Part III - Education Bureau
Book 3
Reference Materials
9
Ordinances in Hong Kong for Heritage Preservation
Ordinances in Hong Kong for Heritage Preservation
Cap 53 Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance
To provide for the preservation of objects of historical, archaeological and palaeontological l interest and for matters ancillary thereto or connected therewith.
Cap 123 Building Ordinance
To provide for the planning, design and construction of buildings and associated works; to make provision for the rendering safe of dangerous buildings and land; to make provision for regular inspections of buildings and the associated repairs to prevent the buildings from becoming unsafe; and to make provision for matters connected therewith.
Cap 131 Town Planning Ordinance
To promote the health, safety, convenience and general welfare of the community by making provision for the systematic preparation and approval of plans for the lay-out of areas of Hong Kong as well as for the types of building suitable for erection therein and for the preparation and approval of plans for areas within which permission is required for development.
Cap 499 Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance
To provide for assessing the impact on the environment of certain projects and proposals, for protecting the environment and for incidental matters.
Cap 563 Urban Renewal Authority Ordinance
To establish the Urban Renewal Authority for the purpose of carrying out urban renewal and for connected purposes.
10
International Charters for
Conservation and Restoration
International Charters for Conservation and Restoration
All Charters of ICOMOS
International Council on Monuments and Sites
This document is a compilation of 14 articles from 1964 to 2003, aiming to reflect problems and concerns relevant to working with heritage conservation and historic monuments. It contains basic principles and guidelines addressing specific issues faced in contemporary society. There is an exhaustive range of information and suggestions on general theory and practice. The focus ranges from excavation and documentation, to restoration and conservation, to management and education.
The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments 1931
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted at the First International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Athens 1931
This article presents seven main resolutions – i.e. Carta Del Restauro and a summarized account of the conclusions made at the Athens Congress. These include doctrines and general principles related to the protection of monuments, administrative and legislative measures regarding the historic monuments, aesthetic enhancements of ancient monuments, information on the restoration of monuments, taking precautionary measures to address the deterioration of ancient monuments, the technique of conservation, the conservation of monuments and importance of international cooperation. Customary practices and principles on excavation, protection, conservation and restoration of monuments and historic sites were discussed, reviewed and disseminated along with the strategies of intellectual collaboration and the promotion of contextual artistic and historic values through community heritage education.
Venice Charter 1964 - International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (The Venice Charter 1964)
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted at the 2nd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments
The discussion is becoming increasingly complex and new multifaceted problems regularly surface in working with monuments and historic sites. The importance of historic monuments shall not to be forgotten, as these have acquired cultural significance through the passing of time, providing a living witness to age-old traditions of a past civilization. A set of guiding principles were evaluated at the Congress to assist with the proper treatment of conservation and restoration of monuments and historic sites, whilst limiting the modification demanded by social changes, within a framework of the culture itself.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
This document was prepared in response to the recent interest towards the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. It presents a list of detailed descriptions of the terms and principles; the methods of applying for funding, and the conditions for international assistance in documenting and conserving cultural and natural heritage. The classification of cultural heritage broadly covers monuments, buildings and sites, while natural heritage relates to biological formations, natural features, geological environments and habitats of threatened species and animals. The role of the UNESCO in organizing this Convention is to ensure the proper identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission of cultural and natural heritage for future generations.
Historic Gardens (The Florence Charter 1981)
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted by ICOMOS in December 1982
This article is a compilation of the recommendations adopted by ICOMOS applicable to the maintenance, restoration and reconstruction, of all historic gardens across the world. It includes the definitions and objectives of the international committee; maintenance, conservation, restoration, reconstruction of historic gardens; and the legal and administrative documentation involved in the protection of the gardens. A historic garden is an expression of affinity between civilization and nature, where a horticultural composition is achieved through refined botanical and horticultural practices. Gardens are primarily vegetal and therefore living; reflecting the perpetual cycle of the seasons, and the growth and decay of nature, and the desire of the artist and craftsmen to keep it maintained, and permanently unchanged by achieving ecological equilibrium.
Charter for the Conservation of Historic Town and Urban Areas
(Washington Charter 1987)
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted by ICOMOS General Assembly in Washington, DC, October 1987
This article defines the principles, objectives and methods necessary for the conservation of historic towns and urban areas. It seeks to promote the harmony of both private and community life in these areas and encourages the preservation of those cultural properties, however modest in scale, that constitute the collective memory of a particular society. A multidisciplinary study formed the basis of the urban and regional planning scheme to ensure the harmonious adaptation to and protection of historic towns and urban areas in contemporary life.
Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archeological Heritage 1990
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Prepared by the International Committee for the Management of Archaeological Heritage (ICAHM) and approved by the 9th General Assembly in Lausanne in 1990
Archaeological heritage is a fragile and non-renewable cultural resource constituting a vital part of indigenous people’s living traditions. It is essential to protect these sites and their continued protection and preservation is ensured by a set of guidelines drawn up at the General Assembly. Given the co-dependence of human history and heritage, the emphasis is to acquire an understanding on the history of the indigenous people, in order to wholly appreciate archeological heritage, and the significance of monuments and sites. There is also a moral obligation for heritage protection and legislation should make provision for the proper maintenance, management and conservation of archaeological heritage. As international cooperation becomes integral, professional conduct and training needs to be maintained.
Guidelines on Education and Training in the Conservation of Monuments, Ensembles and Sites 1993
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Education plays a crucial role to impart knowledge to those who are in a direct or indirect relation with cultural heritage. The Charter acknowledges the need to deepen the general sense of cultural consciousness, and to safeguard and prolong the life of cultural heritage. Recommendations and guidelines operate as a basis for such activities, while variations depend on local traditions, legislation, the administrative and economic context of each region. Conservation requires good communication and coordinated action, supported by the input of interdisciplinary specialists, including academics and craftsmen. Attitudes and approaches to the conservation of cultural property include training in disaster preparedness and ways to strengthen and improve security measures. Long term and short term courses and international exchanges involving teachers, students and professionals are encouraged.
Nara Document on Authenticity 1994
International Council on Monuments and Sites
The ability to verify and authenticate ideas and issues concerning cultural identity and conservation works is of great relevance. Depending on the nature of the cultural heritage, its cultural context and its evolution through time, authenticity judgments may be linked to the great variety of sources of information, and the requirement of scientific analysis to provide supporting evidence. At the 1994 World Heritage Convention held in Nara, Japan, the International Council continued to address the concerns and interests built in the spirit of Venice. It highlighted the irreplaceable nature of cultural heritage, as a source of spiritual, cultural and intellectual property, and our obligations for its protection. An appendix supplements this article, with a list of follow up suggestions and definitions of conservation and information sources.
Principles for the Recording of Monuments, Groups of Building and Site 1996
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Recording is among the principal ways of understanding the unique expressions found in cultural heritage. It serves as an essential element in understanding the framework of human development, and promotes the interest and involvement of people in the preservation of heritage. This article identifies the importance of recording, with a guideline on the planning and recording process, followed by a series of suggestions on the management, dissemination and sharing of records. The various forms of records include photographs, surveys, drawings, photographs, descriptions, accounts, published and unpublished documents.
Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage 1996
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Underwater cultural heritage is often threatened by undesirable commercial intentions. These environments include submerged sites and structures, wreckage and their archaeological and natural context. As a product of the General Assembly, this article emphasises the scientific integrity of the processes and methods used to ensure the protection and management of cultural heritage sites. International cooperation and intellectual exchange is hence vital to facilitate the project’s successful implementation. A series of guiding methodology follows the entire investigation process, from the necessary channels involved, such as project design
ICOMOS UK Statement of Principles for the Balanced Development of Cultural Tourism 1997
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Cultural tourism provides a solid framework for local communities to expand and develop. The potential contribution of tourism is threefold, benefiting the community, the place and the visitors. Tourism should be recognized as having long-term benefits, so as to be enjoyed by future generations. While mass tourism generates a large source of employment, such economic growth may encourage expansion, so the focus of the paper is geared toward sustainable patterns. Proper treatment of the environment and its resources are highlighted in this article. In particular, an emphasis on the sensitive management of cultural tourism, the avoidance of short-term considerations and the creation of harmony between the community and its visitors is presented. Overall, in the development of tourism, a community ought to continue to explore ways to avoid jeopardizing the natural environment and manmade environment.
Stockholm Declaration 1998 - Declaration of ICOMOS Marking the 50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of the Human Rights
International Council on Monuments and Sites
The Universal Declaration of the Human Rights recognized the rights of people to freely participate in cultural activities. The responsibilities of individuals and the communities, the institutions and state, were started. Their role is to protect the current rights and preserve the future rights of individuals and the community. In protecting human rights, it affirms the major role of cultural heritage in the life of people. This will ensure the protection of cultural heritage whilst respecting cultural diversity at the same time.
Burra Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Revised in 1999 and based on the knowledge and experience of its ICOMOS members, the Burra Chapter provides guidance for the conservation and management of places of cultural significance (cultural heritage places) in Australia. This revision takes into account, the most up-to-date advancements in working with heritage conservation while adopting the insights and involvement of those who have strong associations with a place. The document contains three parts: definitions, conservation principles and conservation processes, with a particular emphasis on management and protection. A flowchart of the Burra Charter Process is presented at the end of this document. This charter has been devised to facilitate decision-making of heritage places and it describes a step by step process of understanding, identifying, recording and monitoring places of heritage significance.
International Cultural Tourism Charter Managing Tourism at Places of Heritage Significance 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
The dynamic interaction between tourism and cultural heritage offers an array of potentially conflicting expectations and opportunities for a host community. Tourism has become an increasingly complex phenomenon, with political, economic, social, cultural, educational, bio-physical, ecological and aesthetic dimensions. Sustainable approaches are sought to develop tourism and infrastructure in a manner that highlights authentic visitor experiences. While cultural changes in vernacular society become inevitable, the priority remains unchanged. This is to protect the rights and interests of traditional customs of the indigenious people and manifest the significance of heritage through conservational endeavors.
Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Built vernacular heritage is an attractive product of society, fabricated by the work of human hands and has achieved value over its time. It is a fundamental expression of the culture and the pride of all peoples, offering a rich insight into the social and environmental patterns of a region. This article outlines the Charter’s principles towards the protection of our built vernacular heritage. Due to the vulnerability and degradation of such cultural landscapes, ways to retain, record and reinstate the regional character is a priority. The following recommendations are made by the Assembly, advising the careful documentation of its pre-existing conditions before any treatment and intervention takes place. It suggested adopting a thorough understanding of the site and the cultural landscape as well as learning the traditional building systems, including construction skills and way materials are prepared ; Principles of conservation and guidelines in practice, describe approaches to conduct research and documentation, adaption and reuse, educational training, restoration and conservation works. Education programs help to arouse public interest towards an awareness of the issues pertaining to the conservation and restoration of vernacular traditions.
Principles for the Preservation of Historic Timber Structures 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Timber is a culturally significant material commonly associated with historic structures. This article recognizes that historic structures are imperative to maintain authenticity and cultural heritage, and through its preservation, the principles and practices that underpin the protection of timber structures need to be understood. A coherent and regular monitoring strategy is one of the recommendations for the protection of timber structures. While in the restoration and maintenance process, new materials should be disguisable from what is pre-existing. Proposed intervention should follow traditional means, and be reversible, if technically possible, and must not hinder the later access to historic evidences in the structure. In the repair of historic timber structures, only appropriately selected timbers from forest or woodland reserves are encouraged. Continuous education and training should further develop the understanding between related professions behind preservation work.
