FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT - GovInfo

[Pages:410]FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT

RIGHTS GUARANTEED

CONTENTS

Page Section 1. Rights Guaranteed ................................................................................................... 1805

The Fourteenth Amendment and States' Rights ............................................................. 1805 Citizens of the United States ............................................................................................ 1805 Privileges or Immunities ................................................................................................... 1808 Due Process of Law ............................................................................................................ 1812

Generally ...................................................................................................................... 1812 Definitions .................................................................................................................... 1813

"Person" ................................................................................................................. 1813 "Property" and Police Power ............................................................................... 1815 "Liberty" ................................................................................................................ 1816 The Rise and Fall of Economic Substantive Due Process: Overview .................... 1817 Regulation of Labor Conditions ................................................................................. 1823 Liberty of Contract ............................................................................................... 1823 Laws Regulating Working Conditions and Wages ............................................ 1828 Workers' Compensation Laws ............................................................................. 1830 Collective Bargaining ........................................................................................... 1831 Regulation of Business Enterprises: Price Controls ................................................ 1835 Types of Businesses That May be Regulated .................................................... 1835 Substantive Review of Price Controls ................................................................ 1838 Early Limitations on Review .............................................................................. 1840 History of the Valuation Question ...................................................................... 1842 Regulation of Public Utilities and Common Carriers .............................................. 1845 In General ............................................................................................................. 1845 Compulsory Expenditures: Grade Crossings, and the Like ............................. 1846 Compellable Services ........................................................................................... 1847 Imposition of Statutory Liabilities and Penalties Upon Common Carriers ... 1849 Regulation of Businesses, Corporations, Professions, and Trades .......................... 1851 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1851 Laws Prohibiting Trusts, Restraint of Trade or Fraud .................................... 1852 Banking, Wage Assignments, and Garnishment ............................................... 1854 Insurance .............................................................................................................. 1855 Miscellaneous Businesses and Professions ........................................................ 1857 Protection of State Resources ..................................................................................... 1859 Oil and Gas ........................................................................................................... 1859 Protection of Property and Agricultural Crops .................................................. 1860 Water, Fish, and Game ........................................................................................ 1861 Ownership of Real Property: Rights and Limitations ............................................. 1863 Zoning and Similar Actions ................................................................................. 1863 Estates, Succession, Abandoned Property .......................................................... 1865 Health, Safety, and Morals ......................................................................................... 1867 Health ................................................................................................................... 1867 Safety .................................................................................................................... 1869 Morality ................................................................................................................. 1871

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AMENDMENT 14--RIGHTS GUARANTEED

