inspectorate Division of Ministry of Lands, Water and Environment; National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS); Africare, Africa 2000 Network, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Community Based Organizations focusing on natural resource management and the relevant local governments in the project area.
5.4 Development of a communication and dissemination strategy
In order to up scale those technologies that have been found to be effective, there is need to develop a communication and dissemination strategy that ensures that the all the major stakeholders have access to this information. This will involve determining the status of their knowledge, attitudes and practices on forestry and tree resources. Based on the identified needs, a communication and dissemination strategy can be developed that is aimed at up scaling and sustaining the achievements made form the project. Relevant dissemination materials can then be developed and distributed to relevant stakeholders at community, national and regional levels. These materials can include but are not restricted to the production and distribution of brochures, posters, leaflets, radio programmes, music, dance and drama.
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APPENDIX I - Tables
Table 3.1: Main agroforestry tree species, planting arrangement and associated crops in the annual
cropping system in Kabale district
|Species |Planting arrangement or Niche |Associated crops |
| | | |
|Grevillea robusta |Scattered in crop land |Field peas, s/potato, Irish potatoes, |
| | |climbing beans |
|Alnus acuminata |Scattered on cropland and planted along contours|Field peas, s/potato, climbing beans |
|Alnus acuminata |Scattered in the fallow land |Pastures |
|Calliandra calothyrsus |Scattered on cropland |Maize, beans |
|Prunus africana |Homestead |None |
|Persea Americana |Homestead |None |
|Eucalyptus spp. |Homestead planted in a line as boundary marker. |None |
|Erythrina abyssinica |Planted as a hedge around filed plots |Pastures |
|Acacia mearnsii |Planted as a hedge around field plot |Pastures |
Table 3.2: Indigenous trees and shrubs encountered during the transect walk in the annual cropping system in Kabale district
|Scientific name |Planting arrangement |Uses |
|Acacia mearnsii |Boundary planting |Firewood, poles and stakes (bananas, beans) |
|Cordia africana |Isolated |Firewood, timber, medicine, bee forage |
|Croton megalocarpus |Boundary planting |Firewood, charcoal, poles, timber, live fence |
|Dodonaea angustifolia |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, tool handles, medicine |
|Dracaenia steudneri |Boundary planting |Medicine, boundary |
|Erythrina abyssinica |Scattered & hedge |Fencing, beehive making, hand tools, medicine |
|Markhamia lutea |Isolated |Firewood, poles, charcoal, timber, tool handles |
|Morus mesozygia |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, timber, shade |
|Polyscias fulva |Isolated |Firewood, tool handles, timber, other instrument, |
|Sesbania sesban |Scattered planting |Firewood, fodder, poles |
|Vitex ferruginea |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, poles, fruits |
Table 3.3: Common tree species grown and their major uses in the annual cropping system in Kabale district.
|Tree species | |
| |Major uses |
|Scientific name |Local name | |
|Calliandra calothyrsus | |Fodder for livestock, soil and water conservation, stakes for climbing beans and |
| | |used as firewood. |
|Eucalyptus grandis |Kalitusi |Used for building (poles, timber), stakes for climbing beans, its products sold |
| | |to generate income. |
|Grevillea robusta | |Used as stakes for climbing beans, is a source of firewood, timber, fencing posts|
| | |and its seeds sold to generate income. |
|Acacia mearnsii |Burikoti |Main source of firewood and charcoal, used as construction poles, and used as |
| | |stakes for climbing beans. |
| |Matagi |Used as timber, products sold for income generation, used as boundary marker and |
| | |charcoal production. |
|Markhamia lutea |Omusavu |Mainly used as timber for making wooden beds. |
|Pinus patula |Patula |Used mainly as timber. |
|Sesbania sesban |Omunyeganyege |Its biomass used as manure for crops, used as fodder for livestock and as |
| | |medicine for humans. |
|Cordia africana | |Used as shade for crops and its leaves used as manure for crops. |
| |Omumba |Used for timber, medicine and as stakes for climbing beans. |
|Vitex ferruginea |Munywamaizi |Used as medicine for humans, stakes for climbing beans and as timber. |
|Croton megalocarpus. |Omuhugunda |Used as medicine for humans and as timber and firewood. |
|Ficus natalensis |Ebitooma |It produces good timber used mainly for making boats, stools, mortars and bee |
| | |hives. |
|Eryhrina abyssinica |Ekiko |Used as a boundary marker and its timber is good for making stools, mortars and |
| | |bee hives. |
|Callistemon citrinus |Bottle brush |Used as medicine for treating cough in humans and acts as a shade tree. |
|Podocarpus latifolius |Omusenene |Used mainly for timber production. |
Table 3.4: Access to and control of forest and tree resources by the community by gender in the annual
cropping system in Kabale district
| |Boy child |Girl child |Male |Female |
|Access to forestry or tree resources |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |
|Control of forestry or tree resources |Yes |No |Yes |No |
Table 3.5: Energy types and their accessibility and affordability to communities in the annual cropping
system in Kabale district.