ICOMOS Charter - Principles for the Analysis, Conservation and Structural Restoration of Architectural Heritage 2003
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Structures are an essential part of architectural heritage. While care is taken to maintain deteriorated structures rather than replace them, a number of challenges are met when repair work occurs in a cultural context. Now the restoration-conservation work usually coincides with legal codes and modern building standards. A basic guide to conservation and restoration work is outlined in the article, offering some recommendations. Within a multi-disciplinary framework, it describes the importance of maintaining the integrity of components, the specific use and limitation of building technology, while emphasizing that safety is a priority, in the restoration process.
ICOMOS Principles for the Preservation and Conservation-Restoration of Wall Paintings 2003
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Wall paintings represent a significant part of a culture’s aesthetic freedoms, whilst also serving as a reminder of the diversity of materials and technology available in its time. This article presents the principles set out by ICOMOS at the Assembly in 2003, with its main focus on the conservation-restoration treatments. It presents the aims of restoration, the application of various bodies of knowledge in each stage of the treatment and the contribution of relevant authorities. Also included are the policies and laws to prohibit and protect the alteration of wall paintings, scholarly conventions to investigate the historic, aesthetic and technical dimensions, analytical documentation methods, appropriate monitoring, maintenance, and damage prevention, dissemination of knowledge and the specialized training required to work with heritage preservation
Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003
This document was prepared in consequence to the recent interest and attention towards the safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, which led to the UNESCO Convention in 2003. The significance of this topic is highlighted by the fact a Convention was held, to discuss ways to overcome the contemporary obstacles hindering the safeguarding process. Presented in this document, is a series of definitions and elaborated principles, used in the classification process of Intangible Cultural Heritage. It recognizes the typical circumstances faced by the local community, the state, and internationally, such as the deficiency of resources, both division of labor and funds, required for the proper maintenance and management. This guideline hence stipulates the need to promote and to raise the awareness of heritage issues and also to stimulate the interest of both the individual and community. The guideline also pinpoints the issues concerning viability, identification and future protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
11
References
References
（一）Books
丁新豹，《香港歷史散步》（香港：商務印書館，2008）。
中山大學中國非物質文化遺產研究中心，《中國非物質文化遺產》（廣州：中山大學出版社，2005）。
中山大學中國非物質文化遺產研究中心，《中國非物質文化遺產》（廣州：中山大學出版社，2006）。
中國民族民間文化保護工程國家中心，《中國民族民間文化保護工程普查工作手冊》（北京：文化藝術出版社，2005）。
中國民間文藝家協會，《中國民間文化傑出傳承人調查、認定、命名工作手冊》（缺出版社，2005）。
中國藝術研究院、中國非物質文化遺產保護中心，《中國非物質文化遺產普查手冊》（北京：文化藝術出版社，2007）。
文化委員會秘書處，《文化委員會諮詢文件》（香港︰香港特別行政區政府，2002）。
王文章，《非物質文化遺產概論》（北京：文化藝術出版社，2006）。
白德（Bard, Solomon）著，招紹瓚譯，《香港文物志》（香港：市政局，1991）。
向雲駒，《人類口頭和非物質遺產》（銀川：寧夏人民教育出版社，2004）。
李乾朗，《古蹟新解——珍重故事的舞台》（台北︰藝術家出版社，2004）。
香港環境保護署，《環境影響評估程序的技術備忘錄》（香港：香港環境保護署，1997）。
陶立璠、櫻井龍彥，《非物質文化遺產學論集》（北京：學苑出版社，2006）。
喬曉光，《活態文化》（太原：山西人民出版社，2004）。
喬曉光，《交流與協作——中國高等院校首屆非物質文化遺產教育教學研討會文集》（北京：西苑出版社，2003）。
廖迪生，《香港天后崇拜》（香港：三聯書店（香港）有限公司，2000）。
廖迪生，《非物質文化遺產與東亞地方社會》（香港：香港科技大學華南研究中心，香港文化博物館，2011）。
廖迪生、張兆和，《大澳》（香港︰三聯書店（香港）有限公司，2006）。
廖迪生、盧惠玲，《風水與文物︰香港新界屏山鄧氏稔灣祖墳搬遷事件文獻彙編》（香港︰香港科技大學華南研究中心，2007）。
劉還月，《台灣民俗田野行動入門》（台北：常民文化事業股份有限公司，1999）。
蔡志祥，《打醮：香港的節日和地域社會》（香港：三聯書店（香港）有限公司，2000）。
鄭培凱，《口傳心授與文化傳承——非物質文化遺產：文獻，現狀與討論》（廣西：廣西師範大學出版社，2006）。
Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU). 2004 Workshop on Inventory-making for Intangible Cultural Heritage Management : Final Report. Tokyo: ACCU, 2005.
Crane, Julia G. and Angrosino, Michael V. Field Projects in Anthropology: A Student Handbook. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1992.
Hobsbawm, Eric and Ranger, Terence. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Home Affairs Bureau. Review of Built Heritage Conservation Policy. Hong Kong: Home Affairs Bureau, 2004.
Hong Kong Institute of Architects. The Future of Hong Kong’s Past: Heritage Conservation. October 1991.
Mahizhnan, Arun. Heritage and Contemporary Values. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2004.
Ritchie, Donald A. Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. 〔中譯本，王芝芝譯，《大家來做口述歷史》（台北：遠流出版公司，1997）。〕
Silverman, Helaine and Fairchild, Ruggles D. Cultural Heritage and Human Rights. New York: Springer, 2007.
UNESCO. Globalization and Intangible Cultural Heritage. Belgium: UNESCO, 2005.
UNESCO. Report of the Expert Meeting on Inventorying Intangible Cultural Heritage. 2005.
Ward, Barbara and Law, Joan. Chinese Festivals in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Guidebook Company Ltd., 1993.
Watson, Lawrence C. and Watson-Franke, Maria-Barbara. Interpreting Life Histories: An Anthropological Inquiry. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995.
（二）Articles
任海，〈看的辯證：展覽櫥中的香港〉，劉青峰、關小春編，《轉化中的香港︰身分與秩序的再尋求》（香港︰香港中文大學出版社，1998），頁195-219。
朱綱，〈涼茶入遺︰文化與商業的雙重變奏〉，《中國非物質文化遺産》（中山：中山大學出版社，2006），頁250-259。
范可，〈「申遺」︰傳統與地方的全球化再現〉，《廣西民族大學學報（哲學社會科學版）》，第30卷，第5期（2008年9月），頁46-52。
梁寶珊，〈傳統再造——「長洲太平清醮」與「中環廟會」〉，《文化研究＠嶺南》，第8期（2007年11月）。
張兆和，〈中越邊界跨境交往與廣西京族跨國身份認同〉，《歷史人類學學刊》，第2卷，第1期（2004），頁89-133。
廖迪生，〈把風水變成文物：在香港新界建構「文物話語」之個案研究〉，廖迪生、盧惠玲編，《風水與文物︰香港新界屏山鄧氏稔灣祖墳搬遷事件文獻彙編》（香港︰香港科技大學華南研究中心，2007），頁1-27。
廖迪生，〈地方認同的塑造：香港天后崇拜的文化詮釋〉，黎志添編，《道教與民間宗教硏究論集》（香港：學峰文化事業公司，1999），頁118-134。另載陳愼慶編，《諸神嘉年華：香港宗教研究》（香港：牛津大學出版社，2002），頁222-235。
廖迪生，〈社區脈絡的認識：大澳社區個案分析〉，陳潔華編，《批判思考、創意教學：香港社區教育》（香港：香港大學，亞洲研究中心，2004），頁1-19。
龍炳頤，〈愚公移山——香港古物諮詢委員會在文物保護方面之任務〉，《空間雜誌》，第8期（2001）。
Appadurai, Arjun. “Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Arjun Appadurai, 3-63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Appadurai, Arjun and Breckenridge, Carol A. “Museums are Good to Think: Heritage on View in India.” In Museums and Communities: The Politics of Public Culture, edited by Ivan Karp, Christine Mullen Kreamer and Steven D. Lavine, 34-55. Washington D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.
Au, Ho Ping. “Appropriating Heritage and Social Integration in Tung Chung New Town.” In Historical Memory and Relocation around the New Hong Kong International Airport (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
Au, Ho Ping. “Religious Confrontation and Social Boundaries in the Relocation of Chek Lap Kok Village.” In Historical Memory and Relocation around the New Hong Kong International Airport (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
Carrel, Todd. American Chinatown. Berkeley: Realtime Video & the Graduate School of Journalism, University of California, 1982.
Carroll, John M. “Displaying the Past to Serve the Present: Museums and Heritage Preservation in Post-Colonial Hong Kong.” Twentieth-Century China 31 (2005): 76-103.
Chan, Ching Selina. “Politicizing Tradition: the Identity of Indigenous Inhabitants in Hong Kong.” Ethnology 37(1): 39-54.
Cheng, Lai Mei. Festivals and Ethnicity: A Study of the Chaozhou Community in Kowloon City, Hong Kong (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
Cheung, Sidney. “The Meanings of a Heritage Trail in Hong Kong.” Annuals of Tourism Research 26:3 (1999): 570-588.
Cohen, Myron. “The Hakka or ‘Guest People’: Dialect as a Sociocultural Variable in Southeast China.” In Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad, edited by Nicole Constable, 36-79. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.
Dann, Graham. “Tourism: the Nostalgia of the Future.” In Global Tourism: The Next Decade, edited by William F. Theobald. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
Faure, David. “The Lineage as a Cultural Invention: The Case of the Pearl River Delta.” Modern China 15(1) (1989): 4-36.
Henderson, Joan. “Heritage, Identity and Tourism in Hong Kong.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 7 (3) (2001): 219-235.
Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean. “Objects and Interpretive Process.” In Museums and the Interpretation of Visual Culture, edited by Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, 103-123. London: Routledge, 2000.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. “Disputing Taste.” In Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage, edited by Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 259-281. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
Lowenthal, David. “Reliving the Past: Dreams and Nightmares.” In The Past is a Foreign Country, edited by David Lowenthal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Matero, Frank. “Ethics and Policy in Conservation.” Conservation: The Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter 15 (1) (Spring 2000).
Urry, John. “Gazing on History.” In The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies, edited by John Urry, 104-134. London: Sage Publications, 1990.
Waldron, Arthur. “Representing China: The Great Wall and Cultural Nationalism in the Twentieth Century.” In Cultural Nationalism in East Asia, edited by Harumi Befu, 36-60. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1993.
Watson, James L. “From the Common Pot: Feasting with Equals in Chinese Society.” Anthropos 82 (1987): 389-401.
Watson, Rubie S. “Making Secret Histories: Memory and Mourning in Post-Mao China.” In Memory, History, and Opposition under State Socialism, edited by Rubie Watson, 65-85. Sante Fe.: School of American Research Press, 1995.
Watson, Rubie S. “Museums and Indigenous Cultures: The Power of Local Knowledge.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 21(1) (1997): 24-25.