Section 1. Rights Guaranteed--Continued Due Process of Law--Continued Vested and Remedial Rights ...................................................................................... 1871 State Control over Local Units of Government ........................................................ 1872 Taxing Power ............................................................................................................... 1873 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1873 Jurisdiction to Tax ...................................................................................................... 1876 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1876 Real Property ........................................................................................................ 1877 Tangible Personalty ............................................................................................. 1878 Intangible Personalty ........................................................................................... 1880 Transfer (Inheritance, Estate, Gift) Taxes ......................................................... 1883 Corporate Privilege Taxes ................................................................................... 1887 Individual Income Taxes ..................................................................................... 1888 Corporate Income Taxes: Foreign Corporations ................................................ 1889 Insurance Company Taxes .................................................................................. 1890 Procedure in Taxation ................................................................................................. 1891 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1891 Notice and Hearing in Relation to Taxes ........................................................... 1891 Notice and Hearing in Relation to Assessments ............................................... 1892 Collection of Taxes ............................................................................................... 1894 Sufficiency and Manner of Giving Notice .......................................................... 1896 Sufficiency of Remedy .......................................................................................... 1897 Laches ................................................................................................................... 1897 Eminent Domain ......................................................................................................... 1898 Fundamental Rights (Noneconomic Substantive Due Process) ............................... 1898 Development of the Right of Privacy ................................................................. 1898 Abortion ................................................................................................................ 1903 Privacy after Roe: Informational Privacy, Privacy of the Home or Personal Autonomy? ......................................................................................................... 1915 Family Relationships ........................................................................................... 1925 Liberty Interests of People with Mental Disabilities: Civil Commitment and Treatment .......................................................................................................... 1927 "Right to Die" ....................................................................................................... 1929 Procedural Due Process: Civil ........................................................................................... 1931 Generally ...................................................................................................................... 1931 Relevance of Historical Use ................................................................................ 1932 Non-Judicial Proceedings .................................................................................... 1932 The Requirements of Due Process ...................................................................... 1933 The Procedure That Is Due Process .......................................................................... 1939 The Interests Protected: "Life, Liberty and Property" ...................................... 1939 The Property Interest .......................................................................................... 1940 The Liberty Interest ............................................................................................ 1946 Proceedings in Which Procedural Due Process Need Not Be Observed ......... 1949 When Process Is Due ........................................................................................... 1951 Jurisdiction .................................................................................................................. 1957 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1957 In Personam Proceedings Against Individuals .................................................. 1958 Suing Out-of-State (Foreign) Corporations ........................................................ 1961 Actions In Rem: Proceeding Against Property .................................................. 1969 Quasi in Rem: Attachment Proceedings ............................................................. 1971 Actions in Rem: Estates, Trusts, Corporations ................................................. 1973 Notice: Service of Process .................................................................................... 1975

AMENDMENT 14--RIGHTS GUARANTEED

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Section 1. Rights Guaranteed--Continued Procedural Due Process: Civil--Continued Power of the States to Regulate Procedure .............................................................. 1976 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1976 Commencement of Actions .................................................................................. 1977 Defenses ................................................................................................................ 1978 Costs, Damages, and Penalties ........................................................................... 1979 Statutes of Limitation ......................................................................................... 1981 Burden of Proof and Presumptions .................................................................... 1983 Trials and Appeals ............................................................................................... 1986 Procedural Due Process--Criminal ................................................................................... 1987 Generally: The Principle of Fundamental Fairness ................................................. 1987 The Elements of Due Process ..................................................................................... 1988 Initiation of the Prosecution ............................................................................... 1988 Clarity in Criminal Statutes: The Void-for-Vagueness Doctrine ...................... 1989 Entrapment ........................................................................................................... 1993 Criminal Identification Process ........................................................................... 1995 Fair Trial ............................................................................................................... 1997 Prosecutorial Misconduct ..................................................................................... 2001 Proof, Burden of Proof, and Presumptions ........................................................ 2004 The Problem of the Incompetent or Insane Defendant .................................... 2011 Guilty Pleas .......................................................................................................... 2014 Sentencing ............................................................................................................ 2016 Corrective Process: Appeals and Other Remedies ............................................. 2019 Rights of Prisoners ............................................................................................... 2021 Probation and Parole ........................................................................................... 2026 The Problem of the Juvenile Offender ............................................................... 2030 The Problem of Civil Commitment ..................................................................... 2033 Equal Protection of the Laws ............................................................................................ 2035 Scope and Application ................................................................................................. 2035 State Action .......................................................................................................... 2035 "Person" ................................................................................................................. 2052 "Within Its Jurisdiction" ...................................................................................... 2053 Equal Protection: Judging Classifications by Law ................................................... 2054 The Traditional Standard: Restrained Review .................................................. 2054 The New Standards: Active Review ................................................................... 2059 Testing Facially Neutral Classifications Which Impact on Minorities ................... 2065 Traditional Equal Protection: Economic Regulation and Related Exercises of the Police Power ........................................................................................................................ 2071 Taxation ........................................................................................................................ 2071 Classification for Purpose of Taxation ................................................................ 2072 Foreign Corporations and Nonresidents ............................................................ 2074 Income Taxes ........................................................................................................ 2076 Inheritance Taxes ................................................................................................. 2076 Motor Vehicle Taxes ............................................................................................. 2077 Property Taxes ...................................................................................................... 2078 Special Assessment .............................................................................................. 2079 Police Power Regulation ............................................................................................. 2080 Classification ........................................................................................................ 2080 Other Business and Employment Relations ............................................................. 2085 Labor Relations .................................................................................................... 2085 Monopolies and Unfair Trade Practices ............................................................. 2086 Administrative Discretion ................................................................................... 2087