|Type of energy |Accessibility |Affordability |
|Firewood |Not easily accessible |High price |
|Charcoal |Easily accessible |High price |
|Paraffin |Not easily accessible |Very high price |
Table 3.6: Agroforestry tree species found in the pastures in the perennial cropping system of Kabale district
|Species |Planting Niche |Associated crops |
| | | |
|Acacia polycantha |Trees scattered in pasture |Pasture grasses |
|Erythrina abyssinica |Trees scattered in pasture |Pasture grasses |
|Euphorbia candelabrum one) |Trees scattered in pasture |Pasture grasses |
|Acacia polycantha |Trees scattered in pasture |Pasture grasses |
|Psidium guajava |Scattered around homestead |Banana |
|Ficus natalensis |Planted in a line around homestead |Banana |
|Euphorbia turricali |Planted as a hedge around the homestead |Banana |
Table 3.7: Indigenous trees and shrubs found in the pastures in the perennial cropping system of Kabale district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Uses |
|Acacia polycantha |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, poles, tool handles, medicine, bee forage |
|Acacia mellifera |Scattered |Firewood, household utensils, fodder, bee forage, medicine |
|Acacia mearnsii |Isolated |Firewood, poles, stakes |
|Albizia adianthiofolia |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, timber |
|Albizia coriaria |Boundary planting |Firewood, charcoal, boat making, timber |
|Albizia gummifera |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, timber, household utensils, medicine, fodder |
|Carrisa edulis |Isolated |Fencing, fruits, medicine |
|Combretum molle |Scattered |Medicine,, firewood, charcoal, poles, tool handles, timber |
|Dodonaea angustifolia |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, medicine, soil conservation, handicraft |
|Eucalyptus species |Boundary planting |Firewood, poles, stakes, timber |
|Erythrina abyssinica |Scattered |Firewood, household utensils, medicine |
|Euphorbia candelabrum |Scattered |Firewood, live fence, musical instruments |
|Latana camara |Scattered |Firewood, medicine |
|Maesa lanceolata |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, medicine |
|Markhamia lutea |Isolated |Firewood, poles, charcoal, timber, tool handles |
|Olea africana |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, timber, poles, medicine |
|Veacanga thalarsii |Isolated |Not known |
|Vernonia amygdalina |Boundary planting |Medicine, stakes, live fence, food (vegetable) |
Table 3.8: Fruit and other tree species found interplanted in banana plantations during the transect in the Mwiizi area, Mbarara district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Uses |
|Cupressus lusitanica |Wind break |Timber, poles |
|Eucalyptus species |Windbreak |Timber, fuelwood |
|Psidium guajava |Isolated |Fruits |
|Dodonaea angustifolia |Isolated |Handcraft |
|Venonia armagadalina |Scattered |Medicinal, treats malaria and worms |
|Persea Americana |Scattered |Fruits, windbreak, shade |
Table 3.9: Indigenous trees and shrubs encountered during the transect walk in the mixed cropping systems, Mbarara district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Uses |
|Croton megalocarpus |Boundary planting |Firewood, shade, windbreaks, live fence |
|Dodonaea angustifolia |Scattered |Handicraft, firewood, medicine |
|Dombeya bagshawei |Scattered |Handicraft, beehive making |
|Draceana steudneri |Boundary planting |Medicine, boundary marker |
|Ehretia cymosa |Isolated |Stakes, firewood |
|Erythrina abyssinica |Boundary planting |Firewood, medicine, hand tools |
|Ficus natalensis |Boundary planting |Handicrafts, shade, windbreaks, live fence |
|Maesa lanceolata |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, medicine, live fence |
|Markhamia lutea |Scattered |Firewood, stakes, poles, hand tools |
|Pittosporum spathicalyx |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, medicine |
|Vernonia amygdalina |Scattered |Medicine, live fence, stakes |
Table 3.10: Agroforestry trees found plated around the homestead during a transect in the Kikagate, Mbarara district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Associated crops |
| | | |
|Persia americana |Planted near homestead |Banana |
|Thevitia peruvania |Planted as a hedge around the homestead |None |
|Eucalyptus species |Planted near the homestead |None |
|Mangifera indica |Scattered |Banana |
Table 3.11: Indigenous trees and shrubs encountered during the transect walk in the livestock farming system,Kikagate in Mbarara district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Uses |
|Acacia hockii |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, medicine |
|Acacia sieberiana |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, tool handles |
|Albizia gummifera |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, timber, household utensils |
| | |(mortars) |
|Albizia versicolor |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, boat making, medicine |