Watson, Rubie S. “Palaces, Museums, and Squares: Chinese National Spaces.” Museum Anthropology 19(2) (1995): 7-19. 〔中譯本，華若璧著，廖迪生譯，〈皇宮、博物院與廣場：在中國創造國家空間〉（香港：香港科技大學人文學部，1996）。〕
Watson, Rubie S. and Watson, James L. “From Hall of Worship to Tourist Center: An Ancestral Hall in Hong Kong’s New Territory.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 21(1) (1997): 33-35.
Watson, Rubie. “Tales of Two ‘Chinese’ History Museums: Taipei and Hong Kong.” Curator 41 (3) (1998): 167-177.
Yuen, Chi Wai. Competition for Interpretation: Politics of Heritage in Hong Kong’s Northern New Territories (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2005.
（三）Video References
Carrel, Todd. American Chinatown [video recording]. Berkeley: Realtime Video & the Graduate School of Journalism, University of California, 1982.
12
Annotated Bibliography
Annotated Bibliography
丁新豹，《香港歷史散步》（香港：商務印書館，2008）。[Ding Xin Bao, Hong Kong Historical Journey, Hong Kong: Commercial Press, 2008.]
Central, as the British colonial city centre, and Sheung Wan, where the Chinese expanded, are introduced. With reference to historical documents and old newspaper clippings, the author introduced the readers to the past shedding light on the life of early colonialists and the Chinese before and after Hong Kong was opened for trade.
王文章，《非物質文化遺產概論》（北京：文化藝術出版社，2006）。[An Introduction to Intangible Cultural Heritage]
Intangible Cultural Heritage is a reflection of human history. As societies are becoming increasingly reliant on sustainable development, the preservation of the Intangible Cultural Heritage has become a topical issue. Even though the notion of Intangible Cultural Heritage was coined in the 1980s and has a short history, it has become an imperative vehicle to map a blueprint of the world’s development. At present, Intangible Cultural Heritage is a heated topic in the international community, with contributors from all walks of life taking part. In order to understand and define the notion of Intangible Cultural Heritage, the book draws on various disciplinary methods and knowledge, including sociology, culture, history, anthropology and folklore. This book discusses the key issues relating to Intangible Cultural Heritage, allowing its readers to understand the value and meaning of Intangible Cultural Heritage, and the crisis that it faces from different points of view, explained through a variety of concepts, theories and classifications with examples from China and the rest of the world. It sheds light on the various problems confronted while dealing with preservation work and advocates the protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage with references to international standard practices and methods of protection. Furthermore, the efforts of China’s preservation work and its development are summarized alongside the development of the Intangible Cultural Heritage discourse. The appendix includes a collection of documents on Intangible Cultural Heritage released by China and the United Nations.
白德（Bard, Solomon）著，招紹瓚譯，《香港文物志》（香港：市政局，1991）。[Records of Hong Kong Heritage]
The author was previously the Executive Secretary of the Antiquities and Monuments Office. He suggested this as a handbook for the public to facilitate monuments visits. In this book, various heritage, such as walled villages, Chinese traditional architecture (such as ancestral halls and study halls), inscriptions, Western architecture (such as Government buildings and churches), and forts, are introduced. Photos and maps are also included so as to enhance readers’ understanding of the relationship between monuments and its surrounding environment.
陶立璠、櫻井龍彥，《非物質文化遺產學論集》（北京：學苑出版社，2006）。[Collected Essays on the Study of Intangible Cultural Heritage]
This anthology contains 34 essays written by Chinese and foreign scholars on the theme of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The scholars investigated the notion of Intangible Cultural Heritage, in terms of fundamental principles, and looks at its progressive development, supported by references to a variety of conservation works around the world. Comparative studies involving the laws, theoretical issues, and the strategies concerning national cultural heritage preservation and development were used to explain the different points of view. The scholars also noticed the interdependent connection of Intangible Cultural Heritage to the village folk community. It also discussed the traditions transmitted orally and in literature, the local cultural heritage, the ancient villages and cultural protection. In order to provide the reader with an in-depth comparative study, cases of contemporary preservation works, incorporating both theory and practice, are included with examples from Guizhou China, Taiwan, Vietnam and Japan,
廖迪生，《非物質文化遺產與東亞地方社會》（香港：香港科技大學華南研究中心，香港文化博物館，2011）。[Intangible Cultural Heritage and Local Communities in East Asia]
This edited volume is a product of an international conference held in 2009. Scholars and experts of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) from Mainland China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan and Hong Kong were invited to present their research findings and to share their experiences. The book volume, with 23 articles, is organized on three main topics: (i) Keynote Speeches, (ii) Concepts and Experiences, and (iii) Cases in Contexts. The introduction chapter explores the impacts of ICH, as a new concept and a new institution, and analyses the responses of the local societies. Two issues are examined in the “Keynote Speeches” part: Rubie S. Watson examines the repatriation of cultural property in the United States and its relations with Native American tribes, while James L. Watson discusses the politics of heritage in community banqueting rituals in Hong Kong’s New Territories. In the “Concepts and Experiences” part, different governmental measures and experiences in safeguarding ICH in the East Asian region are explored. The experts examine the systems that the local or state governments have adopted, and also how local societies have been affected by these measures. In the “Cases in Contexts” part, different cases of ICH in the East Asian region are examined. These in-depth case studies reveal that the state, educated elites, tourists, and local societies have participated in the safeguarding of the inscribed ICH items, while the meanings of the traditions have been constantly redefined by the parties involved.
廖迪生、張兆和，《大澳》（香港︰三聯書店（香港）有限公司，2006）。[Tai O]
This book on Tai O is based on field data collected by the authors for over almost twenty years. The book explores the historical development of Tai O, which has developed as a diversified society with different cultural and economic activities, and is an integrated society with various ethnic groups. Each have accumulated their own local knowledge, such as fishing techniques, farming methods, salt production, salty fish making, marine conditions, religious activities, manufacturing ship and stilted houses. This book comprises eight chapters. “Understanding Tai O” describes the general background of Tai O, “Society Change through Tai O Heritage” is about the temples in Tai O and how the inscriptions reflect the historical development and connections beyond Tai O. “The Development of Fishing, Salt Production, Agriculture and Commerce in Tai O” outlines the development of various industries. “Fishing Industries and Ecology of Tai O” explains different methods of fishing practiced in Tai O and describes the surrounding ecology. “Living in Stilted House” explores the structure of stilted houses, the fishermen’s family economy and various religious festivals. “Social Organizations in Tai O” describes the various social organizations of the Tai O fishing industries. “Popular Religion in Tai O” explains the organization and operation of local religious activities and the participant associations. The relationship between religious activities and the local communal sectors is examined. “The Interpretation of Tai O Heritage” concludes the study by suggesting that heritage is a medium for maintaining various ethnic groups in a local community, and is a source of community identity.
廖迪生、盧惠玲，《風水與文物︰香港新界屏山鄧氏稔灣祖墳搬遷事件文獻彙編》（香港︰香港科技大學華南研究中心，2007）。[Geomancy and Heritage: Documents on the Case of Relocating the Ping Shan Tang Ancestral Grave in Nim Wan, Hong Kong’s New Territories]
This set of archives contains 151 documents, regarding the removal of the Ping Shan Tang Lineage graveyards in Nim Wan. Presented in a chronological order, it includes Government letters, newspaper clippings and meeting minutes, from 1993 to 2002. Prior to the construction of the West New Territories Landfill in Ping Shan, the Government ordered the removal of the two Tang burial sites at Nim Wan. The lineage members opposed, with references to the New Territories’ non-intervention of traditional customs and non-removal of graveyards system, yet still, the Government officials covertly unearthed the remains of their ancestors. In consequence, to compensate for the damage done to the geomantic patterning during the colonial period, Mr. Tang Shing Sze demanded the conversion of the Old Police Station into a museum. This compromise eventuated in 1997. This book provides readers with an in-depth understanding of politics between the Hong Kong Government and the Ping Shan Tang Lineage, by portraying the change and transfer of power and attitudes, before and after the Handover, in terms of negotiations and the subsequent fruition of Tang Museum and the Ping Shan Heritage Trail.
劉還月，《台灣民俗田野行動入門》（台北：常民文化事業股份有限公司，1999）。[An Introduction to Field Research in Taiwan]
Since the 1990s, field research meets the development of regionalism, that is, local cultures have been recognized by society. The author promotes “Field Research” as the tool to study local history and culture, especially drawing on examples found in popular religion. It also explores the symbolic meaning of statues and the relationship between ethnic groups and local organization. Using case studies in Taiwan, the author analyzes the essence, methodology, meanings and the difficulties encountered in fieldwork. The first volume is about data collection. Here, the author points out that field research faces the problem of popularization. Therefore the researcher should also study local history in order to understand the context of governments, followed by reviewing ethnographic studies in different eras. An example of studying this is Social activities, ideas and cultural contexts can be investigated from local historical gazetteer in Qing Dynasty. The second volume is about preparation. The author believes that fieldwork research requires both hardware and software. Hardware means funding and equipment; software means data collection, data analysis and selection of research questions. After being categorized, encoded, themed, the field data becomes available for research applications. Once again, the author draws on examples from popular religious activities to show that questionnaire preparation, seeking potential informants, reading local publications and governmental materials are all vital to understand the importance of local context. The third volume is the skeleton brief. The author states that during fieldwork, not only is participant observation required but also a sense of the landscape, social atmosphere, timing and the responses from the participants. Taboos and secrets should be seriously considered prior to asking questions. The author also suggests that a researcher should play a neutral role, develop local organizational, communal networks and avoid being harmed or harm the informant during the period of research. After collecting field data, it is necessary to compile data for research purposes. The fourth volume is the examples of case studies. The author uses popular religion to investigate environmental factors, the development of deity worship and the relationship between religion and life cycle to understand the uniqueness of local culture. Festival, music and opera, heritage, handicraft and local products are all important aspects to understand the relationship between local people’s life, local customs and systems of production.
鄭培凱，《口傳心授與文化傳承——非物質文化遺產：文獻，現狀與討論》（廣西：廣西師範大學出版社，2006）。[Transmitting Oral Traditions and Intangible Cultural Heritage: Writings and Current Affairs]
This book is a collection of essays about Intangible Cultural Heritage, edited by the renowned Hong Kong scholar, Professor Cheung Pei-kai. The topics are divided into four parts: “Documentary,” includes the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, The Convention of “Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity” issued by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and essays on the research of the Conventions. Kunqu, the well-known Chinese performance is also a major focus in this book. “The Present” mainly discusses Kunqu, which has been listed in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. In particular, there is an essay by the Taiwanese author, Pai Hsien-yung, describing the Kunqu and one of its productions, The Peony Pavilion, performed by a troupe of young artists. In the “Discussion” part, combinations of theoretical and practical experiences were used to study Intangible Cultural Heritage, from an aesthetic, cultural and environmental point of view. The preservation of Kunqu, especially from the government position was also analyzed. The “Appendix” introduces three kinds of performing arts which already appear in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity: the traditional long-tune folk songs of Inner Mongolia, the maqamat in Xinjiang Uygur and the maqamat in Iraq.