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AMENDMENT 14--RIGHTS GUARANTEED

Section 1. Rights Guaranteed--Continued Traditional Equal Protection: Economic Regulation and Related Exercises of the Police Power--Continued Social Welfare ....................................................................................................... 2087 Punishment of Crime ........................................................................................... 2089 Equal Protection and Race ................................................................................................ 2090 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 2090 Education ..................................................................................................................... 2091 Development and Application of "Separate But Equal" ................................... 2091 Brown v. Board of Education .............................................................................. 2093 Brown's Aftermath ............................................................................................... 2094 Implementation of School Desegregation ........................................................... 2096 Northern Schools: Inter- and Intradistrict Desegregation ............................... 2098 Efforts to Curb Busing and Other Desegregation Remedies ........................... 2103 Termination of Court Supervision ...................................................................... 2104 Juries ............................................................................................................................ 2106 Capital Punishment .................................................................................................... 2110 Housing ........................................................................................................................ 2111 Other Areas of Discrimination ................................................................................... 2111 Transportation ...................................................................................................... 2111 Public Facilities .................................................................................................... 2112 Marriage ................................................................................................................ 2113 Judicial System .................................................................................................... 2113 Public Designation ............................................................................................... 2113 Public Accommodations ....................................................................................... 2113 Elections .............................................................................................................. 2113 "Affirmative Action": Remedial Use of Racial Classifications .................................. 2114 The New Equal Protection ................................................................................................. 2124 Classifications Meriting Close Scrutiny .................................................................... 2124 Alienage and Nationality ..................................................................................... 2124 Sex ......................................................................................................................... 2131 Illegitimacy .................................................................................................................. 2143 Fundamental Interests: The Political Process .......................................................... 2148 Voter Qualifications .............................................................................................. 2150 Access to the Ballot .............................................................................................. 2155 Apportionment and Districting ........................................................................... 2159 Counting and Weighing of Votes ......................................................................... 2171 The Right to Travel ..................................................................................................... 2172 Durational Residency Requirements .................................................................. 2172 Marriage and Familial Relations ............................................................................... 2176 Sexual Orientation ...................................................................................................... 2177 Poverty and Fundamental Interests: The Intersection of Due Process and Equal Protection ................................................................................................................. 2179 Generally ............................................................................................................... 2179 Criminal Procedure .............................................................................................. 2181 The Criminal Sentence ........................................................................................ 2184 Voting and Ballot Access ..................................................................................... 2184 Access to Courts ................................................................................................... 2186 Educational Opportunity ..................................................................................... 2188 Abortion ................................................................................................................ 2190

Section 2. Apportionment of Representation ........................................................................... 2190 Apportionment of Representation ..................................................................................... 2191

Sections 3 and 4. Disqualification and Public Debt ............................................................... 2192

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Sections 3 and 4. Disqualification and Public Debt--Continued Disqualification and Public Debt ...................................................................................... 2193

Section 5. Enforcement ............................................................................................................. 2193 Enforcement ........................................................................................................................ 2193 Generally ...................................................................................................................... 2193 State Action ................................................................................................................. 2194 Congressional Definition of Fourteenth Amendment Rights ................................... 2199

RIGHTS GUARANTEED

FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT

SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States,

and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United

States and the State wherein they reside. No State shall make

or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immu-

nities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State de-

prive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due pro-

cess of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the

equal protection of the laws.

THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT AND STATES' RIGHTS

Amendment of the Constitution during the post-Civil War Reconstruction period resulted in a fundamental shift in the relationship between the Federal Government and the states. The Civil War had been fought over issues of states' rights, particularly the right to control the institution of slavery.1 In the wake of the war, the Congress submitted, and the states ratified the Thirteenth Amendment (making slavery illegal), the Fourteenth Amendment (defining and granting broad rights of national citizenship), and the Fifteenth Amendment (forbidding racial discrimination in elections). The Fourteenth Amendment was the most controversial and farreaching of these three "Reconstruction Amendments."

CITIZENS OF THE UNITED STATES The citizenship provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment may be seen as a repudiation of one of the more politically divisive cases of the nineteenth century. Under common law, free persons born within a state or nation were citizens thereof. In the Dred Scott case,2 however, Chief Justice Taney, writing for the Court, ruled that

1 "Since the 1950s most professional historians have come to agree with Lincoln's assertion that slavery `was, somehow, the cause of the war.' " James M. McPherson, Southern Comfort, THE NEW YORK REVIEW OF BOOKS (Apr. 12, 2001), quoting Lincoln's second inaugural address.

2 Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857). The controversy, political as well as constitutional, that this case stirred and still stirs is exemplified and analyzed in the material collected in S. KUTLER, THE DRED SCOTT DECISION: LAW OR POLI-

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AMENDMENT 14--RIGHTS GUARANTEED

this rule did not apply to freed slaves. The Court held that United States citizenship was enjoyed by only two classes of people: (1) white persons born in the United States as descendants of "persons, who were at the time of the adoption of the Constitution recognised as citizens in the several States, [and who] became also citizens of this new political body," the United States of America, and (2) those who, having been "born outside the dominions of the United States," had migrated thereto and been naturalized therein.3 Freed slaves fell into neither of these categories.

The Court further held that, although a state could confer state citizenship upon whomever it chose, it could not make the recipient of such status a citizen of the United States. Thus, the "Negro," as an enslaved race, was ineligible to attain United States citizenship, either from a state or by virtue of birth in the United States. Even a free man descended from a Negro residing as a free man in one of the states at the date of ratification of the Constitution was held ineligible for citizenship.4 Congress subsequently repudiated this concept of citizenship, first in section 1 5 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 6 and then in section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment. In doing so, Congress set aside the Dred Scott holding, and restored the traditional precepts of citizenship by birth.7

Based on the first sentence of section 1,8 the Court has held that a child born in the United States of Chinese parents who were ineligible to be naturalized themselves is nevertheless a citizen of the United States entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizen-

TICS? (1967). See also DON E. FEHRENBACHER, THE DRED SCOTT CASE: ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN AMERICAN LAW AND POLITICS (1978); M. GRABER, DRED SCOTT AND THE PROBLEM OF CONSTITUTIONAL EVIL (2006); EARL M. MALTZ, DRED SCOTT AND THE POLITICS OF SLAVERY (2007); Symposium, 150th Anniversary of the Dred Scott Decision, 82 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 1?455 (2007).

3 60 U.S. (19 How.) at 406, 418. 4 60 U.S. (19 How.) at 404?06, 417?18, 419?20 (1857). 5 The proposed amendment as it passed the House contained no such provision, and it was decided in the Senate to include language like that finally adopted. CONG. GLOBE, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2560, 2768?69, 2869 (1866). The sponsor of the language said: "This amendment which I have offered is simply declaratory of what I regard as the law of the land already, that every person born within the limits of the United States, and subject to their jurisdiction, is . . . a citizen of the United States." Id. at 2890. The legislative history is discussed at some length in Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 282?86 (1967) (Justice Harlan dissenting). 6 "That all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States; and such citizens, of every race and color, without regard to any previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude . . . shall have the same right[s] . . . ." Ch. 31, 14 Stat. 27. 7 United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 688 (1898). 8 "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."

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