|Carrisa edulis |Isolated |Fencing, fruits, medicine |
|Combretum molle |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, poles, tool handles, medicine |
|Erythrina abyssinica |Boundary planting |Firewood, hand tools, household utensils, medicine |
|Euphorbia candelabrum |Isolated |Firewood, musical instruments, boundary marker |
|Olea africana |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, timber |
|Senna spectabilis |Boundary planting |Firewood, poles, boundary marker |
|Vernonia amygdalina |Scattered |Medicine, live fence, stakes |
Table 3.12: Fruit trees found planted around the homesteads in Kikangate transect, Mbarara district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Associated crops |
| | | |
|Persia americana |Planted near homestead, scattered |Banana |
|Mangifera indica |Isolated |None |
|Citrus |Scattered |Banana |
|Paw paws |Scattered |Banana |
|Psidium guajava |Scattered |Banana |
Table 3.13: Indigenous trees and shrubs found either in pastures or fallow land in the Kyalulangira transect, Rakai district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Uses |
|Acacia gerrardii |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, poles, medicine |
|Acacia hockii |Small bush |Firewood, poles, charcoal, medicine, fencing |
|Acacia polycantha |Small bush |Firewood, poles |
|Acacia seyal |Scattered |Firewood, poles |
|Albizia coriaria |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, boat building, medicine |
|Carrisa edulis |Isolated |Fencing, fruits, medicine |
|Euphorbia candelabrum |Scattered |Firewood, musical instruments, boundary marker |
|Ficus sur |Scattered |Beer canoes, timber |
|Harungana madagascariensis |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, timber, poles |
|Holoptelea grandis |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, timber |
|Vernonia amygadalina |Small bushes |Medicine, live fence, stakes |
Table 3.14: Agroforestry trees found in the cropped areas in the Kyalulangira transect, Rakai district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Associated crops |
| | | |
|Albizia coriaria |Scattered |Beans and banana |
|Vernonia amygadalina |Scattered in garden |Beans & banana |
|Mangifera indica |Scattered in garden |Beans & banana |
|Paw paw |Scattered in garden |Banana & beans |
|Ricinus communis |Scattered in plot |Beans & bananas |
Table 3.15: Agroforestry trees found in the cropped area in the Bugamba transect, Rakai district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Associated crops |
| | | |
|Tephrosia vogelli |Isolated |Maize |
|Mangifera indica |Scattered |Coffee, beans |
|Ficus natalensis |Scattered |Coffee, beans |
|Ficus mucuso |Scattered |Coffee |
|Atrocarpus heterophyllus |Scattered |Coffee |
|Senna spectabilis |Scattered |Coffee |
|Ricinus communis |Scattered |Banana |
|Paw paws |Scattered |Banana |
|Markhamia lutea |Scattered |Beans |
|Citrus |Scattered |Beans |
|Psidium guajava |Scattered |Coffee |
Table 3.16: Indigenous trees and shrubs encountered along the transect in Bugamba, Rakai district
|Species |Planting arrangement |Uses |
|Acacia gerradii |Small bush |Firewood, charcoal, poles, medicine |
|Acacia hockii |Small bush |Firewood, poles, charcoal, medicine, fencing |
|Acacia polycantha |Scattered |Firewood, poles |
|Albizia coriaria |Scattered |Firewood, charcoal, timber, boat making |
|Erythrina abyssinica |Boundary planting |Firewood, household utensils, medicine |
|Ficus natalensis |Scattered |Handicrafts, shade, live fence, windbreaks |
|Lantana camara |Small bush |Firewood |
|Podocarpus latifolius |Isolated |Firewood, charcoal, timber, shade |
APPENDIX II – Terms of Reference
In the country team, the forestry/agroforestry expert was expected to provide expertise in relation to issues to address, indicators and assessment methods, conduct diagnosis, analyze the findings and consult with relevant experts and institutions in this area. On the basis of the above, the forestry/agroforestry consultant was expected to produce a report that addresses issues on forestry and agroforestry while proposing how such issues can be addressed through an ecosystem approach including but not restricted to the following: -
• Relevant findings in forestry/agroforestry with particular attention to status of forest and tree resources and ecosystems (e.g. degradation);
• Causes of existing management practices and systems and their immediate and long term effects/implications on resources, ecosystems and livelihoods with particular attention to agro-biodiversity, land degradation, carbon sequestration and international waters;
• Driving forces and pressures influencing resource use and agriculture systems at household and community levels; and
• Recommendations on interventions and specific corrective/mitigation measures through forestry/agroforestry to reverse the negative trends and enhance the positive trends building on successful experiences and lessons learnt in the Kagera basin and other areas of the country.