任海，〈看的辯證：展覽櫥中的香港〉，劉青峰、關小春編，《轉化中的香港︰身分與秩序的再尋求》（香港︰香港中文大學出版社，1998），頁195-219。[“Seeing as Dialectic: Hong Kong in a Showcase”]
This paper is an exploration on the social changes in Hong Kong, resulting from the transition of Government from a British Colony to a Special Administrative Region. Grounded in the context of culture and history, the author attempts to unravel the relationship between historical representation and local identity. “Telling – through – showing” exhibits common elements seen in Hong Kong’s everyday life, after the production of visual media. Various ideologies on Chinese Nationalism, British Colonialism and Hong Kong Capitalism were depicted in the artifacts on display. The author examines the role of the Hong Kong Museum of History and the narrative portrayed by its permanent exhibition, The Hong Kong Story. It showcases the natural progression of Hong Kong city and the society, contextualized in a natural setting, with the rural village life appearing only as a segment of the city’s overall urban development. The author also describes the correlation between the government’s stance towards heritage preservation and heritage education, with the issue of local identity tied in. Ping Shan Tang Heritage Trail was used as a case reference. Another museum, this case, in Ping Shan, reveals the complexities between historical interpretation and the difficult relationships of the past, especially between the Tang lineage and the Government of the time. The concluding remarks, on the makeup of Hong Kong’s social history, are that it is a product of three elements, Chinese Imperialism, the rigid systems established by the British, and at the same time, the influence of transnational capitalism in Hong Kong.
朱綱，〈涼茶入遺︰文化與商業的雙重變奏〉，《中國非物質文化遺產》（中山：中山大學出版社，2006），頁250-259。[“Chinese Herbal Tea as Intangible Cultural Heritage: Variations in Culture and Business”]
Chinese herbal tea (Liang Cha) is a product of South China. It is found in places like Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong and Macau, where the weather is sultry and is characterized by high humidity. In terms of Chinese medicine, the tea has a cooling effect, necessary to regulate body temperature and for detoxing. By definition, Chinese herbal tea is either used in a general sense or a specific sense. The general sense describes all Chinese herbal tea-soups including those with minor medicinal effects. These include the “Five Floral Tea” (Wu Hua Cha), “Mulberry Leaf and Chrysanthemum Tea” (Xia Sang Ju), “Sugar Cane and Imperatae/ Cogongrass Rhizome Juice” (Zhuzhe Maojin Zhi) etc. Those Chinese herbal teas with potent medical effects include “Shiqi Chinese Herbal tea” (Shiqi Liang Cha), “24 Herbs” (Nian Si Wei), “Ban Sha Tea” (Ban Sha Cha) etc. In the specific sense, Chinese herbal tea is described as being a refreshing tea-soup prescription, an example is the “Green Chrysanthemum Tea” (Lu Ju Cha), composed of mung bean and chrysanthemum tea leaves. In June 2006, Chinese herbal tea successfully made the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, for its widespread influence in Chinese society. This article re-constructs the historical redevelopment of the Chinese herbal tea culture and divides its development into three stages. The first stage is the initial stage of Chinese herbal tea, which took place in Pre-Qin to the Tang Dynasty. During this stage, Chinese herbal tea was yet to be named “Liang Cha,” but existed under a broarder classification of traditional Chinese medicine. The second stage, from the Yuan Dynasty to Ming and Qing Dynasty, was the formative phase of Chinese herbal tea. In this era, the name “Chinese herbal tea” was coined to symbolize the emergence and development of Chinese herbal tea, along with the identification of its medical properties. The third stage, from Late Qing Dynasty to present-day, has been the phase of production and development. During this stage, the representative brand name of Chinese herbal tea, “Wang Lao Ji” saw the Chinese herbal tea culture reach its peak. The author’s comprehensive research was used to synthesize that Chinese herbal tea was a commercial product that was first nominated and finally selected, as an item in China’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The article also presents a case of Liu Dian Lin, the professional counterfeit product investigator, who in 2005 bought a can of “Wang Lao Ji” from the Dong’an Market, containing an apparently inedible product (withered summer grass) prunella vulgaris (Xia Ku Cao). He later sued Dong’an Market and the manufacturer Guangdong Jiaduobao Drink and Food Company Limited. This lawsuit was brought to the attention of the Guangdong Food Industry, when Chinese herbal tea was being considered as Intangible Cultural Heritage. In May 2006, Guangdong Provincial Department of Culture, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China Home Affairs Department and, the Government of the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China Cultural Affairs Bureau made a joint state-level application to declare Chinese herbal tea in the first listing of Intangible Cultural Heritage of China. The author points out that the selection of Chinese herbal tea shows the essence of its intangible nature, where, in a cultural context, it exists in a state of dynamic flux, undergoing continuous development and innovation. The author is assured of the future prosperity of the industry, as it will provide a diverse variety of new Chinese herbal tea, while at the same time, the production process of Chinese herbal tea should be safeguarded along with the natural ecology from which it comes.
范可，〈「申遺」︰傳統與地方的全球化再現〉，《廣西民族大學學報（哲學社會科學版）》，第30卷，第5期（2008年9月），頁46-52。[“Application for Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Global Re-emergence of Traditions and Locals”]
In recent years, many places around the world have excitedly applied to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), to make their oral traditions and Intangible Cultural Heritage, globally known. Many educational institutes have been established in response to the interest towards the study of Intangible Cultural Heritage. This atmosphere leads to different forms of reconstruction of locality; many places are able to project its identity through the enthusiastic presentations. The aim of the article is to analyze the concepts of tradition, locality, and the invention of tradition. It also attempts to interpret the application of Intangible Cultural Heritage under the dialogues of globalization, in order to understand the phenomenon, the content and the meaning, in the construction of local identity under the pretext and the invention of tradition. The author explains the concepts of tradition and modernity in the age of Western powers, Colonial expansion, after the emergence of social science and the Age of Discovery. The contemporary understanding of tradition lies in the continuity and separate relationship between now and the past. However, the author points out that in fact its meaning has been derived over time. Moreover, the tendency is to identify tangible and intangible objects as commodities acquiring traditional relevance. Since modernity is synonymously entwined in the tread of urbanization, so the rural remains, as the place for traditions to breed. The two anthropological concepts, local society and urban society, were adopted in the analysis of tradition and local society. In the contemporary dialogue, local society and urban society are traditional and modern metaphors, manifested in literature. The search of local culture is usually a component of nationalistic movement. The invention of tradition shows that the nationalist and ethno-nationalist movement try to reconstruct its own history and culture to achieve a political goal. Nationalists invented tradition is in fact, part of the national identity formation process. Therefore local society or rural society becomes the indispensable means for defining the nation and the state. Nowadays, the reverence towards the local society and traditions in different parts of the world is strongly connected to globalization. Finally, the cases of Yin Chuan, Ninxia Province, Quan Zhou, Fujian Province were selected by the author to investigate the relationship between applying Intangible Cultural Heritage and the invention of tradition. The author points out that UNESCO has proved beneficial in raising awareness and in the maintenance of tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritages in the local society. To some extent, at least it reminds people to pay particular attention to the intangible and oral traditions that have vanished in some places. It also stimulates the pursuit of utility in some areas. The author believes that while globalization cannot achieve cultural homogeneity, but it can lead to the construction of cultural diversities and the receation of tradition. The differences of traditions in each local society must remain consciously presented while interacting with others through globalization. Therefore, in a sense, Intangible Cultural Heritage application becomes a way for mutual interaction to occur.
梁寶珊，〈傳統再造——「長洲太平清醮」與「中環廟會」〉，《文化研究＠嶺南》，第8期（2007年11月）。 （） [“Re-invention of Tradition: Cheung Chau Jiao Festival and Central Temple Fair”]
The essay is a student’s project. Through on the Bun Festival in Cheung Chau and other “Chinese Festivals,” organized by the Hong Kong Tourism Board, at the ferry piers for outlying islands in Central, the author analyzed, how religious festivals have lost its cultural significance and how the community has been, as a result of tourist development.
張兆和，〈中越邊界跨境交往與廣西京族跨國身份認同〉，《歷史人類學學刊》，第2卷，第1期（2004），頁89-133。[“Sino-Vietnam Border Crossing and the Transnational Identity of Jing Nationality of Guang Xi”]
This paper takes the Jing nationality at Fangchenggang City of Guang Xi as an example of the development of linkages to transnational culture and the changes in social identities, as expressed in religious rituals at traditional festivals, for instance the Hát Festival. Firstly the observations are discussed then analyzed in the context of recent historical and the contemporary development of the regional economy. The author also investigates the interplay between transnational identity and other aspects of social identity, such as class, age, gender, lineage, ethnicity and citizenship. The Jing Nationality originally emigrated from Vietnam to settle in the place of Guang Xi, known locally as the “Jing people of Three Islands” (Jing’ju San Dao). Until 1964, the people were identified as Vietnamese (Yue), before being officially recognized as the Jing people, an ethnic minority group of China. In 1985 the Jing people saw the revival of their traditional Hát Festival. The author’s participation and observations in traditional and religious activities of Fangchenggang in 1996, underline the exploration of national border control and the consciousness of national identity. This can be seen in the behavior of the participants during the festivals, such that the changing attitudes of the Jing people towards Vietnamese culture can be observed through the Hát Festival. The first relates to the change in the myth of the patron sea-god in the Hát Festival and the origins of Jing people. Also “The Legend of Three Islands (san dao)” was distorted to prevent confusion after the change in the Government’s demarcation of boundary and territory, with the change of Jing’s social identity in China. In the past, the legend portrayed the Jing community of Wan Wei and its association with the homeland in Vietnam. Another change related to border control. Previously the female performers, hired for the Hát Festival rituals, travelled unofficially from Vietnam by sea and since 1995 they travel on land, and are required to pass through a series of registration channels at the border. In addition, the relationship between local Jing and Vietnam people has transformed from local communal based relations to the national and institutional style relations, hence emphasizing the concept of national boundary. The author uses both a historical and socio-economic perspective to investigate the changes of the local Jing’s linkage with Vietnamese culture. Since delimiting the Sino-French boundary of China and Vietnam in 1887, the identity of the Jing people has consolidated, and the inclusion of Jing people under Chinese authority has resulted in the revival of traditional Hát Festival. In mid-1980s, the Jing people became a successful ethnic minority, due to the reopening of the Sino-Vietnam border. Since then, huge changes have been observed in Jing society as a result of cross-border trade. During the period of economic development, the relations between the local Jing people and Vietnam have evolved from a local communal level to a national and institutional level. The paper shows, since the 1990s, the increase in cross-border exchange and development did little to harm the Jing people’s ethnic identity, unlike the theories of the West. In fact, on the contrary, the Jing identity has progressively permeated into local society, through frequent interactions at the border, and this becomes an essential ingredient in the sense of transnational identity.
廖迪生，〈把風水變成文物：在香港新界建構「文物話語」之個案研究〉，廖迪生、盧惠玲編，《風水與文物︰香港新界屏山鄧氏稔灣祖墳搬遷事件文獻彙編》（香港︰香港科技大學華南研究中心，2007），頁1-27。[“From Geomancy to Heritage: Construction of the Notion Heritage in the New Territories, Hong Kong”]
This essay portrays the tension between the Government and the Tang lineage of Ping Shan, over the removal of graveyards, in terms of the notional change from geomancy to heritage. Geomancy, or feng-shui, an important aspect of traditional social discourse, is used to justify the associations between place and social stratification, within and, among different lineages. Ancestral graveyards were carefully built in accordance with geomantic patterns. However, due to development, the Ping Shan Tang lineage was forced by the Government to remove their burials, and geomancy facilitated an imperative means in the negotiation process. Yet, the Government officials were insensitive to local customs, and treated it as irrational. From the 1990s onwards, heritage became a common topic for the masses and this has helped the local people to construct a sense of local identity after the 1997 Handover. Under such circumstances, the Tang lineage has spoken in the name of heritage, when negotiating with the government, meanwhile publically promoting their lineage history and also setting up their own Ping Shan Heritage Trail. This case study demonstrates the various terms used by the villagers to best articulate the common interests of their people, at a particular social context in time. This also paints a picture of the interactions among folk religion, social organization and local politics within a community.
Appadurai, Arjun. “Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Arjun Appadurai, 3-63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
A new perspective on the circulation of commodities has emerged in relation to social life. While exchange is primarily the source of value and not vice versa, value is embodied in commodities that are exchanged. The link between exchange and value is political, and in the broadest sense of relations, assumptions, and contests pertaining to power. Five sections are dedicated to elaborating the above argument and exploring the conditions under which economic objects circulate in different regimes of value, in space and time. The first part deals with the spirit of commodity. It is a critical exercise to define that commodities, when properly understood, are not the monopoly of modern, industrial economies, but exist as a primitive form, in many kinds of societies. Two kinds of exchange methods are presented, barter and gifts. The author views commodities as things in a certain situation. He proposes that the commodity situation in the social life of the thing, be defined by the situation, such that, its exchangeability- past, present, or future, for some other thing is its socially relevant feature. The author discusses the flow of commodity and individual and group involvement in the process of value creation of the commodity under different timespan and space. By drawing upon ethnographic examples, the author demonstrates the flow of commodities in any given situation. It is seen as a shifting compromise between socially regulated paths and competitively inspired diversions. Desire and demand, shows the links of short and long-term patterns in commodity circulation. It shows that demand is neither a mechanical response to the system and level of production, nor an endless cycle of consumption, as it is subjected to social control and political re-definition. The relationship between knowledge and commodities is described in the last section. The particularly complex relationship among authenticity, taste, and the politics of consumer is examined. Political implication of value and politicized knowledge explain that politics acts as the mediator between exchange and value. This part concludes with the argument that politics acts as the mediator between exchange and value.
Appadurai, Arjun and Breckenridge, Carol A. “Museums are Good to Think: Heritage on View in India.” In Museums and Communities: The Politics of Public Culture, edited by Ivan Karp, Christine Mullen Kreamer and Steven D. Lavine, 34-55. Washington D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.
Heritage is becoming an increasingly profound political issue. It is one in which districts and states are often at odds, with museums and their collections caught in the midst of this particular storm. Public culture is articulated as an interactive set of cosmopolitan experiences and structures, of which museums and exhibitions are a crucial part. In contemporary India, the two major forums that characterize the public world are the exhibition-cum-sale and the ethnic-national festival. The gradual progression from colonial to postcolonial times has seen the variety of change in the display and visual representation of artifacts. This transformation has effectively shifted from the former Indian modes of visualization, and is now influenced by the juxtaposition of heritage politics, tourism, and entertainment.
Au, Ho Ping. “Appropriating Heritage and Social Integration in Tung Chung New Town.” In Historical Memory and Relocation around the New Hong Kong International Airport (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
This chapter investigates how heritage from old Tung Chung has been transposed in the New Town in order to create a sense of communal identity. Kwong, as a District Council member, organized an exhibition of nearly fifty artifacts, in the public square of a shopping mall in Tung Chung, in hope that this might help to conjure up a sense of community identity in the New Town. Artifacts were selectively chosen from the farmers of the old village. Here, heritage was re-interpreted and manipulated by popular discourse and by local leaders. In the process, social networks and social relationships were developed by repackaging through campaigning events. Faced with a lack of local common identity, the process of repackaging Tung Chung’s heritage in the New Town realized this issue. However, this was also an activity that provided a platform for a local leader to extend her social networks and to build up contacts while developing her status within the community.
Au, Ho Ping. “Religious Confrontation and Social Boundaries in the Relocation of Chek Lap Kok Village.” In Historical Memory and Relocation around the New Hong Kong International Airport (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
In the early 1990s, the process of relocating villagers from Chek Lap Kok to Tung Chung resulted in not only a religious confrontation, but also a social demarcation. As a joint initiative of the Hong Kong Government and a heritage institution, the shift saw the erection of a temple, and later the celebration of the birthday of the popular deity, Tin Hau. Clearly this decision was to symbolically re-construct Hong Kong’s heritage. However, inadvertently, such a symbol reinforced the boundaries that separated the people of the Chek Lap Kok from the local Tung Chung people. Hence, when the Tin Hau deity entered Tung Chung, it posed a huge challenge to the Tung Chung community, as the action was considered a threat from the outside. So, in the process of integrating the new Tin Hau cult into Tung Chung, the villagers initially swung back and forth, rejecting then accepting and then rejecting again, the villagers from Chek Lap Kok. The differing religious attitudes of the Tung Chung community have in part, been an excuse for the strong social divide between them and the newcomers.
Carroll, John M. “Displaying the Past to Serve the Present: Museums and Heritage Preservation in Post-Colonial Hong Kong.” Twentieth-Century China 31 (2005): 76-103.
In the author’s own words, this article “examines the ways in which museums and heritage preservation reflect some of the SAR government’s concerns about Hong Kong’s new political, cultural, and economic status.” Carroll first gives a brief account of the history of museums and heritage preservation in Hong Kong. He then explains that the SAR government’s interest in heritage preservation stemmed from the needs to erase the strong sense of colonialism in Hong Kong history, and to promote Hong Kong as a cosmopolitan city where Chinese and Western cultures mingle. Finally, Carroll demonstrates how Hong Kong is displayed in museum exhibits as a “depoliticized, benevolent capitalist utopia.”
Chan, Ching Selina. “Politicizing Tradition: the Identity of Indigenous Inhabitants in Hong Kong.” Ethnology 37(1): 39-54.
This article investigates how the ethnicity of indigenous inhabitants in the New Territories villages of Hong Kong is a case of the politicization of identity. The indigenous inhabitants’ ethnicity is a dynamic process of becoming; its fluid nature, reflecting and adjusting to changing socio-political and economic contexts. The notion of tradition has always been a powerful weapon in shaping and reshaping of the indigenous inhabitants, identity and has been a constant point of contention between the villagers and the British colonialists, as well as between the villagers and the rest of the Hong Kong’s people.
Cheng, Lai Mei. Festivals and Ethnicity: A Study of the Chaozhou Community in Kowloon City, Hong Kong (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
Chaozhou is a region in eastern Guangdong. People in Chaozhou speak a distinctive dialect, which is different from the dominant language, Cantonese, in Guangdong and Hong Kong. The Chaozhou people have a long tradition of emigration to Southeast Asia and Hong Kong. This research focuses on a Chaozhou community in Hong Kong’s Kowloon City, an old urban area in urban Kowloon. Kowloon City has a long history of Chaozhou settlement and is a place where Chaozhou businesses flourished. However, the research reveals that many of the Chaozhou people involved in the activities in Kowloon City live in some other parts of Hong Kong. They only go to Kowloon City to run their business, to purchase traditional Chaozhou items, or to participate in communal festivals. So, the author argues that different sectors of the Chaozhou community deliberately maintain a Chaozhou environment in Kowloon City, to sustain their ethnic traditions, identity, and business interests. Every year, festivals are arranged to celebrate the birthdays of the goddess Tian Hau and the Earth God, to take care of the wandering ghosts, and to worship their Chaozhou ancestors. These regular communal events, contribute significantly to the maintenance of a strong Chaozhou atmosphere in Kowloon City. During these festivals, the participants seek blessings from the deities in Kowloon City, watch the Chaozhou operas and rituals, meet their friends and former neighbours, and talk in their own dialect. The rich can demonstrate their wealth and social statuses, by generosity, making contributions to the festivals. Kowloon City thus is a training ground for local Chaozhou leaders. The largest majority of the organizers of the communal activities are middle-aged Chaozhou businessmen. These leaders join different associations and at the same time constitute a pattern of overlapping membership, thereby creating a closed network among leaders of various Chaozhou associations in Kowloon City. On the other hand, these businessmen also use the communal activities to define the boundary of their business territory and to promote their ethnic businesses in Kowloon City. Based on their social and political foundations in Kowloon City, the local elites also try to extend their networks elsewhere in Hong Kong and also back to their hometowns in Chaozhou by utilizing their cultural resources for sustaining their ethnic environment and interests in Kowloon City. Although many Chaozhou people have moved out of Kowloon City, Kowloon City remains a symbol of Hong Kong’s Chaozhou community, a place the Chaozhou people look for their own traditions and identity. The annual festivals, the business community, the local leaders, as well as the frequent visit of Chaozhou fellows from other parts of Hong Kong collectively create and support the “Chaozhou community” in Kowloon City.
Cheung, Sidney. “The Meanings of a Heritage Trail in Hong Kong.” Annuals of Tourism Research 26:3 (1999): 570-588.
Tourism is often described as an encounter between the foreigners and the locals, but in fact, in this transnational world such a polarization is too simple. So this paper describes the establishment of the Ping Shan Heritage Trail and how it has been used, interpreted and contested by different parties concerning its heritage significance in Hong Kong’s New Territories. The Ping Shan Heritage Trail was established in December 1993 as the first heritage trail in Hong Kong. Its construction also encouraged the re-definition of local identity, both historically and traditionally, which is neither colonial British nor mainland Chinese, but distinctively of Hong Kong. There are at least four parties involved in the contested struggle over the significance of the Heritage Trail. The first is The Antiquities Advisory Board, which represents the Hong Kong Government and is the main organizer in the trail’s construction. The second is the Hong Kong Tourist Association, whose duty is to promote all aspects of Hong Kong’s tourism industry for the benefit of the city’s economy. The third is composed of various tour organizers who bring local Hong Kong residents to discover local history. The fourth is the Ping Shan Tang lineage, who are the traditional owners of the site, and in the past these people have fought with the Government in order to restore the cosmic harmony and balance in their defaced landscape.The Hong Kong Government, in particular the Antiquities and Monument Office, are responsible for the selection of traditional Chinese monuments, representative of the territory, to show the rest of the world. While the Hong Kong Tourist Association try to present Hong Kong as the mix of “East and West, traditional and modern.” For tourists, the trail is a reminder of an unchanged pre-modernist Chinese setting. Meanwhile local tour organizers believe that by taking locals to Hong Kong heritage sites actually reinforces their sense of belonging in the place. Descendants of indigenous inhabitants, like the Tangs (re)-internalize the public heritage and resist political authority, by proclaiming their indigenous identity. This study shows how the various conflicts in the past century have led to the different contests over this tourist heritage site.
Cohen, Myron. “The Hakka or ‘Guest People’: Dialect as a Sociocultural Variable in Southeast China.” In Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad, edited by Nicole Constable, 36-79. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.