APPENDIX III - List of Persons met and Departments visited during study
1. District Environment Officers in the study districts
2. District Forest Officers in the study districts
3. District Production Coordinators in the study districts
4. National Forest Authority officials at district and headquarters
5. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) officials
6. Forestry Resources Research Institute officials
7. Africare - Kabale Project officials
8. Africa 2000 Network – Kabale Project officials
9. Department of Forest Inspectorate in Ministry of Water Lands and Environment
10. National Agricultural Advisory Services officials
11. National Environment Management Authority
12. Farming communities in the study areas
-----------------------
Area under fallow and has few scattered indigenous trees
Area is partly cropped and partly fallow with a few scattered indigenous shrubs and herbs found
Area under annual crops with no trees or shrubs found
Area under annual crops with no trees or shrubs found
Most of the area is under fallow with a few scattered indigenous trees
Agroforestry trees interplanted with crops
No indigenous trees found in the landscape at this site
Few agroforestry trees found interplanted with crops
Most indigenous trees found are planted along foot paths or as live hedges around homesteads
Agroforestry trees found interplanted with crops as most of the area is cultivated
Most indigenous trees found are planted along foot paths or as live hedges around homesteads
Area mainly under banana plantations with few agroforestry trees scattered in them
Eucalyptus/Acacia mixed woodlot found in the area.
Small bushes of scattered indigenous shrubs found
Area mainly under small bushes indigenous shrubs composed mainly of Dodonaea spp.
Area mainly under banana with adjacent areas composed of many indigenous trees and shrubs
Area mainly under fallow few scattered indigenous trees and shrubs
Area mainly under pasture with few scattered indigenous shrubs dominated by Dodonaea spp
Area mainly under fallow and pasture with many scattered indigenous trees and shrubs
Area mainly under fallow and pasture with many scattered indigenous trees and shrubs
Area under banana plantation with trees found in it.
Land under banana plantation, while the nearby area is under fallow. Few indigenous trees and shrubs are found growing in the fallow land.
Land under banana plantation with few agroforestry trees found growing in it.
Part of the area is under fallow with some indigenous trees and shrubs growing in it.
Area found in the swamp and few indigenous trees and shrubs found growing in it.
Area under crops with few indigenous trees and shrubs found.
Area under Eucalyptus woodlot with a few shrubs found beneath it.
Area under banana with a few agroforestry trees scattered in it.
Some agroforestry trees planted around the homestead
Area under annual crops with no trees or shrubs found.
Area under annual crops with few isolated indigenous trees found.
Area under banana with few scattered fruit trees found in it.
Mainly pasture area with some scattered indigenous trees and shrubs found.
Mainly pasture area with few agroforestry trees found.
Area under annual crops with few scattered agroforestry trees found.
Area near water edge and cropped with millet crop. It is dominated by Acacia species e.g. A. hockii
Area under annual crops with few fruit trees found.
Area under annual crops with few indigenous trees and shrubs found.
Land under annual crops with no trees found.
Land under pasture and small bushes composed mainly of indigenous shrubs.
Area under crops with no trees found.
Annual crops found in the area with few fruit trees found growing among them.
Area under annual crops with no trees found.
Eucalyptus nursery bed found in the crop garden.
Area under pasture with scattered trees shrubs. Acacia tree species dominate
Area under abandoned coffee plantation with few indigenous trees growing in it. Irish potatoes grown near the valley bottom.
Area under annual crops with few fruit trees found.
Land under banana plantation with few fruit trees found growing in it. No indigenous trees or shrubs found.
Area under annual crops with few fruit trees found. No indigenous trees or shrubs found.
Land under coffee with few scattered fruit trees found.
Fallow area has many indigenous trees and shrubs
Area under annual crops with scattered trees left after planting crops. Many small bushes of indigenous shrubs.
Land under pasture and scattered shrubs. It is dominated by Acacia hockii trees.
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