The linguistic diversity of Southeast China was a variable that influenced the social organization of the region. The differences in language differentiated social groupings of Hakka-speakers in Guangdong and adjoining areas of Guangxi with speakers of Cantonese. The author strives to validate the assertion associated with the linguistic heterogeneity of Southeast China, with the fact that dialect was a third structural variable, and the third means of group affiliation. According to the works of Luo Xianglin, the distribution of the Hakka nationality is the result of five successive “migratory movements” southward, since 317 A.D. and lasting until the 19th century. Evidence relating to Hakka-Cantonese conflicts should be viewed in conjunction with the historical records of Hakka migration, from the North to the Southeast and the historical developments of the region at the time. The analysis on the sequence of settlements in Guangdong was a way to understand the inter-relationships. By the time the Hakka people arrived, the land had already been claimed. The limited availability of land for Hakka settlement, was not conducive to the immediate clustering of large groups of people at one locale. The initial manifestation of the Hakka, on Cantonese-owned land, indicated small group settlement patterns. An overall population increase would soon place the hitherto symbiotic Cantonese-Hakka relationship within a very different framework. Since the dispersed settlement pattern of the Hakka precluded the localized groupings of a large size, the conflicts with the Cantonese in Guangxi necessitated the mobilization of individuals. Certain features of Southern Chinese social organization were minimized as an effect of intermarriage between the different dialects. In an effort to discern structural coherence in a large-scale mobilization based upon common dialect, we should first examine the sociological model which takes into account that not all conflict in Southeast China proceeded along kin-based or village lines. The sequence of migration, settlement patterns and the differences in dialects in turn, played an important influence in the alignment and formation of social groups in Guangdong and Guangxi. We can see that dialect can therefore be treated with the same importance as kinship or territoriality, which is basically a socio-cultural variable.
Dann, Graham. “Tourism: the Nostalgia of the Future.” In Global Tourism: The Next Decade, edited by William F. Theobald. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
Today a great deal of time and energy has been invested into looking backwards in time and to explore the religious activities of the past, golden oldies, conservation and heritage. Current media and advertisers also focus on this theme, with the nostalgia industry linked to the world’s number one enterprise – tourism. This exploratory essay examines nostalgia-tourism with reference to: 1) Hotels; 2) Museum and other emporia; 3) Infamous sites; and 4) Dirty dumps. Hotels are in fact, a tourist attraction in itself. So in order to satisfy the tourists’ imagination in this de-differentiated postmodern society, some hotels have been impressively decorated with expensive art and antiques, providing items of comfort and luxury, or try to recapture a sense of early 20th century decor. With a price-tag attached, the tourist is free to decide if they would like to be treated as potentates. Our modern society collects the symbols of the past and places them in museums. Sometimes museums are dedicated to a famous person, or better still, somebody infamous! An example is the Filipino Malacanang Presidential Palace Museum in Manila. On other occasions, the museum becomes an emporium actually retailing nostalgia, thereby allowing the tourist to purchase trophies from the past as souvenirs for keepsake. Tourists more often than not, have a fascination with notorious characters, whether they are drawn from the distant or recent past. The infamous Rose Hall, KGB’s Lubyanka headquarters in the heart of Moscow and the late 19th century Californian gold mining town of Bodie, are examples of such macabre tourist attractions. Another dimension for attracting tourists is a community’s industrial past. Examples of these places are the production factories of cars, planes, submarines, and processing food plants etc. These places are suitably opened up for public gaze and in so doing become a place of sightseeing interest, and an object of the gaze for tourists, thus museumising the production factory in the process. Overall, the use of nostalgia has been successfully manipulated, to sustain influx of tourists.
Faure, David. “The Lineage as a Cultural Invention: The Case of the Pearl River Delta.” Modern China 15(1) (1989): 4-36.
The concept of lineage is of great prominence in the Pearl River Delta. With origins found in the fifteenth to the eighteenth century, lineage was a form of village organization that grew as a cultural form, to serve economic and political ends. In fact, the lineage organization is a cultural invention of the Ming government. It was the result of a variety of aspects. This included land and population registration requirements, the reclamation of waste-land for farming, the need to establish a local defense system, the spread of literacy and scholarly ideals and the concept of social hierarchy.
Henderson, Joan. “Heritage, Identity and Tourism in Hong Kong.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 7 (3) (2001): 219-235.
“Once a part of the Chinese Empire, Hong Kong then became a British colony and changed its status again in 1997 to that of a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China. The implications of this history for heritage and cultural identity are discussed with particular reference to their representation and promotion as tourist attractions. Hong Kong is seen to be using its unique heritage in a time of transition and uncertainty to assist in defining a distinct identity that is partly expressed through tourism. There are, however, certain potential conflicts of meaning and interpretation amongst the interested parties that have still to be resolved. The experience of Hong Kong provides an insight into the dynamics of the relationship between identity, heritage and tourism that are especially complex within the context of decolonisation.”
Hobsbawm, Eric and Ranger, Terence. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Traditions which appear old-age are in fact, more often than not of newfangled origins. Sometimes they are invented. The term invented tradition implies both that traditions are actually invented and formally instituted. Those traditions emerging in a less easily traceable manner, within a brief and dateable period have established themselves with great rapidity. Traditions, however, must be clearly distinguished from customs, conventions or routines. Inventing traditions is essentially a process of formalization, with references to the past, and imposed by repetition. Towards the end, the author provides some general observations about the nature of invented traditions after the industrial revolution. Historians can greatly benefit from the study of the invention of traditions, which are highly relevant to the comparatively recent historical innovation, the nation, and its associated phenomena.
Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean. “Objects and Interpretive Process.” In Museums and the Interpretation of Visual Culture, edited by Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, 103-123. London: Routledge, 2000.
This chapter analyses the processes of understanding how objects are made meaningful. The meanings of objects are constructed from the position which they are viewed. Meanings are plural rather than singular. The author concentrates on the relationship between subject and object, between the viewer and the viewed. The author first considers how objects are imbued with meaning-functions within everyday life and, secondly, focuses on the relationship between the individual interpretive processes and those of interpretive communities.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. “Disputing Taste.” In Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage, edited by Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 259 - 281. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
The notion of taste has often been associated with those privileged with wealth, leisure, and cultivation. However, how is taste formed? How can we distinguish good taste and what is bad taste? Taste presents itself inherent to individual persons, so distinctions attributed to good and bad taste are unstable. The same taste can be assigned to either category, at the same time and also swing back and forth, over time. That is to say taste is distinguished by the individual. The notion derives from Enlightenment values, and the formation of taste closely relates to class difference and interest. The classic markers of good taste are often read into the history of selected commodities and involve a process of mystification on objects (about their universality, singularity, and timelessness). The objects are conceptualized; the historical portrait is more like a “make-up.” Without this, such objects bear only the general signature of human manufacture. The more elaborate and variegated is the history of the object, the more destabilized is the object’s location in space and time. At the same time, the detachment of art, beauty, and pleasure also destabilizes the very category of taste. As a postmodern concept, the aesthetics of kitsch subsumes the reception of kitsch as well as the object, the commodity and its consumers, the programmed response and its subversion. The condemnation of kitsch was a way the legitimate arts defended themselves as their tokens were degraded, but the issue of kitsch also brings about the ambivalent relationship of intellectuals to popular culture. Is the eroding of differences a kind of mistake or liberation?
Lowenthal, David. “Reliving the Past: Dreams and Nightmares.” In The Past is a Foreign Country, edited by David Lowenthal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Past and future attract – and repel – in quite different ways. Visions of the future are mostly hazy and uncertain, as we may not be privy to what will come. We may affect the future’s contingencies, but we can never control them. Unlike the vague lineaments of times ahead, the fixed past has been sketched by countless chroniclers. Nostalgia is today, the universal catchword used for looking back. It fills the popular press, serves as advertising bait, merits sociological study; and no term is better to express modern malaise. If the past is a foreign country, nostalgia has made it the foreign country with the healthiest tourist trade of all. What meaning emerges from this swarm of nostalgic invocation? Many seem less concerned to find a past than to yearn for it, eager not so much to relive a fancied long-ago as to collect its relics and celebrate its virtues. The original concept of nostalgic thoughts, however, was quite different. Swiss mercenaries throughout Europe were nostalgia’s first victims and the concept long lingers on as an organic malady. Today the word is rarely associated with its original meaning of homesickness, and has become strictly a state of mind. Nostalgia is blamed for alienating people from the present. When not catastrophic or fearsome, today’s world becomes “undistinguished, unexciting and blank,” with another acclaiming, “it’s a time that leaves nothing for our imagination to do except plunge into the past.” A nostalgic longing for the past transcends to a fancifully imagined or surrogate yesteryear. Some speculate at length about how to revisit the actual past. Such yearnings have long been a staple of imaginative literature. Retrieving the past has been a major preoccupation of sci-fi, ever since its origins in the late nineteenth-century. Such nostalgic thoughts on a previous time may even surprise those who associate sci-fi chiefly with future worlds, but a search reveals hundreds, if not thousands, of stories about returning to or recovering the past and the replay of historical experience through the advent of time travel. Modern science has given fresh impetus to an enduring tradition that promises to recover the past. The belief itself is venerable. Others conceive of a past stored not in memory, but in the material cosmos – though the notion of memory leaves traces. Physical residues of all events may potentially yield unlimited access into the past. The notion of a past permanently lodged in the remote reaches of the cosmos attracts adherents bemused by the relative theory as well as by sci-fi. Sci-fi deploys science not only to retrieve past insights and sounds, but also to recall the people’s bodily experience of a previous time. Five reasons for looking into the past dominate time-travel literature: explaining the past, searching for a golden age, enjoying the exotic, reaping the rewards of temporal displacement and foreknowledge, and refashioning life by changing the past. Four potential drawbacks frequently alluded to are disappointment with the past, inability to cope with its circumstances, the danger of being marooned in it, and the possible damage to the fabric of both past and present. Neither dreams nor nightmares of revisiting the past are less intense for their seeming unlikelihood. Moreover, they offer clues to how we can either choose to accept or reject the past. This sheds light on the underlying perspectives toward both tradition and change. Intense devotion in the pursuit of the past is not as grievous as to lack feelings for the past altogether.
Urry, John. “Gazing on History.” In The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies, edited by John Urry, 104-134. London: Sage Publications, 1990.
Heritage is playing a particularly important role in British tourism and somehow, this phenomenon is more visible in Britain than in any other country. With the help of the large sums of money invested in them, a number of buildings in Britain have become places of heritage value and new museum buildings are rapidly opening their doors. Similar developments have also been observed in many other industrialized countries around the world. Under such circumstance, a lively public debate has been raging in Britain concerned with evaluating the causes and consequences of working with heritage. Hewison argues that nostalgia is generated at a time of discontent, anxiety and disappointment; the protection of the past conceals the destruction of the present. He links this with nostalgia of the industrial past in the growth of postmodernism. Aspects of heritage are commonly used as the local strategy for economic regeneration. This practice is widely supported by local people, tourist-related services and the local state. The reasons why local states have recently become involved in both developing and promoting tourism are: tourism presents a window of opportunity for generating employment; the market has become more differentiated and particular places have been forced to develop coherent strategies; local authorities play a critical role in the ownership and structure of a tourist town; and local councils have been actively promoting tourism with the benefit of the local residents in mind. Tourism is about locating certain points of interest and pleasantness, and in effect the design and development of architecture is to befit the environment. All sorts of places are on display and in its entirety for the tourist, upon first setting eyes on the new environment. In effect, some objects, have been specially (re)constructed for the tourists’ gaze. An exceptional growth in the number of museums has emerged in Western countries. This is clearly part of the process by which the past has become much more highly valued in comparison to how it was viewed before. The sovereignty of the consumer and trends in popular taste are colluding in transforming the social role of the museum.
Waldron, Arthur. “Representing China: The Great Wall and Cultural Nationalism in the Twentieth Century.” In Cultural Nationalism in East Asia, edited by Harumi Befu, 36-60. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1993.
This essay examines the role of the Great Wall in Modern Chinese Nationalism and, in particular, its connection to Cultural Nationalism. Throughout Chinese history, in both literature and popular tradition, the Great Wall has been a symbol of dynastic evil, rather than of national greatness. It was not until the 17th century, that the Great Wall received positive appraisal, but this was not from the Chinese. The more materially-minded Westerners have rated it both as a wonder and a symbol of Chinese culture. Then in the early twentieth century, some Chinese began to adopt it as a symbol of patriotism and national resistance. For much of the history of the People’s Republic of China, the Great Wall has been overshadowed by the cult of Chairman Mao. Later when the Maoist symbolic order collapsed, the wall was again pressed into service.
Watson, James L. “From the Common Pot: Feasting with Equals in Chinese Society.” Anthropos 82 (1987): 389-401.
Cantonese villagers in the Hong Kong region celebrate births, marriages, and other social transitions by holding communal banquets in public halls. Unlike feasts in restaurants or private homes, the menu consists of a single dish called sihk puhn (lit. eat pot); it is a large wooden basin containing foods that have been cooked separately and later mixed together. This paper explores the symbolism of this unusual custom and concludes that it represents a purposely-designed form of low cuisine, in contrast to the high cuisine enjoyed by the Chinese elite. By sitting at the same table and eating from a common pot, participants accept one another as equals. The elaborate etiquette and hierarchical seating arrangements so characteristic of upper class dining is conspicuously absent during village celebrations. Thus, in sharing the common pot, villagers manage to momentarily create the illusion of social equality and negate the status difference that governs their everyday lives.
Ward, Barbara and Law, Joan. Chinese Festivals in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Guidebook Company Ltd., 1993.
Barbara Ward was a well-known social anthropologist. She first came to Hong Kong in 1950 and lived among the boat people in Kau Sai, Sai Kung in order to conduct research on the culture of boat people in South China. This book provides in-depth information on the Chinese festivals in Hong Kong month by month, with insightful analysis of their activities and their meanings to the family and the community.
Watson, Rubie S. “Making Secret Histories: Memory and Mourning in Post-Mao China.” In Memory, History, and Opposition under State Socialism, edited by Rubie Watson, 65-85. Sante Fe: School of American Research Press, 1995.
In traditional Chinese society, funerals entailed a memorialization process. This provided the occasion for retrospection (thinking about the past), and introspection (self-reflection), plus, an arena for justice to be sought, grievances aired, and moral blame apportioned. Untimely death, for instance, a violent death, would involve a more elaborate ritual. However these practices were changed as a result of Mao’s Cultural Revolution. In this paper, two ethnographic examples described how the connection between memory and commemoration, and between mourning and injustice are particularly dramatic. The post-Mao China treatment of violent deaths – especially from the state-initiated violence – is presented to stimulate a more speculative discussion. The author traced the death and secret cremation of Liu Shaoqi, second in rank in the Chinese Communist Party, the President of the People’s Republic of China and Mao’s heir apparent. The events of 1966 and 1976 – killings, torture, forced migrations and internecine warfare – appear fragmented, making it seem as though they were unrelated and independent. The author also draws upon two examples, to show how memories can be transmitted and secret histories told, through the mourning and commemoration process. The first is village funeral practices in Guangdong, and the other is the Jiao Festival in Hong Kong. Next, the tragic event of June 4, 1989 is used to exemplify the treatment of violent deaths, from tracing the cause and process of the event. Such questions are raised: How are the histories and memories of June 4 constructed? How are the dead remembered? Official and unofficial accounts are inconsistent. While official reports portray the counter-revolution as a rebellious act, unofficial sources recall the campaigners as the inheritors of the patriotic student movements of an earlier era. Like many other nation-states, the People’s Republic of China was formed by a process of remembering and forgetting. However, there remain millions of people, affected by the events who are suffering in silence.
Watson, Rubie S. “Museums and Indigenous Cultures: The Power of Local Knowledge.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 21(1) (1997): 24-25.
From the earliest of days, museums were repositories for arts, crafts, ritual objects, and functional artifacts – the material culture of indigenous peoples from every part of the world. This paper describes how indigenous property was collected and displayed in museums, the power of museums, issues of cultural representation and the new form of museum, which are operated by indigenous peoples themselves. An assorted collection of goods from the most mundane, to the most sacred were purchased, bartered or simply taken, by traders, scientists, missionaries, and explorers of all kinds. With the advent of multiculturalism and the indigenous rights movement, museums have been forced onto the center stage of cultural politics. Museums are therefore not just a passive recipient of people’s belongings. In the process of cataloging, describing and labeling, conserving, and storing objects, museums have transformed material culture into artifacts. The power of museum is mostly publicly expressed in its displays and exhibitions. Contemporary fashions affect the way curators and designers (re)present museum collections. The ability to re-label, and thus re-define the products of indigenous peoples is described by the author as an act of intolerable arrogance. Issues of cultural representation are especially important in the post-colonial context. Cases in Malaysia, Korea and Hong Kong prove that issues of decolonization, cultural identity, historical preservation, and cultural representation interplay, in a complex and often surprising way. In recent years, many indigenous peoples have established their own kind of museum or cultural centers where local culture is displayed, local knowledge discussed and ceremonies celebrated. This practice provides a new focus and direction for the indigenous peoples to respond to the challenges of recapturing, incorporation, and sharing a material culture that is now spread throughout the world.
Watson, Rubie S. “Palaces, Museums, and Squares: Chinese National Spaces.” Museum Anthropology 19(2) (1995): 7-19.
This essay explores the process of how the new generation of Chinese political power, more specifically the Chinese Communist Party, has transformed China’s Forbidden City, the Chinese Imperial Palace and temples from Ming and Qing Dynasties, into national public spaces. Watson delineates the museumfication process, from which a new national space, Tiananmen Square, has emerged. It is through such transformation that the issue of cultural identity is addressed, and subsequently questioned. The Forbidden City was undeniably a national symbol of the highest authority, and in many ways, it appeared as a mysterious place, closed off to the public, until the early 20th century, when it became a museum for the general public. In the adaption of Tiananmen Square into a national place, a new manifestation of the Communist Party surfaced, embodying the Party’s revolutionary achievements that created the new national image and as well as a place for mass demonstrations. In the period of the Cultural Revolution, and later in the June 4 incident, Tiananmen Square has been the symbolic centre of Chinese politics.
Watson, Rubie S. and Watson, James L. “From Hall of Worship to Tourist Center: An Ancestral Hall in Hong Kong’s New Territories.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 21(1) (1997): 33-35.
This paper discusses how an ancestral hall (Man Lun Fung Hall) for worship in San Tin in Hong Kong’s New Territories became a tourist center. The Year of Heritage in Hong Kong coincided with the year of Handover. Hong Kong Tourist Association decided that after 154 years of British Colonial rule, this particular year, 1997, was an excellent time to launch a new set of day tours to temples, ancestral halls, shrines, and other traditional Chinese buildings located in remote corners of the colony. The obvious reason why the local government chose 1997 was for the visitors who came to witness the grand historical event, may also want to experience Hong Kong’s rich array of heritage and historical monuments, and this was indeed favored by the Hong Kong Tourist Association. Another less apparent reason was that the Hong Kong people, at the time, were experiencing an identity crisis. The New Territories in Hong Kong was primarily a farming zone that produced vegetables, poultry, and fish for Hong Kong’s booming urban market in 1960s. For most of Hong Kong’s urban population, it was seen as a dirty, uncomfortable, and hopelessly backward place. Yet this situation changed in 1985, a year after the commencement of repatriation talks, the New Territories then became fashionable and urbanites were keen to visit it. One of the most popular destinations on the Hong Kong Tourist Association’s Heritage Tour list is the village, San Tan. The village boasts two exhibits that are highlighted in these tours: a Scholar’s Mansion and a magnificent ancestral hall, Man Lun Fung Hall. In 1981, this hall was officially preserved as an historical monument, and was subsequently opened to the public in 1988. Man Lun Fung Hall is now not only a private place of worship, but a listed historical monument open to the public as well. By accepting the Hong Kong Government’s sponsorship, Man lineage elders relinquished their exclusive control over the use of the hall. Man Lun Fung Hall has become a museumified building. Yet for the people of San Tin, especially the descendents of Man Lun Fung, the social significance of the hall has forever changed.
Watson, Rubie. “Tales of Two ‘Chinese’ History Museums: Taipei and Hong Kong.” Curator 41 (3) (1998): 167-177.
The Forbidden City is a major tourist attraction for local and foreign tourists. It has been domesticated and commercialized and does not appear to threaten or to be threatened. The situation is very different in the cases of Taiwan’s and Hong Kong’s most notable history museums. With the development of the Taiwanese independence movement, the national Palace Museum has become less secure. This does not mean that it is under physical threat, but one expects that its role will change. In the past, it was (or was portrayed as) a unifying force symbolizing participation in Great Chinese Tradition. However, many people in today’s Taiwan increasingly think of themselves as Taiwanese. So the associations between the KMT, the National Palace Museum and Chinese culture are becoming problematic. Hong Kong’s Museum of History is a history museum in search of a history in many respects. Defining that history cuts to the very heart of Hong Kong’s current and future dilemma: How does this dynamic, idiosyncratic outpost of entrepreneurial capitalism maintain its distinctiveness, while at the same time embracing a “motherland” that has – during the past forty years – been anything but motherly toward Hong Kong’s flamboyant entrepreneurs? The staff of the Museum of History thus find themselves in the front lines of Hong Kong’s new culture wars. The outcome of these debates will tell us a great deal about the future of Hong Kong.
Yuen, Chi Wai. Competition for Interpretation: Politics of Heritage in Hong Kong’s Northern New Territories (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2005.
The members of a Tang lineage in Lung Yeuk Tau claim that they have lived in Hong Kong’s Northern New Territories for centuries. Like many longtime residents of this area, they were given the status of “indigenous inhabitants” when the British colonial government leased the territory in 1898. At this time, local populations largely governed themselves. However, after Second World War, immigrants from China began to swell the population, and the colonial administration became more and more involved in local politics. The “indigenous inhabitants” have long felt that they lost influence and that their rights have diminished in this changing socio-political scene. The reunification of Hong Kong with China in 1997, however, offered the Tangs an opportunity to regain some of the lost resources as they organized themselves in order to face challenges from their urbanized neighbors. The Tangs suddenly found themselves in possession of important Hong Kong “heritage,” valued by the urbanities, the British, and the post-colonial administrators alike as important links to the past. The Tangs strategically collaborated with the government by manipulating and recreating their own history and culture to be presented as “heritage.” At the same time, they attempted to revive their dominance by negotiating tradition and bargaining for resources in the context of government heritage policies. They used the public interest in their historical buildings, walled villages, ancestral halls, and temples as a way to promote their indigenous identity. In this thesis, the author argues that the meaning of heritage is being manipulated by the Tang lineage to achieve specific ends as they confront the government’s continuous appropriation of their community’s properties. The case of the Lung Yeuk Tau Tang lineage village illustrates a lineage’s struggle with state agencies for better treatment by placing their history, tradition, and culture under the motif of “heritage.” In sum, this thesis is a preliminary enquiry into the politics of heritage through the discussion of a struggle for control of interpretation among the Tang lineage and its neighbors, and among the lineage members themselves, under the unique socio-political circumstances in which the native populations have been marginalized by rapid urbanization.
Carrel, Todd. American Chinatown. Berkeley: Realtime Video & the Graduate School of Journalism, University of California, 1982.
“American Chinatown” is a documentary film about conflicting values, a tale of historical preservation, commercialization, tourism, and the struggle of a powerless people to retain their dignity and sense of community. American Chinatown is a reading supplement to the documentary “American Chinatown” which constitutes five essays. The first essay, Chinese in California Agriculture, addresses the Chinese contribution to the development of agriculture in California that is little known. In 19th century, the Chinese worked in California agriculture as vegetable gardeners, fruit and vegetable peddlers, harvest laborers, commission merchants, tenant farmers, farm owner-operators, and farm cooks. The Chinese developed intensive agriculture and built hundreds of miles of levees to hold the water from the extraordinarily fertile peat soil of the delta. The Chinese immigrants were large-scale tenants and they also served as labor recruiters and contractors, and were also made responsible for seasonal farm workers during the harvest. The Chinese helped to build the foundation of Californian agriculture. The second essay, The Role of Chinese Merchants, outlines how and when many Chinese immigrated to the country and how a system developed to place them in jobs. Large-scale immigration of Chinese to the United States began in the 1850s and most of them worked in California’s gold mines. When machines took over reclamation work, some Chinese moved away, but many stayed and found jobs as laborers on the delta farms, orchards and ranches. Chinese merchants-grocery and fish and vegetable whole-sellers began to send agents or setup shops, and by the mid-1880s there were numerous Chinese settlements in the region. Most of the men who lived in Locke came from Chungshan (Zhongshan) County in Guangdong province. By 1912, three Chungshan Chinese opened a boarding house, a saloon and a gambling house to cater for the workers. Very few Chinese could speak English, and so English-speaking Chinese would instantly assume the role of employment agents or sub-contractors. Though merchants composed only a small proportion of the Chinese community in Locke, they were a vital element. In the third essay, Locke – The Town and its History, the writer traces the architectural and social development of the town of Locke. Streets and lots in Chinatown were typically narrow and buildings were packed close together. In fact, the buildings in Locke were intended to be simple, inexpensive and efficient in the use of space. The population in Locke never surpassed 600 residents even at its peak in the 1920s. After the Second World War, most of the town’s second generation children settled in larger cities and the population dropped below 100 during 1970s. The writer argues that the example of Locke could be used to dispel erroneous images of the roles of the Chinese in California. But he cautions that finding a way to accomplish preservation without disrupting the lives of people is a risky and delicate business. The fourth essay, Ethnicity and Tourism, describes Locke, the old Chinatown in California, inhabited by old Chinese farm workers and bought by a Chinese businessman with plans to convert it into a tourist attraction because of its distinctive social flavor. The desire of the Chinese businessman was to build up Locke in order to “promote Chinese culture.” The writer argues, the unequal relationship between tourists and residents could create, “a primary breeding ground for deceit, exploitation, mistrust, dishonest and stereotype formation.” His analysis points out the vulnerability of inhabitants in ethnic communities who themselves become the “attraction” to tourists. The fifth essay, Who Should Decide About Locke, probes the central question at stake in the disposition and future of Locke. He argues that no matter how well-meaning and devoted those individuals in power may be, however, to plan for change in a community, a moral imperative exists, by which the rights of the old people still living in the town must be protected.
13
Websites
Websites
Bilingual Laws Information System
The Bilingual Laws Information System is the official website database containing the statutory Laws of Hong Kong and selected constitutional documents. These include Hong Kong Letters Patent, Standing Orders of the Legislative Council, the Sino-British Joint Declaration, the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and National laws applying to Hong Kong. It also includes a bilingual glossary of terms used in the Laws. These regulations are consolidated with amendments that came into operation on or before the date as specified on the front page of the Bilingual Laws Information System (BLIS) of the Department of Justice of the HKSAR Government. Visitors can use common or special search functions.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage
The UNESCO/WHC is a bilingual website providing information on the 1972 World Heritage Convention and UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre. Publications, official documents (forms, decisions, declarations, letters, regulations, guidelines etc) and a glossary in both in English and French are available for visitors. The data is organised into the following tabs: News & Events, The List, About World Heritage, Activities, Publications, Participate and Resources, with News & Events as its front page.WHC provides links to other UNESCO websites, directing visitors to other areas of interest with a special focus on topics about conservation and education.
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
ICOMOS is an international non-governmental organization of professionals, dedicated to the conservation of the world’s historic monuments and sites. Its website provides regularly updated, new and amended information, including publications; recommendations and guidelines on heritage protection; links to the international committees which the Council is comprised of, and a summary of results from their meetings. There is a vast quantity of material available for download, in both English and French, with some articles translated into Spanish.
Antiquities and Monuments Office
The Antiquities and Monuments Office provides an administrative backbone in the conservation of places of historical and archaeological interest in Hong Kong. This website was established to offer an interactive platform, to allow its visitors to easily gain access to information on Hong Kong’s heritage and historic buildings. It provides an account of the current projects and places of interest, such as Hong Kong’s declared monuments and heritage trails. The information available for download may serve as useful teaching material in the classroom.
Programme Schedule
Part I - Lectures (4 lectures, 3 hours each)
5th December 2008
Lecture 1: What is “Heritage”?
Speakers: LIU Tik-sang, SIU Lai-kuen, Susanna, CHAU Hing-wah
2008年12月6日
Lecture 2: Heritage in Action
Speaker: POON Shuk-wah, WONG Wing-ho
Lecture 3: Heritage and Identity Politics
Speaker: CHEUNG Siu-woo
Lecture 4: Approaches in Understanding Heritage
Speaker: LIU Tik-sang
Part II - Field Workshops
The aim of the field workshops is to cultivate an understanding of heritage in the local social context, and to provide opportunities for direct exchange with local people. The briefing session will be arranged on the day of the field workshop. School teachers will receive worksheets to assist them in understanding the issues raised in the tour. The concluding session will be arranged following the field workshop. School teachers will be encouraged to present and exchange their findings from the tour in the session.
Nansha Field Workshop
Date: 15 February 2009 (Sunday), 14 March 2009 (Saturday) and 27 March 2009 (Friday)
Instructors: MA Jianxiong, YAN Zhidan, CHOW Pang, LEUNG Yiu Wing,
MA Jianxiong, CHAN Kam Shui, MAK Mui Kwong
Tai O Field Workshop
Date: 28 February 2009 (Saturday) and 22 March 2009 (Sunday)
Instructors: LIU Tik-sang, CHEUNG Siu-woo, LAU Chuek-wing, WAN Fuk-ming,
LIU Tik-sang , WAN Ying-fai, WONG Noi-man
Concluding and Sharing Session
Date: 28 March 2009 (Saturday)
Moderators: CHEUNG Siu-woo, MA Jianxiong
Authors and Speakers
Mr. CHAU Hing-wah, Curator (Intangible Cultural Heritage), Hong Kong Heritage Museum
Mr. Chau Hing-wah received his MA in Field Archaeology from the University of London. He has been working for many years in the field of archeology and heritage conservation. He is currently the Curator of Hong Kong Heritage Museum and responsible for protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Hong Kong. His recent publications include: “Pluralistic Development and Cultural Interaction: A Study of the Assimilation into the Han Chinese Civilization of the Ancient Yue Culture in the Pearl River Delta and the Ancient Shu Culture in Sichuan Province” （多元互動：四川古蜀文化和珠江三角洲古越文化融入中華文化的過程） (in Splendor and Mystery of Ancient Shu: Cultural Relics from Sanxingdui and Jinsha 《三星閃爍，金沙流采：神秘的古蜀文明》) and “Fishing, Hunting and Gathering; The Livelihood of Prehistoric People Living in the Coastal Areas of Hong Kong” （漁獵採集——香港沿海定居的史前先民生活模式） (in South China Research Resource Center Newsletter).
Dr. CHEUNG Siu-woo (Associate Professor, Division of Humanities, HKUST)
Dr. Cheung received his PhD at the University of Washington in Anthropology. His area of specialization extends from South China to Vietnam. His publications include Tai O, “Liang Juwu’s Writings on Miao Identity: A Case Study of Marginal Ethnic Groups’ Self-Representation through Chinese Writing in Modern China” (in Review of Chinese Anthropology) and “Sino-Vietnamese Border Crossing and the Transnational Identity of the Jing Nationality of Guangxi” (in Journal of History and Anthropology).
Dr. LIU Tik-sang (Associate Professor, Division of Humanities, HKUST)
Dr. Liu received his PhD in Anthropology from the University of Pittsburgh. He is a cultural anthropologist with area specialization in South China and Hong Kong region. His publications include The Cult of Tian Hou (Empress of Heaven) in Hong Kong, Tai O, Fengshui and Heritage: Documents on the Case of Relocating the Ping Shan Tang Ancestral Grave in Nim Wan, Hong Kong’s New Territories, Traditions and Heritage in Tai Po, and Hong Kong History, Culture, and Society.
Dr. MA Jianxiong (Assistant Professor, Division of Humanities, HKUST)
Dr. Ma received his PhD in Social Science at The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. His research interests are ethnicity, kinship, tourism anthropology, ethnic minorities in China and in highland Southeast Asia. His publications include “The Ethnic Politics in Ailao Mountains: Reforms to the Native Chieftain System since Earlier Qing and the Mobilization of the Lahu Identity” (in The Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology) and “ ‘Miaoshe’, ‘Pudu’ and ‘Fenshui’: Popular Religion and Communal Organization in Shenao” (in Journal of History and Anthropology).
Dr. POON Shuk-wah (Assistant Professor, Department of History, Lingnan University)
Dr. Poon received her PhD in Humanities in The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Her research interests are Republican China, Hong Kong history, popular religion and urban change. Her publications include Negotiating Religion in Modern China: State and Common People in Guangzhou, 1900-1937, “Refashioning Festivals in Republican Guangzhou.” (in Modern China) and “Constructing State-power and Deconstructing Superstition – The Case-study of the Guangzhou Social Customs Reform Committee, 1929-1930” (in Popular Beliefs and Social Sphere).
Ms. SIU Lai-kuen, Susanna (Chief Curator of Hong Kong History Museum)
Ms. Siu received her MA in Conservation (Built Heritage) from University of York, UK and MA in Architecture from the School of Architecture at Tsinghua University, Beijing. She is currently the Chief Curator of Hong Kong History Museum. Her recent publication is “Ancestral Halls in Tai Po” (in Traditions and Heritage of Tai Po, 2008).
Dr. WONG Wing-ho (Researcher, South China Research Center, HKUST)
Dr. Wong received his PhD in Humanities in The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. He is a Researcher in the South China Research Center in HKUST. His research interests are Social and Economic History in Hunan, China, Reclamation studies in Zhujiang area during Ming and Qing Dynasty and Hong Kong History. His publications include Land Reclamation and Local Society: A Study of Shatian in the Pearl River Delta in Late Qing, “Conflict on a Street in Changsha: A Case Study of the Relationship between Urban Space and State-making in the Early Twentieth Century” (in Journal of History and Anthropology).
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